CHAPTER 12

Vector-Valued Functions

EXERCISE SET 12.1

1. (−∞, +∞); r(π) = −i − 3πj 3. [2, +∞); r(3) = −i − ln 3j + k

5. r = 3 cos t i + (t + sin t)j 7. x = 3t2 , y = −2

9. the line in 2-space through the point (3, 0) and parallel to the vector −2i + 5j

11. the line in 3-space through the point (0, −3, 1) and parallel to the vector 2i + 3k

13. an ellipse in the plane z = 1, center at (0, 0, 1), major axis of length 6 parallel to y-axis, minor
axis of length 4 parallel to x-axis

15. (a) The line is parallel to the vector −2i + 3j; the slope is −3/2.
(b) y = 0 in the xz-plane so 1 − 2t = 0, t = 1/2 thus x = 2 + 1/2 = 5/2 and z = 3(1/2) = 3/2;
the coordinates are (5/2, 0, 3/2).

17. (a) y (b) y

(0, 1) (1, 1)

x x
(1, 0)

(1, –1)

19. r = (1 − t)(3i + 4j), 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 21. x = 2

y

x
2

23. (x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 1 25. x2 − y 2 = 1, x ≥ 1

y y

3
x
1

x
1

24
Exercise Set 12.1 25

27. z 29. z

(0, 2, π /2) y

y
(2, 0, 0)
x x

31. False. It is the intersection of the domains of the components.

33. True. See equation (8).

1p
35. x = t, y = t, z = 2t2 37. r = ti + t2 j + 81 − 9t2 − t4 k
3
z z
z = x 2 +y 2 9x 2 + y 2 + 9z 2 = 81
y = x2

x
x
y y
x!y = 0

39. x2 + y 2 = (t sin t)2 + (t cos t)2 = t2 (sin2 t + cos2 t) = t2 = z

√ √
41. x = sin t, y = 2 cos t, z = 3 sin t so x2 + y 2 + z 2 = sin2 t + 4 cos2 t + 3 sin2 t√= 4 and z = 3x; it
is the curve of intersection of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 and the plane z = 3x, which is a circle
with center at (0, 0, 0) and radius 2.

43. The helix makes one turn as t varies from 0 to 2π so z = c(2π) = 3, c = 3/(2π).

p
45. x2 + y 2 = t2 cos2 t + t2 sin2 t = t2 , x2 + y 2 = t = z; a conical helix.

47. (a) III, since the curve is a subset of the plane y = −x

(b) IV, since only x is periodic in t, and y, z increase without bound
(c) II, since all three components are periodic in t
(d) I, since the projection onto the yz-plane is a circle and the curve increases without bound in
the x-direction
26 Chapter 12

49. (a) Let x = 3 cos t and y = 3 sin t, then z = 9 cos2 t. (b) z

x
y

EXERCISE SET 12.2

1. h1/3, 0i 3. 2i − 3j + 4k

5. (a) continuous, lim r(t) = 0 = r(0) (b) not continuous, lim (1/t) does not exist
t→0 t→0

7. y 9. r0 (t) = sin tj
r'(p/4)

r''(p) x

r(2p) – r(3p/2)

11. r0 (t) = h1, 2ti, 13. r0 (t) = sec t tan ti + sec2 tj,
r0 (2) = h1, 4i r0 (0) = j
r(2) = h2, 4i r(0) = i
y y
1
〈 1, 4 〉

x
4 1.5

x
–1
2
Exercise Set 12.2 27

15. r0 (t) = 2 cos ti − 2 sin tk, 17. 1.5

r0 (π/2) = −2k,
r(π/2) = 2i + j
z

0 1.5
0

y
(2, 1, 0)
x

r′ 6 = –2 k
()

1
19. r0 (t) = 2ti − j, r0 (1) = 2i − j, r(1) = i + 2j; x = 1 + 2t, y = 2 − t
t
√
21. r0 (t) = −2π sin πti + 2π cos πtj + 3k, r0 (1/3) = − 3 πi + πj + 3k,
√ √ √
r(1/3) = i + 3 j + k; x = 1 − 3 πt, y = 3 + πt, z = 1 + 3t

3 3
23. r0 (t) = 2i + √ j, t = 0 at P0 so r0 (0) = 2i + j,
2 3t + 4 4
 
3
r(0) = −i + 2j; r = (−i + 2j) + t 2i + j
4

1
25. r0 (t) = 2ti + j − 2tk, t = −2 at P0 so r0 (−2) = −4i + j + 4k,
(t + 1)2
r(−2) = 4i + j; r = (4i + j) + t(−4i + j + 4k)

27. (a) lim (r(t) − r0 (t)) = i − j + k

t→0

(b) lim (r(t) × r0 (t)) = lim (− cos ti − sin tj + k) = −i + k

t→0 t→0
0
(c) lim (r(t) · r (t)) = 0
t→0

d
29. r01 = 2i + 6tj + 3t2 k, r02 = 4t3 k, r1 · r2 = t7 ; (r1 · r2 ) = 7t6 = r1 · r02 + r01 · r2
dt
d
r1 × r2 = 3t6 i − 2t5 j, (r1 × r2 ) = 18t5 i − 10t4 j = r1 × r02 + r01 × r2
dt

31. 3ti + 2t2 j + C 33. h− cos t, − sin ti + C

 π/2
1 1
35. sin 2t, − cos 2t = h0, 1i
2 2 0

2
Z 2 p Z 2
1
3/2 √
37. t2 + t4 dt = t(1 + t2 )1/2 dt = 1 + t2 = (5 5 − 1)/3
0 0 3 0
28 Chapter 12

 9
2 3/2 52
39. t i + 2t1/2 j = i + 4j
3 1 3

41. False. The limit only exists if r(t) is differentiable at t = a. As with functions of a single variable,
continuity does not imply differentiability. For example, r(t) = h|t|, 0i is continuous at t = 0, but
not differentiable there.
Z b
43. True. Equations (11) and (12) express r(t) dt as a vector, whose components are the definite
a
integrals of the components of r(t).
Z
45. y(t) = y0 (t) dt = t2 i + t3 j + C, y(0) = C = i − j, y(t) = (t2 + 1)i + (t3 − 1)j

Z
47. y (t) = y00 (t) dt = ti + et j + C1 , y0 (0) = j + C1 = j so C1 = 0 and y0 (t) = ti + et j.
0

Z
1
y(t) = y0 (t) dt = t2 i + et j + C2 , y(0) = j + C2 = 2i so C2 = 2i − j and
2
 
1 2
y(t) = t + 2 i + (et − 1)j
2

49. (a) 2t − t2 − 3t = −2, t2 + t − 2 = 0, (t + 2)(t − 1) = 0 so t = −2, 1. The points of intersection

are (−2, 4, 6) and (1, 1, −3).
(b) r0 = i + 2tj − 3k; r0 (−2) = i − 4j − 3k, r0 (1) = i + 2j − 3k, and n = 2i − j + k is normal to
the plane. Let θ be the acute angle, then
√
for t = −2: cos θ = |n · r0 |/(knk kr0 k) = 3/ 156, θ ≈ 76◦ ;
√
for t = 1: cos θ = |n · r0 |/(knk kr0 k) = 3/ 84, θ ≈ 71◦ .

51. r1 (1) = r2 (2) = i + j + 3k so the graphs intersect at P; r01 (t) = 2ti + j + 9t2 k and
1
r02 (t) = i + tj − k so r01 (1) = 2i + j + 9k and r02 (2) = i + j − k are tangent to the graphs at P,
2
r0 (1) · r02 (2) 6 √
thus cos θ = 01 0 = − √ √ , θ = cos−1 (6/ 258) ≈ 68◦ .
kr1 (1)k kr2 (2)k 86 3

d
53. [r(t) × r0 (t)] = r(t) × r00 (t) + r0 (t) × r0 (t) = r(t) × r00 (t) + 0 = r(t) × r00 (t)
dt

55. In Exercise 54, write each scalar triple product as a determinant.

57. Let r1 (t) = x1 (t)i + y1 (t)j + z1 (t)k and r2 (t) = x2 (t)i + y2 (t)j + z2 (t)k, in both (6) and (7); show
that the left and right members of the equalities are the same.

EXERCISE SET 12.3

1. r0 (t) = 3t2 i + (6t − 2)j + 2tk; smooth

3. r0 (t) = (1 − t)e−t i + (2t − 2)j − π sin(πt)k; not smooth, r0 (1) = 0

Exercise Set 12.3 29

5. (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 + (dz/dt)2 = (−3 cos2 t sin t)2 + (3 sin2 t cos t)2 + 02 = 9 sin2 t cos2 t,
Z π/2
L= 3 sin t cos t dt = 3/2
0

√
Z 1
7. r0 (t) = het , −e−t , 2i, kr0 (t)k = et + e−t , L = (et + e−t ) dt = e − e−1
0

√
Z 3
0 2
9. r (t) = 3t i + j + 0
6 tk, kr (t)k = 3t + 1, L = 2
(3t2 + 1) dt = 28
1

√
Z 2π √ √
0 0
11. r (t) = −3 sin ti + 3 cos tj + k, kr (t)k = 10, L = 10 dt = 2π 10
0

13. (dr/dt)(dt/dτ ) = (i + 2tj)(4) = 4i + 8tj = 4i + 8(4τ + 1)j;

r(τ ) = (4τ + 1)i + (4τ + 1)2 j, r0 (τ ) = 4i + 2(4)(4τ + 1) j

2 2
15. (dr/dt)(dt/dτ ) = (et i − 4e−t j)(2τ ) = 2τ eτ i − 8τ e−τ j;
2 2 2 2
r(τ ) = eτ i + 4e−τ j, r0 (τ ) = 2τ eτ i − 4(2)τ e−τ j

Z b
0
17. False. kr (t)k is a scalar, so kr0 (t)k dt is also a scalar.
a

19. False; r0 (s) is undefined for the value of s such that r(s) = 0. For example, we may take
s |s|
r(s) = √ i + √ j. Then r0 (0) is undefined, since |s| is not differentiable at s = 0.
2 2
Z t√ √
√ s s s s
21. (a) kr0 (t)k = 2, s = 2t; r = √ i + √ j, x = √ , y = √
2 dt =
0 2 2 2 2
s
(b) Similar to part (a), x = y = z = √
3

23. (a) r(t) = h1, 3, 4i when t = 0,

Z t
√
so s = 1 + 4 + 4 du = 3t, x = 1 + s/3, y = 3 − 2s/3, z = 4 + 2s/3
0

(b) r = h28/3, −41/3, 62/3i
s=25

25. x = 3 + cos t, y = 2 + sin t, (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = 1,

Z t
s= du = t so t = s, x = 3 + cos s, y = 2 + sin s for 0 ≤ s ≤ 2π.
0

27. x = t3 /3, y = t2 /2, (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = t2 (t2 + 1),

Z t
1
s= u(u2 + 1)1/2 du = [(t2 + 1)3/2 − 1] so t = [(3s + 1)2/3 − 1]1/2 ,
0 3
1 1
x= [(3s + 1)2/3 − 1]3/2 , y = [(3s + 1)2/3 − 1] for s ≥ 0
3 2
30 Chapter 12

Z t√ √
29. x = et cos t, y = et sin t, (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = 2e2t , s = 2 eu du = 2(et − 1) so
0
√ √ √ √ √
t = ln(s/ 2 + 1), x = (s/ 2 + 1) cos[ln(s/ 2 + 1)], y = (s/ 2 + 1) sin[ln(s/ 2 + 1)]
√
for 0 ≤ s ≤ 2(eπ/2 − 1)

31. dx/dt = −a sin t, dy/dt = a cos t, dz/dt = c,

Z t0 p Z t0 p p
s(t0 ) = L = a2 sin2 t + a2 cos2 t + c2 dt = a2 + c2 dt = t0 a2 + c2
0 0

33. x = at − a sin t, y = a − a cos t, (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 = 4a2 sin2 (t/2),

Z t
s= 2a sin(u/2) du = 4a[1 − cos(t/2)] so cos(t/2) = 1 − s/(4a), t = 2 cos−1 [1 − s/(4a)],
0

cos t = 2 cos2 (t/2) − 1 = 2[1 − s/(4a)]2 − 1,

sin t = 2 sin(t/2) cos(t/2) = 2(1 − [1 − s/(4a)]2 )1/2 (2[1 − s/(4a)]2 − 1),
x = 2a cos−1 [1 − s/(4a)] − 2a(1 − [1 − s/(4a)]2 )1/2 (2[1 − s/(4a)]2 − 1),
s(8a − s)
y= for 0 ≤ s ≤ 8a
8a
Z ln 2 ln 2
3 9
2 2 2 2
35. (a) (dr/dt) + r (dθ/dt) + (dz/dt) = 9e , L = 4t
3e dt = e2t
2t
=
0 2 0 2

(b) (dr/dt)2 + r2 (dθ/dt)2 + (dz/dt)2 = 5t2 + t4 = t2 (5 + t2 ),

Z 2 √
L= t(5 + t2 )1/2 dt = 9 − 2 6
1

Z 2 √ √
2 2 2 2 2
37. (a) (dρ/dt) + ρ sin φ(dθ/dt) + ρ (dφ/dt) = 3e 2 −2t
,L= 3e−t dt = 3(1 − e−2 )
0
Z 5 √ √
(b) (dρ/dt)2 + ρ2 sin2 φ(dθ/dt)2 + ρ2 (dφ/dt)2 = 5, L = 5 dt = 4 5
1

39. (a) g(τ ) = πτ (b) g(τ ) = π(1 − τ )

41. Represent the helix by x = a cos t, y = a sin t, z = ct with a = 6.25 and c = 10/π, so that the
radius of the helix is the distance from the axis of the cylinder to the center of the copper cable,
and the helix makes one turn in a distance of 20 in. (t = 2π). From Exercise 31 the length of the
p
helix is 2π 6.252 + (10/π)2 ≈ 44 in.

43. r0 (t) = (1/t)i + 2j + 2tk

p p
(a) kr0 (t)k = 1/t2 + 4 + 4t2 = (2t + 1/t)2 = 2t + 1/t
Z 3
ds
(b) = 2t + 1/t (c) (2t + 1/t) dt = 8 + ln 3
dt 1

45. If r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k is smooth, then kr0 (t)k is continuous and nonzero. Thus the angle
between r0 (t) and i, given by cos−1 (x0 (t)/kr0 (t)k), is a continuous function of t. Similarly, the
angles between r0 (t) and the vectors j and k are continuous functions of t.
Exercise Set 12.4 31

EXERCISE SET 12.4

1. (a) y (b) y

x
x

3. From the marginal note, the line is parametrized by normalizing v, but T(t0 ) = v/kvk, so
r = r(t0 ) + tv becomes r = r(t0 ) + sT(t0 ).
√
5. r0 (t) = 2ti + j, kr0 (t)k = 4t2 + 1, T(t) = (4t2 + 1)−1/2 (2ti + j),
T0 (t) = (4t2 + 1)−1/2 (2i) − 4t(4t2 + 1)−3/2 (2ti + j);
2 1 2 1 2
T(1) = √ i + √ j, T0 (1) = √ (i − 2j), N(1) = √ i − √ j.
5 5 5 5 5 5

7. r0 (t) = −5 sin ti + 5 cos tj, kr0 (t)k = 5, T(t) = − sin ti + cos tj, T0 (t) = − cos ti − sin tj;
√ √ √
3 1 0 1 3 1 3
T(π/3) = − i + j, T (π/3) = − i − j, N(π/3) = − i − j
2 2 2 2 2 2

1
9. r0 (t) = −4 sin ti + 4 cos tj + k, T(t) = √ (−4 sin ti + 4 cos tj + k),
17
1 4 1
T0 (t) = √ (−4 cos ti − 4 sin tj), T(π/2) = − √ i + √ k
17 17 17
0 4
T (π/2) = − √ j, N(π/2) = −j
17

1
11. r0 (t) = et [(cos t − sin t)i + (cos t + sin t)j + k], T(t) = √ [(cos t − sin t)i + (cos t + sin t)j + k],
3
0 1
T (t) = √ [(− sin t − cos t)i + (− sin t + cos t)j],
3
1 1 1 1 1 1
T(0) = √ i + √ j + √ k, T0 (0) = √ (−i + j), N(0) = − √ i + √ j
3 3 3 3 2 2

13. r0 (t) = cos ti − sin tj + tk, r0 (0) = i, r(0) = j, T(0) = i, so the tangent line has the parametrization
x = s, y = 1.

3 3 4 4 4 3
15. T= cos t i − sin t j + k, N = − sin t i − cos t j, B = T × N = cos t i − sin t j − k. Check:
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 00 0 00
r = 3 cos t i − 3 sin t j + 4 k, r = −3 sin t i − 3 cos t j, r × r = 12 cos t i − 12 sin t j − 9 k,
4 4 3
kr0 × r00 k = 15, (r0 × r00 )/kr0 × r00 k = cos t i − sin t j − k = B.
5 5 5

17. r0 (t) = t sin t i + t cos t j, kr0 k = |t|.

For t > 0, T = sin t i + cos t j, N = cos t i − sin t j;
for t < 0, T = − sin t i − cos t j, N = − cos t i + sin t j.
In either case, B = T × N = −k.
Check: r0 = t sin t i + t cos t j, r00 = (sin t + t cos t) i + (cos t − t sin t) j, r0 × r00 = −t2 k,
kr0 × r00 k = t2 ; for t 6= 0, (r0 × r00 )/kr0 × r00 k = −k = B.
32 Chapter 12

√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2
19. r(π/4) = i+ j + k, T = − sin ti + cos tj = (−i + j), N = −(cos ti + sin tj) = − (i + j),
2 2 2 2 √
B = k; the rectifying, osculating, and normal planes are given (respectively) by x + y = 2,
z = 1, −x + y = 0.

21. False. For example, if r(t) = ht, 0i then T(t) = h1, 0i is parallel to r(t) for all t > 0.

23. True. By Theorem 12.3.4(b), kr0 (s)k = 1 for all s, so Theorem 12.2.8 implies that r0 (s) and r00 (s)
are orthogonal.

EXERCISE SET 12.5

1
1. κ ≈ =2
0.5

3. (a) At x = 0 the curvature of I has a large value, yet the value of II there is zero, so II is not the
curvature of I; hence I is the curvature of II.
(b) I has points of inflection where the curvature is zero, but II is not zero there, and hence is
not the curvature of I; so I is the curvature of II.

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k 6t2 6

5. r0 (t) = 2ti + 3t2 j, r00 (t) = 2i + 6tj, κ = = =
kr0 (t)k3 (4t2 + 9t4 )3/2 |t|(4 + 9t2 )3/2

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k 12e2t

7. r0 (t) = 3e3t i − e−t j, r00 (t) = 9e3t i + e−t j, κ = =
kr0 (t)k3 (9e6t + e−2t )
3/2

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k 4

9. r0 (t) = −4 sin ti + 4 cos tj + k, r00 (t) = −4 cos ti − 4 sin tj, κ = =
kr0 (t)k3 17

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k 1

11. r0 (t) = sinh ti + cosh tj + k, r00 (t) = cosh ti + sinh tj, κ = =
kr0 (t)k3 2 cosh2 t

13. r0 (t) = −3 sin ti + 4 cos tj + k, r00 (t) = −3 cos ti − 4 sin tj,

r0 (π/2) = −3i + k, r00 (π/2) = −4j; κ = k4i + 12kk/k − 3i + kk3 = 2/5, ρ = 5/2

15. r0 (t) = et (cos t − sin t)i + et (cos t + sin t)j + et k,

r00 (t) = −2et sin ti + 2et cos tj + et k, r0 (0) = i + j + k,
√ √
r00 (0) = 2j + k; κ = k − i − j + 2kk/ki + j + kk3 = 2/3, ρ = 3/ 2
√
1  s 1  s 3
17. r0 (s) = cos 1 + i − sin 1 + j+ k, kr0 (s)k = 1, so
2 2 2 2 2

dT 1  s 1  s dT 1
= − sin 1 + i − cos 1 + j, κ =
ds = 4

ds 4 2 4 2

19. True, by Example 1 with a = 2.

21. False. By equation (1), the curvature is kr00 (s)k, not kr0 (s)k. (kr0 (s)k is always 1, if it exists.)

|x0 y 00 − y 0 x00 |
23. (a) r0 = x0 i + y 0 j, r00 = x00 i + y 00 j, kr0 × r00 k = |x0 y 00 − x00 y 0 |, κ =
(x02 + y 02 )3/2
Exercise Set 12.5 33

dy 00 d2 y |d2 y/dx2 |
(b) Set x = t, y = f (x) = f (t), x0 = 1, x00 = 0, y 0 = , y = 2,κ =
dx dx (1 + (dy/dx)2 )3/2

| sin x|
25. κ(x) = , κ(π/2) = 1
(1 + cos2 x)3/2

e−x e−1
27. κ(x) = , κ(1) =
(1 + e−2x )3/2 (1 + e−2 )3/2

29. x0 (t) = 2t, y 0 (t) = 3t2 , x00 (t) = 2, y 00 (t) = 6t,

x0 (1/2) = 1, y 0 (1/2) = 3/4, x00 (1/2) = 2, y 00 (1/2) = 3; κ = 96/125

31. x0 (t) = 1, y 0 (t) = −1/t2 , x00 (t) = 0, y 00 (t) = 2/t3

√
x0 (1) = 1, y 0 (1) = −1, x00 (1) = 0, y 00 (1) = 2; κ = 1/ 2

| cos x| 2
33. (a) κ(x) = , (b) κ(t) = ,
(1 + sin2 x)3/2 2
(4 sin t + cos2 t)3/2

(1 + sin2 x)3/2 1
ρ(x) = ρ(t) = (4 sin2 t + cos2 t)3/2 ,
| cos x| 2

ρ(0) = ρ(π) = 1. ρ(0) = 1/2, ρ(π/2) = 4

y
y

x
ρ 6 =4
()
c 1
r (0) = r (c) = 1 x
2
1
ρ (0) = 2

35. y
1

0.4
x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
|x − 2|e−x
y = f (x) = xe−x y = κ(x) =
[1 + (1 − x)2 e−2x ]3/2

|12x2 − 4| y
37. (a) κ = (b)
[1 + (4x3 − 4x)2 ]3/2 8
k

f(x)

x
–2 2
34 Chapter 12

(c) f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 0 at x = 0, ±1, f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 4, so extrema at x = 0, ±1, and ρ = 1/4
for x = 0 and ρ = 1/8 when x = ±1.

   
dr dr
39. r0 (θ) = −r sin θ + cos θ i + r cos θ + sin θ j;
dθ dθ
d2 r d2 r
   
dr dr
r00 (θ) = −r cos θ − 2 sin θ + cos θ 2 i + −r sin θ + 2 cos θ + sin θ 2 j;
dθ dθ dθ dθ
  2 

 2 dr d2 r 
r + 2 − r 2
dθ dθ 


κ= .
"  2 3/2
#
dr
r2 +
dθ

3 3 10 + 8 cos2 3θ 2
41. κ(θ) = √ , κ(π/2) = √ 43. κ(θ) = 2 3/2
, κ(0) =
2 2(1 + cos θ) 1/2 2 2 (1 + 8 cos θ) 3

t2 1/|2p|
45. Let y = t, then x = and κ(t) = 2 ;
4p [t /(4p2 ) + 1]3/2
t = 0 when (x, y) = (0, 0) so κ(0) = 1/|2p|, ρ = 2|p|.

6
47. Let x = 3 cos t, y = 2 sin t for 0 ≤ t < 2π, κ(t) = 2 so
(9 sin t + 4 cos2 t)3/2
1 1
ρ(t) = (9 sin2 t + 4 cos2 t)3/2 = (5 sin2 t + 4)3/2 which, by inspection, is minimum when
6 6
t = 0 or π. The radius of curvature is minimum at (3, 0) and (−3, 0).

p
49. From Exercise 39: dr/dθ = aeaθ = ar, d2 r/dθ2 = a2 eaθ = a2 r; κ = 1/[ 1 + a2 r].

51. (a) d2 y/dx2 = 2, κ(φ) = |2 cos3 φ|

√ √
(b) dy/dx = tan φ = 1, φ = π/4, κ(π/4) = |2 cos3 (π/4)| = 1/ 2, ρ = 2
(c) y
3

x
–2 1

53. κ = 0 along y = 0; along y = x2 , κ(x) = 2/(1 + 4x2 )3/2 , κ(0) = 2. Along y = x3 ,

κ(x) = 6|x|/(1 + 9x4 )3/2 , κ(0) = 0.

55. κ = 1/r along the circle; along y = ax2 , κ(x) = 2a/(1 + 4a2 x2 )3/2 , κ(0) = 2a so 2a = 1/r,
a = 1/(2r).
Exercise Set 12.6 35

if x ≤ 0;

f (x)
57. Let y(x) =
ax2 + bx + c if x > 0.
|y 00 |
Since κ(x) = , the transition will be smooth if y, y 0 , and y 00 are all continuous at x = 0.
(1 + y 02 )3/2
This happens if f (0) = c, f 0 (0) = b, and f 00 (0) = 2a. So if we let a = f 00 (0)/2, b = f 0 (0), and
c = f (0), the transition will be smooth.
(Note that we don’t need f 000 (x) to exist for all x ≤ 0; it suffices to have f 00 (x) continuous.)

dB dB
59. (a) B · = 0 because kB(s)k = 1 so is perpendicular to B(s).
ds ds
dT dB dT dT
(b) B(s) · T(s) = 0, so 0 = B(s) · + · T(s). Since = κN(s), B(s) · =
ds ds ds ds
dB dB
κB(s) · N(s) = 0. Hence · T(s) = 0; thus is perpendicular to T(s).
ds ds
dB dB
(c) is perpendicular to both B(s) and T(s) but so is N(s), thus is parallel to N(s) and
ds ds
hence a scalar multiple of N(s).
(d) If C lies in a plane, then T(s) and N(s) also lie in the plane; B(s) = T(s) × N(s) so B(s)
dB
is always perpendicular to the plane. Since exists at each point on the curve, B is
ds
dB
continuous. Since kBk = 1, either B = k for all s or B = −k for all s; in either case = 0.
ds

61. r00 (s) = dT/ds = κN so r000 (s) = κdN/ds + (dκ/ds)N but dN/ds = −κT + τ B so
r000 (s) = −κ2 T + (dκ/ds)N + κτ B, r0 (s) × r00 (s) = T × (κN) = κT × N = κB,
[r0 (s) × r00 (s)] · r000 (s) = −κ3 B · T + κ(dκ/ds)B · N + κ2 τ B · B = κ2 τ ,
τ = [r0 (s) × r00 (s)] · r000 (s)/κ2 = [r0 (s) × r00 (s)] · r000 (s)/kr00 (s)k2 and
B = T× N = [r0 (s) × r00 (s)]/kr00 (s)k

63. r0 = 2i + 2tj + t2 k, r00 = 2j + 2tk, r000 = 2k, r0 × r00 = 2t2 i − 4tj + 4k, kr0 × r00 k = 2(t2 + 2),
τ = 8/[2(t2 + 2)]2 = 2/(t2 + 2)2

√ √ √
65. r0 = et i − e−t j + 2k, r00 = et i + e−t j, r000 = et i − e−t j, r0 × r00 = − 2e−t i + 2et j + 2k,
√ √ √
kr0 × r00 k = 2(et + e−t ), τ = (−2 2)/[2(et + e−t )2 ] = − 2/(et + e−t )2

EXERCISE SET 12.6

1. v(t) = −3 sin ti + 3 cos tj y v = − 3√3i + 3 j

2 2
a(t) = −3 cos ti − 3 sin tj
p
kv(t)k = 9 sin2 t + 9 cos2 t = 3 ( 32 , 3 √2 3 )
√
r(π/3) = (3/2)i + (3 3/2)j x
√ 3
v(π/3) = −(3 3/2)i + (3/2)j
√
a(π/3) = −(3/2)i − (3 3/2)j 3 3√3
a=− i− j
2 2
36 Chapter 12

y
3. v(t) = et i − e−t j
a(t) = et i + e−t j
√
kv(t)k = e2t + e−2t a= i + j
r(0) = i + j
(1, 1)
v(0) = i − j
x
a(0) = i + j v = i − j

√
5. v = i + tj + t2 k, a = j + 2tk; at t = 1, v = i + j + k, kvk = 3, a = j + 2k

7. v = −2 sin ti + 2 cos tj + k, a = −2 cos ti − 2 sin tj;

√ √ √ √ √
at t = π/4, v = − 2i + 2j + k, kvk = 5, a = − 2i − 2j

9. (a) v = −aω sin ωti + bω cos ωtj, a = −aω 2 cos ωti − bω 2 sin ωtj = −ω 2 r
(b) From part (a), kak = ω 2 krk

11. If a = 0 then x00 (t) = y 00 (t) = z 00 (t) = 0, so x(t) = x1 t + x0 , y(t) = y1 t + y0 , z(t) = z1 t + z0 , the
motion is along a straight line and has constant speed.
√ p p
13. v = (6/ t)i + (3/2)t1/2 j, kvk = 36/t + 9t/4, dkvk/dt = (−36/t2 + 9/4)/(2 36/t + 9t/4) = 0
√
if t = 4 which yields a minimum by the first derivative test. The minimum speed is 3 2 when
r = 24i + 8j.

15. (a) speed

6

t
2! /3
p p
(b) v = 3 cos 3t i + 6 sin 3t j, kvk = 9 cos2 3t + 36 sin2 3t = 3 1 + 3 sin2 3t; by inspection, max-
imum speed is 6 and minimum speed is 3
p
(d) By inspection, kvk = 3 1 + 3 sin2 3t is maximal when sin 3t = ±1; this occurs first when
t = π/6.

17. v(t) = − sin ti + cos tj + C1 , v(0) = j + C1 = i, C1 = i − j, v(t) = (1 − sin t)i + (cos t − 1)j;
r(t) = (t + cos t)i + (sin t − t)j + C2 , r(0) = i + C2 = j,
C2 = −i + j so r(t) = (t + cos t − 1)i + (sin t − t + 1)j

19. v(t) = − cos ti + sin tj + et k + C1 , v(0) = −i + k + C1 = k so

C1 = i, v(t) = (1 − cos t)i + sin tj + et k; r(t) = (t − sin t)i − cos tj + et k + C2 ,
r(0) = −j + k + C2 = −i + k so C2 = −i + j, r(t) = (t − sin t − 1)i + (1 − cos t)j + et k.

21. v = 3t2 i + 2tj, a = 6ti + 2j; v = 3i + 2j and a = 6i + 2j when t = 1 so

√
cos θ = (v · a)/(kvk kak) = 11/ 130, θ ≈ 15◦ .

23. (a) displacement = r1 − r0 = 0.7i + 2.7j − 3.4k

Exercise Set 12.6 37

(b) ∆r = r1 − r0 , so r0 = r1 − ∆r = −0.7i − 2.9j + 4.8k.

3
√ √
13 13 − 5 5
Z p
2
25. ∆r = r(3) − r(1) = 8i + (26/3)j; v = 2ti + t j, s = t 4+ t2 dt = .
1 3

√ √
Z ln 3
8
27. ∆r = r(ln 3) − r(0) = 2i − (2/3)j + 2(ln 3)k; v = et i − e−t j + 2 k, s = (et + e−t ) dt = .
0 3

29. In both cases, the equation of the path in rectangular coordinates is x2 + y 2 = 4, the particles
move counterclockwise around this circle; v1 = −6 sin 3ti + 6 cos 3tj and
v2 = −4t sin(t2 )i + 4t cos(t2 )j so kv1 k = 6 and kv2 k = 4t.
√
31. (a) v = −e−t i + et j, a = e−t i + et√
j; when t = 0, v = −i + j, a = i + j, kvk = 2, v · a = 0,
v × a = −2k so aT = 0, aN = 2.
√
(b) aT T = 0, aN N = a − aT T = i + j (c) κ = 1/ 2
√
33. (a) v = (3t2 − 2)i + 2tj, a = 6ti + 2j; when t = 1, v = i + 2j, a = 6i + 2j, kvk = 5, v · a = 10,
√ √
v × a = −10k so aT = 2 5, aN = 2 5
√
2 5
(b) aT T = √ (i + 2j) = 2i + 4j, aN N = a − aT T = 4i − 2j
5
√
(c) κ = 2/ 5
√
35. (a) v = et i − 2e−2t j + k, a = et i + 4e−2t j; when t = 0, v = i − 2j + k, a = i + 4j, kvk = 6,
√ p
v · a = −7, v × a = −4i + j + 6k so aT = −7/ 6, aN = 53/6
7 13 19 7
(b) aT T = − (i − 2j + k), aN N = a − aT T = i+ j+ k
6 6 3 6
√
53
(c) κ = √
6 6

37. kvk = 4, v · a = −12, v × a = 8k so aT = −3, aN = 2, T = −j, N = (a − aT T)/aN = i

d2 s dp2 2t − 3e−3t 3
39. aT = 2
= t + e−3t = √ so when t = 0, aT = − .
dt dt 2 t2 + e−3t 2

41. aN = κ(ds/dt)2 = (1/ρ)(ds/dt)2 = (1/1)(2.9 × 105 )2 = 8.41 × 1010 km/s2

43. aN = κ(ds/dt)2 = [2/(1 + 4x2 )3/2 ](3)2 = 18/(1 + 4x2 )3/2

p √
45. a = aT T + aN N; by the Pythagorean Theorem aN = kak2 − a2T = 9 − 9 = 0

47. True. By equation (1) the velocity vector is ds/dt multiplied by the unit tangent vector.

49. False. Equations (10) and (11) imply that a and v are parallel, but they may point in opposite
directions. For example, if r(t) = (ln t)i + (sin(ln t))j then κ(1) = 0, v(1) = i + j, and a(1) = −i − j.

51. From (14),

kak2 = a · a = (aT T+aN N) · (aT T+aN N) = a2T (T · T)+2aT aN (T · N)+a2N (N · N) = a2T +a2N ,
since T and N are orthogonal unit vectors. Hence a2N = kak2 − a2T . Since aN ≥ 0 (from equation
p
(13)), aN = kak2 − a2T .
38 Chapter 12

2

100 1 100
53. 10 km/h is the same as m/s, so kFk = 500 ≈ 257.20 N.
36 15 36
√
55. v0 = 80, α = −60◦ , s0 = 168 so x = 40t, y = 168 − 40 3 t − 16t2 ; y = 0 when
√ √ √ √
t = −7 3/2 (invalid) or t = 3 so x( 3) = 40 3 ft.
√
57. α = 30◦ , s0 = 0 so x = 3v0 t/2, y = v0 t/2 − 16t2 ; dy/dt = v0 /2 − 32t, dy/dt = 0 when t = v0 /64
so ymax = v02 /256 = 2500, v0 = 800 ft/s.

59. v0 = 800, s0 = 0 so x = (800 cos α)t, y = (800 sin α)t − 16t2 = 16t(50 sin α − t); y = 0 when t = 0
or 50 sin α so xmax = 40, 000 sin α cos α = 20, 000 sin 2α = 10, 000, 2α = 30◦ or 150◦ , α = 15◦
or 75◦ .

√
 
1
61. (a) From (26), r(t) = (40 cos 60◦ )t i + 4 + (40 sin 60◦ )t − gt2 j = 20t i + (4 + 20 3t − 16t2 ) j.
2
 2
3 √ 3 3
When x = 15, t = , and y = 4 + 20 3 · − 16 ≈ 20.98 ft, so the water clears the
4 4 4
corner point A with 0.98 ft to spare.
√ √
2
√ 5 3 ± 11
(b) y = 20 when 16t − 20 3t + 16 = 0, t = , t ≈ 0.668 (reject) or 1.497, x(1.497) ≈
8
29.942 ft, so the water hits the roof.
(c) about 29.942 − 15 = 14.942 ft
√ √
63. (a) x = (35 2/2)t, y = (35 2/2)t − 4.9t2 , from Exercise 23(a) in Section 12.5
|x0 y 00 − x00 y 0 | 9.8 √
κ= , κ(0) = √ = 0.004 2 ≈ 0.00565685; ρ = 1/κ ≈ 176.78 m
[(x0 )2 + (y 0 )2 ]3/2 352 2
25 √ 125
(b) y 0 (t) = 0 when t = 2, y = m
14 4
65. s0 = 0 so x = (v0 cos α)t, y = (v0 sin α)t − gt2 /2
(a) dy/dt = v0 sin α − gt so dy/dt = 0 when t = (v0 sin α)/g, ymax = (v0 sin α)2 /(2g)
(b) y = 0 when t = 0 or (2v0 sin α)/g, so x = R = (2v02 sin α cos α)/g = (v02 sin 2α)/g when
t = (2v0 sin α)/g; R is maximum when 2α = 90◦ , α = 45◦ , and the maximum value of R
is v02 /g.
√
67. v0 = 80, α = 30◦ , s0 = 5 so x = 40 3t, y = 5 + 40t − 16t2
p √ √
(a) y = 0 when t = (−40 ± (40)2 − 4(−16)(5))/(−32) = (5 ± 30)/4, reject (5 − 30)/4 to get
√
t = (5 + 30)/4 ≈ 2.62 s.
√
(b) x ≈ 40 3(2.62) ≈ 181.5 ft.

69. (a) v0 (cos α)(2.9) = 259 cos 23◦ so v0 cos α ≈ 82.21061, v0 (sin α)(2.9) − 16(2.9)2 = −259 sin 23◦
so v0 sin α ≈ 11.50367; divide v0 sin α by v0 cos α to get tan α ≈ 0.139929, thus α ≈ 8◦
and v0 ≈ 82.21061/ cos 8◦ ≈ 83 ft/s.
(b) From part (a), x ≈ 82.21061t and y ≈ 11.50367t − 16t2 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.9; the distance traveled
Z 2.9 p
is (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 dt ≈ 268.76 ft.
0
Exercise Set 12.7 39

EXERCISE SET 12.7

1. (a) From (15) and (6), at t = 0,
C = v0 × b0 − GM u = v0 j × r0 v0 k − GM u = r0 v02 i − GM i = (r0 v02 − GM )i
(b) From (22), r0 v02 − GM = GM e, so from (7) and (17), v × b = GM (cos θi + sin θj) + GM ei,
and the result follows.
(c) From (10) it follows that b is perpendicular to v, and the result follows.
(d) From part (c) and (10), kv × bk = kvkkbk = vr0 v0 . From part (b),
q √
kv × bk = GM (e + cos θ)2 + sin2 θ = GM e2 + 2e cos θ + 1. By (10) and
GM p 2
part (c), kv × bk = kvkkbk = v(r0 v0 ) thus v = e + 2e cos θ + 1. From (22),
r0 v0
v0 p 2
r0 v02 /(GM ) = 1 + e, GM/(r0 v0 ) = v0 /(1 + e) so v = e + 2e cos θ + 1.
1+e
k
(e) From (20) r = , so the minimum value of r occurs when θ = 0 and the maximum
1 + e cos θ
v0 p 2
value when θ = π. From part (d) v = e + 2e cos θ + 1 so the minimum value of v
1+e
occurs when θ = π and the maximum when θ = 0

3. vmax occurs when θ = 0 so vmax = v0 ; vmin occurs when θ = π so

v0 p 2 1−e 1+e
vmin = e − 2e + 1 = vmax , thus vmax = vmin .
1+e 1+e 1−e
5. (a) The results follow from formulae (1) and (7) of Section 10.6.
(b) rmin and rmax are extremes and occur at the same time as the extrema of krk2 , and hence
d d
at critical points of krk2 . Thus krk2 = (r · r) = 2r · r0 = 0, and hence r and v = r0 are
dt dt
orthogonal.
(c) vmin and vmax are extremes and occur at the same time as the extrema of kvk2 , and hence
d d
at critical points of kvk2 . Thus kvk2 = (v · v) = 2v · v0 = 0, and hence v and a = v0
dt dt
are orthogonal. By (5), a is a scalar multiple of r and thus v and r are orthogonal.
(d) From equation (2), r × v = b and thus kbk = kr × vk = krk kvk sin θ. When either r or v
has an extremum, however, the angle θ = π/2 and thus kbk = krkkvk. Finally, since b is
a constant vector, the maximum of r occurs at the minimum of v and vice versa, and thus
kbk = rmax vmin = rmin vmax .
p
7. r0 = 6440 + 200 = 6640 km so v = 3.99 × 105 /6640 ≈ 7.75 km/s.
r
2(3.99) × 105
9. From (23) with r0 = 6440 + 300 = 6740 km, vesc = ≈ 10.88 km/s.
6740
11. (a) At perigee, r = rmin = a(1 − e) = 238,900 (1 − 0.055) ≈ 225,760 mi; at apogee,
r = rmax = a(1 + e) = 238,900(1 + 0.055) ≈ 252,040 mi. Subtract the sum
of the radius of the Moon and the radius of the Earth to get
minimum distance = 225,760 − 5080 = 220,680 mi,
and maximum distance = 252,040 − 5080 = 246,960 mi.
p p
(b) T = 2π a3 /(GM ) = 2π (238,900)3 /(1.24 × 1012 ) ≈ 659 hr ≈ 27.5 days.
r
GM p
13. (a) r0 = 4000 + 180 = 4180 mi, v = = 1.24 × 1012 /4180 ≈ 17,224 mi/h
r0
40 Chapter 12

r
r0 v02
r
GM r0 r0
(b) r0 = 4180 mi, v0 = + 600; e = − 1 = 1200 + (600)2 ≈ 0.071;
r0 GM GM GM
rmax = 4180(1 + 0.071)/(1 − 0.071) ≈ 4819 mi; the apogee altitude is about
4819 − 4000 = 819 mi.

REVIEW EXERCISES, CHAPTER 12

3. the circle of radius 3 in the xy-plane, with center at the origin

5. a parabola in the plane x = −2, vertex at (−2, 0, −1), opening upward

7. Let r = xi + yj + zk, then x2 + z 2 = t2 (sin2 πt + cos2 πt) = t2 = y 2

y
x

11. r0 (t) = (1 − 2 sin 2t)i − (2t + 1)j + cos tk, r0 (0) = i − j + k and r(0) = i, so the line is given by
x = 1 + t, y = −t, z = t.

13. (sin t)i − (cos t)j + C

Z
15. y(t) = y0 (t) dt = 13 t3 i + t2 j + C, y(0) = C = i + j, y(t) = ( 13 t3 + 1)i + (t2 + 1)j

2 √  √
√ √ 2 √
 2
ds
17. = 2e 2t
+ − 2e− 2t + 4 = 8 cosh2 ( 2t),
dt
√ √2 ln 2
Z 2 ln 2 √ √ √ 15
L= 2 2 cosh( 2t) dt = 2 sinh( 2t) = 2 sinh(2 ln 2) =
0 0 4

−→ dr s−3 12 − 2s 9 + 2s
19. r = r0 + t P Q= (t − 1)i + (4 − 2t)j + (3 + 2t)k;
dt = 3, r(s) = 3 i +
j+ k
3 3

25. r0 (t) = −2 sin ti + 3 cos tj − k, r0 (π/2) = −2i − k

r00 (t) = −2 cos ti − 3 sin tj, r00 (π/2) = −3j,
r0 (π/2) × r00 (π/2) = −3i + 6k and hence, by Theorem 12.5.2b,
√
κ(π/2) = 45/53/2 = 3/5.

27. By Exercise 23(b) of Section 12.5, κ = |d2 y/dx2 |/[1 + (dy/dx)2 ]3/2 , but d2 y/dx2 = − cos x = 0 at
x = π/2, so κ = 0.

29. (a) speed (b) distance traveled (c) distance of the particle from the origin
Making Connections, Chapter 12 41

31. (a) kr(t)k = 1, so, by Theorem 12.2.8, r0 (t) is always perpendicular to the vector r(t). Then
v(t) = Rω(− sin ωti + cos ωtj), v = kv(t)k = Rω
(b) a = −Rω 2 (cos ωti + sin ωtj), a = kak = Rω 2 , and a = −ω 2 r is directed toward the origin.
2π
(c) The smallest positive value of t for which r(t) = r(0) satisfies ωt = 2π, so T = t = .
ω
dv 2 1
33. (a) = 2t2 i + j + cos 2tk, v0 = i + 2j − k, so x0 (t) = t3 + 1, y 0 (t) = t + 2, z 0 (t) = sin 2t − 1,
dt 3 2
1 4 1 1 1
x(t) = t + t, y(t) = t2 + 2t, z(t) = − cos 2t − t + , since r(0) = 0. Hence
6 2 4 4
     
1 4 1 2 1 1
r(t) = t +t i+ t + 2t j − cos 2t + t − k
6 2 4 4

ds i i p
(b) = kr0 (t)k = (5/3)2 + 9 + (1 − (sin 2)/2)2 ≈ 3.475
dt t=1 t=1

35. From Table 12.7.1, GM ≈ 3.99 × 105 km3 /s2 , and r0 = 6440 + 600 = 7040 km, so
r r
2GM 2 · 3.99 × 105
vesc = ≈ ≈ 10.65 km/s.
r0 7040

37. By equation (26) of Section 12.6, r(t) = (60 cos α)ti + ((60 sin α)t − 16t2 + 4)j, and the maximum
15
height of the baseball occurs when y 0 (t) = 0, 60 sin α = 32t, t = sin α, so the ball clears the
8
2
15 152 152 sin α 28
ceiling if ymax = (60 sin α) sin α − 16 2 sin2 α + 4 ≤ 25, ≤ 21, sin2 α ≤ . The ball
8 8 4 75
hits the wall when x = 60, t = sec α, and y(sec α) = 60 sin α sec α − 16 sec2 α + 4. Maximize the
28
height h(α) = y(sec α) = 60 tan α − 16 sec2 α + 4, subject to the constraint sin2 α ≤ . Then
75
60 15 15 15
h0 (α) = 60 sec2 α − 32 sec2 α tan α = 0, tan α = = , so sin α = √ = , but for
32 8 2
8 + 15 2 17
this value of α the constraint is not satisfied (the ball hits the ceiling). Hence the maximum
value of h occurs at one of the endpoints of the α-interval on which the ball clears the ceiling, i.e.
h i
0, sin−1 28/75 . Since h0 (0) = 60, it follows that h is increasing throughout the interval, since
p

28
h0 > 0 inside the interval. Thus hmax occurs when sin2 α = , hmax = 60 tan α − 16 sec2 α + 4 =
√ √ 75
28 75 120 329 − 1012
60 √ − 16 + 4 = ≈ 24.78 ft. Note: the possibility that the baseball keeps
47 47 47
climbing until it hits the wall can be rejected as follows: if so, then y 0 (t) = 0 after the ball hits
15 15
the wall, i.e. t = sin α occurs after t = sec α, hence sin α ≥ sec α, 15 sin α cos α ≥ 8,
8 8
15 sin 2α ≥ 16, impossible.

MAKING CONNECTIONS, CHAPTER 12

r0 (t) × r00 (t) r0 (t)
1. (a) The given formulas imply that N(t) = B(t) × T(t) = 0 00
× 0 .
kr (t) × r (t)k kr (t)k
(b) Since r0 is perpendicular to r0 × r00 , Theorem 11.4.5a implies that
k(r0 (t) × r00 (t)) × r0 (t)k = kr0 (t) × r00 (t)kkr0 (t)k, and the result follows.
42 Chapter 12

1 2
(c) (i) r0 (t) = 2ti + j, r0 (1) = 2i + j, r00 (t) = 2i, u = 2i − 4j, N = √ i − √ j
5 5
0 0 π 00
(ii) r (t) = −4 sin t i + 4 cos t j + k, r ( ) = −4i + k, r (t) = −4 cos t i − 4 sin t j,
2
π
r00 ( ) = −4j, u = 17(−4j), N = −j
2
Z t  2 Z t  2
πu πu
3. (a) r(t) = cos du i + sin du j;
0 2 0 2
2  2  2
dr
= x0 (t)2 + y 0 (t)2 = cos2 πt + sin 2 πt
= 1 and r(0) = 0
dt 2 2
 2  2  2  2
0 πs πs 00 πs πs
(b) r (s) = cos i + sin j, r (s) = −πs sin i + πs cos j,
2 2 2 2
κ(s) = kr00 (s)k = π|s|
(c) κ(s) → +∞, so the spiral winds ever tighter.
 s  s cs a s a s c
5. r = a cos i + a sin j + k, r0 = − sin i+ cos j + k,
w w w w w w w w
 a s  a s  a s  a s
00 000
r =− cos i− sin j, r = sin i− cos j,
w2 w w2 w w3 w w3 w
 ac s  ac s a2 a2 c
r0 × r00 = sin i − cos j + k, (r 0
× r00
) · r000
= ,
w3 w w3 w w3 w6
a c  c s   c s  a
kr00 (s)k = 2 , so τ = 2 and B = sin i− cos j+ k
w w w w w w w