1.

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing popularity of alternate power sources, such as solar and wind,
the need for static inverters to convert dc energy stored in batteries to conventional ac
form has increased substantially. Most use the same basic concept: a dc source of
relatively low voltage and reasonably good stability is converted by a high frequency
oscillator and stepup transformer to a dc voltage with magnitude corresponding to the
peak of the desired ac voltage. A power stage at the output then generates an ac voltage
from the higher-voltage dc.

1.1. Current State of the Art:

There are basically two kinds of dc-ac inverters on the market today. One
category is the “pure sine-wave” inverter, which produces sine waves with total harmonic
distortion (THD) in the range of 3% (-30 dB). These are typically used when there is a
need for clean, near-sine-wave outputs for medical, instrument and other critical
applications.

Fig. 1. Most static-power inverters used in solar- and wind-power applications convert
dc to ac using the architecture shown here.

Some, for example, are used in boats and RVs as the main source of electricity,
and some feed energy back into the utility power grid. Waveforms approaching sine
waves, with minimal distortion, are required in any case. These inverters are available in
sizes up to several thousand watts and typical costs are in the range of $0.50 per watt.
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 Early techniques for designing these true sine wave inverters incorporated
significant linear technology, reducing their efficiency and contributing to their higher
cost. More recent designs used pulse-width modulation (PWM) to produce a pulsed
waveform that can be filtered relatively easily to achieve a good approximation to a sine
wave. The significant advantage of the PWM approach is that switching techniques are
used in the power stages, resulting in relatively high efficiency.

However, PWM, with the pulse width made to vary according to the amplitude of
a sine wave, requires significant control circuitry and high-speed switching. This is
because the frequency of the PWM signal has to be much higher than that of the sine
wave to be synthesized if the PWM signal is to be filtered effectively. So the PWM
approach introduces significant complexities and switching losses. The second category
consists of relatively inexpensive units, producing modified sine-wave outputs, which
could logically be called “modified square waves” instead.

They are basically square waves with some dead spots between positive and
negative half-cycles. Switching techniques rather than linear circuits are used in the
power stage, because switching techniques are more efficient and thus less expensive.
These inverters require no high-frequency switching, as the switching takes place at line
frequency. Their costs are generally in the range of $0.10 per watt.

The typical modified sine-wave inverter has a waveform as shown in Fig. 2. It is

evident that if the waveform is to be considered a sine wave or a modified sine wave, it is
a sine wave with significant distortion.

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Fig. 2. Modified sine-wave inverters actually generate square waves with dead spots
between the half-cycles, allowing switching techniques rather than linear circuits to be
used in the power stage.

Analysis of Current Technology It is well known that any periodic waveform such
as that mentioned previously can be represented by a Fourier series, an infinite sequence
of sines and cosines, at the fundamental frequency of the waveform and its harmonics.
These harmonics can cause trouble in several areas—particularly in motors and sensitive
applications—and the data sheets for the inverters frequently caution the user that certain
devices may not work with the inverter.

Furthermore, even though the root-mean-square (RMS) value of the waveform

may be a nominal 115 V or 120 V, the peak will be different than that of a true sine wave,
and that factor can cause trouble in applications that depend on the peak value. The actual
percent distortion is not usually quoted in the specifications for inverters other than the
pure sine wave versions.

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 So it is instructive to compute the distortion products to get a feel for the relative
distortion involved with the different approaches. For purposes of comparison, let us look
first at a conventional square wave (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. The square wave provides a benchmark against which we may

compare the THD of the modified sine wave and the waveform generated
by the proposed inverter architecture.

2. Fourier Analysis
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 The coefficients of the Fourier series are computed with a pair of integrals that
produce the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms in the series. For a signal f(x) with a
zero dc component, the integrals are:

where an and bn terms are the coefficients of the

cosine and sine terms, respectively, in the series.

The Fourier series is then:

f(x) = a1cos x + a2cos 2x + a3cos 3x + . . . + b1sin x + b2sin

2x + b3sin 3x + . . .

The complete background on Fourier series, as well as treatment of special cases,

is covered in several textbooks on networks or engineering mathematics, and will not be
repeated here.

We will just note that because both the square wave and the modified sine wave
have both half-wave symmetry and quarter-wave symmetry, integration is required only
over one-quarter of the waveform, and further that only the sine terms and odd harmonics
are required.

Thus, the integral used to compute the coefficients for the conventional square
wave becomes:

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The series is then

(4/π)sin x + (4/3π)sin(3x)+(4/5π)sin(5x) + . . .

The standard measure of distortion is THD defined as:

Numerical evaluation of the coefficients for the square wave indicates that if the
square wave is to be considered a sine wave with distortion, the THD is in the range of
45% (-7 dB). The third harmonic, the hardest to filter out, is one-third the magnitude of
the fundamental (-10 dB). Turning now to the modified sine wave, let us define the
width of the positive and negative portions as 2α as depicted in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 4. Defining the width of the positive and negative portions of the modified sine wave
as 2α enables us to calculate its Fourier coefficients and then determine its minimum
values of THD.

Again noting that the waveform has both half-wave symmetry and quarter-wave
symmetry, and carrying out the integration from 0 to л /2, we have:

Evaluation of this expression for various values of α indicates that the minimum
harmonic distortion occurs at α = 0.352л, where the THD is 23.8% (-12 dB), about half
that of the square wave. The third harmonic is about 6.5% (-24 dB) of the fundamental,
also a significant improvement over the square wave.

However, these figures indicate that the modified sine wave is far from being a
true sine wave, and suggest that improvement is in order.

2.1. Proposed Improvement

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 Consider now a further modification—the addition of another level. The
waveform is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Adding another level to the modified sine-wave results in a Fourier series with
four variables that may be varied to minimize distortion, though in practice “B” will be
set equal to 2 A.

Again using the fact that the waveform has both half-wave and quarter wave
symmetry, we carry out the integration over the period 0 to л/2, with the result that:

For odd values of n only.

This result has four variables, of which all could theoretically be varied to achieve
minimum distortion. However, one particularly efficient approach is to choose a very

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simple set of values for A and B—namely B = 2 x A—and then optimize the values of α
and β for minimum distortion.

This approach requires only two positive and two negative power-supply
voltages, all of which can be generated from a single transformer in the high-frequency
oscillator. (Other values of A versus B may be useful, but were not investigated because
the simple relationship of B = 2 x A had very good results as discussed later.)

This result has four variables, of which all could theoretically be varied to achieve
minimum distortion. However, one particularly efficient approach is to choose a very
simple set of values for A and B—namely B = 2A—and then optimize the values of 
and  for minimum distortion. This approach requires only two positive and two negative
power-supply voltages, all of which can be generated from a single transformer in the
high-frequency oscillator.

Other values of A versus B may be useful, but were not investigated because the
simple relationship of B = 2 x A had very good results as discussed later. but any filtering
applied to reduce the third through ninth harmonics will be even more effective on those
above the ninth. Therefore, the higher-order harmonics are ignored in this analysis.

3. IMPLEMENTATION

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 As demonstrated here, the modified-sine-wave inverter can be modified further to
produce a much closer approximation to a sine wave, at a relatively small increase in
manufacturing costs, simply by incorporating another level into the waveform. The
design still uses switching technology in the power stage, assuring high efficiency. A
patent application has been submitted for the approach described in this article. The
switching stage could be implemented with a combination of bridge and half-bridge
components commonly used in power switching applications.

To produce the proposed multiple-level waveform, several implementations are

possible. In general, they all involve connecting the output lead to a specific voltage level
with switches such as power MOSFETs capable of handling substantial current. Consider
the block diagram shown in Fig. 6 where the voltages A and B correspond to the voltage
levels defined previously.

Fig. 6. The proposed enhancement to the modified sine wave inverter is implemented by
connecting the output lead to a specific voltage level at the correct time with electronic
switches such as power MOSFETs.

Appropriate digital logic and timing circuits will be used to activate each switch
at the correct time to achieve the α and β pulse widths. A table can be developed to
indicate which switches must be closed for each section of the output waveform. Note
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that Switch #3 in Fig. 6 will need to be a bidirectional switch, since it must switch the
output lead V OUT to ground regardless of any voltage present in the load. All other
switches can be unidirectional.

Unlike conventional PWM-inverter designs, which switch

at high frequencies, the proposed inverter design switches at just three times the line
frequency. As a consequence, the proposed inverter design will reduce switching losses
from that of the PWM-controlled inverter and will save power regardless of the output
power level.

4. Modified sine wave and true sine wave inverters

The AC output waveform for many inverters is called a quasi-sine wave or a

modified sine wave (MSW). It is a stepped waveform that is designed to have

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characteristics similar to the sine wave shape of utility power. A waveform of this type is
suitable for most AC loads, including linear and switching power supplies used in
electronic equipment, transformers, and motors. The modified sine wave produced by the
inverter is designed to have RMS (root mean square) voltage of 115 volts, the same as
standard household power.

Most AC products run fine on MSW inverters. TSW inverters are about two to
three times as expensive per watt due to having more sophisticated design and
manufacturing requirements, and more expensive components. As a result, most people
prefer to use MSW inverters if their applications allow it.

In general, any device that senses either voltage peaks or zero crossings could
have problems when running from MSW. Devices such as these should be run from
TSW inverters. Ham radio and CB radio operators may notice RF noise from MSW
inverters; in that case do not run the radio and the inverter at the same time. Electronics
that modulate RF (radio frequency) signals on the AC line will not work and may be
damaged. You may notice hum or buzz in the audio of TV’s, radios and satellite systems
used with MSW inverters. Audiophiles or professionals using sophisticated audio,
remote measurement, surveillance or telemetry equipment should use TSW.

Examples of problem devices are motor speed controllers employing triacs, and
some small battery rechargers that do not incorporate a transformer between the utility
power and the load. To help you visualize this, if there isn’t a ‘wall wart’ between the
battery charger (or the battery in the device) and the AC plug, don’t use MSW.
Please note two other common problem loads, electric shavers and emergency
flashlights. Both of these items have batteries in them but connect directly into the wall
to charge, without an external transformer. Don’t use items like these with an MSW
inverter. If you do use an MSW inverter with a transformer-less charger, your product
will likely be damaged. Garage door openers, laser printers and large strobes used in

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photography have all been reported as trouble loads for MSW inverters; they either don’t
work at all or stop working entirely, so don’t take a chance – use TSW.

As a general rule, products operating through an AC adapter will work fine from
an MSW inverter. These include laptops and cell phone chargers, video games,
camcorder and digital camera chargers. Televisions generally work well; some VCR’s
with inexpensive power supplies run poorly. Consider switching to another brand of VCR
in that case. A potential solution for RV’ers or off-grid cottagers is to purchase our
smallest TSW inverter (such as the RS400) to run TV, VCR and audio equipment, and a
larger MSW inverter (such as the XPower 1750 Plus) for the coffee maker, hair dryer and
microwave.

Utility grid power supplies pure sine wave alternating current (AC), the most
common form of energy for the majority of electronic appliances. This same energy is
often needed in remote or mobile environments where pure sine wave grid power is not
readily available. In this event, users will turn to dc-ac power inverters using modified
sine wave or pure sine wave technology. While modified sine wave inverters are good for
many applications, pure sine wave inverters are needed because modified sine wave
inverters can have too much harmonic distortion otherwise referred to as noise. Pure Sine
Wave Inverters also known as true sine wave inverters are used because they replicate the
utility grid power allowing the most sensitive electronics to function seamlessly.

4.1 Quasi-sine inverters (Sometimes called modified sine):

When describing the output from an inverter, people refer to sine, quasi-sine and
square waveforms. It is misleading to claim that any one type is better than another; it is
all a question of compromise of cost, reliability and efficiency. Sine wave output is
closest to replicating the AC mains supply, and at one time would have been costly and

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the least efficient. However, developments in power conversion technology mean that
this is no longer the case & sine wave is now the choice for professional applications.

Quasi-sine units are now restricted to very low cost, low end applications and
certain very high inrush applications, such as refrigeration. The descriptions below are
more for historic interest, but remain true.

Square wave inverters, once common, were in their day the cheapest & probably
the most efficient, but were also the most likely to cause operational problems due to
their waveform. The quasi-sine wave is an intermediate approach which can replicate the
key characteristics of the AC mains supply if properly controlled. Given proper control,
and not all quasi-sine wave inverters do, the vast majority of loads can be successfully
operated. At one time, quasi-sine inverters were the best cost-performance compromise,
with true sine-wave restricted to waveform critical applications due to their high cost.

To understand how quasi-sine is designed to be a substitute for the mains, it is

helpful to understand what the key characteristics of the mains are. For this discussion we
shall refer to European system which is 50Hz and 230VAC, but the same principles apply
to other voltages and frequencies.

4.2. The mains has four important characteristics:

Peak voltage: this is the peak voltage at the crest of a true sine wave. It reaches
325 volts on a 230 volt supply. This peak voltage needs to be maintained in order to
successfully operate some electronic equipment, particularly microwave cookers.

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 Average voltage: this is maximum value reached by the integral against time of
the voltage waveform, or in other words, the average voltage. A 230 volt sine wave
supply has an average voltage 207volts. This characteristic is important for the successful
operation of magnetic devices such as transformers and motors.

RMS voltage: (230V) this is a mathematically derived measure of the heating

effect of a waveform when applied to a resistive load, and has been traditionally used to
specify the magnitude of an AC voltage. This characteristic, which for a 230 volt mains
supply is 230 volts, is important to ensure that heating and tungsten lighting equipment
works to specification. If this is inaccurate or fluctuates then lighting may vary in
intensity.

Stable frequency: (50Hz) this is necessary to ensure that timing devices using
mains frequency operate accurately and that AC motors run at the correct speed. The
following notes give an overview of how the three types of inverter mimics the mains.

The quasi-sine waveform cannot precisely replicate all these key voltage
characteristics at the same time, so a compromise has to be arrived at. The compromise
employed is one of the factors that differentiates different quasi-sine inverters.

Sine wave inverters set out to mimic the mains most closely. At one time. there
were three common types; constant voltage transformer (CVT), pulse width modulated
switch mode units (PWM) and so called linear units. The CVT's are the traditional units
using a large transformer in which an oscillation is established.
Simple and fairly rugged, they tended to be inefficient, large and heavy, and
sometimes noisy too. The waveform can become quite severely distorted on some types
of load. In contrast, the modern state of the art approach uses switchmode technology to
reconstruct a sine wave; sometimes called PWM units. Relatively small and light, these
are complex units, and used to be expensive, but have now become affordable. However,
they can cause electrical interference and may have difficulty driving loads with a very
high inrush current.

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 Quasi-sine inverters are simple, efficient and robust. Although they do not give a
true sine wave, they can mimic the key voltage parameters fairly well, allowing the
majority of equipment to run successfully. Not all quasi sine wave units are the same;
many problems with quasi sine inverters stem from poor design, & not from the lack of a
pure sinewave. Older type quasi-sine units can be designed to drive very high inrush
loads; an area where they are still used today.

Square wave inverters are very simple but are really only suited to resistive loads
such as heaters and incandescent lights. Due to their limitations, they are now quite rare.

Rotary inverters; for completeness it is worth being aware of this type of inverter.
It uses a DC motor to drive an AC alternator, which gives a sine wave output. Although
rugged and generally reliable, they suffer the disadvantage of needing brush maintenance
(all static inverters are maintenance free), they are relatively inefficient and can be noisy.

Antares used to offer quasi-sine units, but with a difference. The control
arrangement in our units maintained the key output voltage parameters over a wide range
of operating conditions. Unlike many competitor units, there were no limitations on
capacitive loads, such as presented by electronic equipment or appliances incorporating
power factor correction or motor start capacitors.

However, Antares now offer exclusively sine wave units as they are now reliable
& cost effective. Our quasi-sine units are no longer in general production, & are only
available to special order when demanded by the application.

4.3. Choose a Power Inverter for RV or Road Trip Vehicle:

Finding a device to convert DC power to AC may seem like it should be a simple

task, but when you start shopping for a power inverter for your RV or road trip vehicle,
you'll soon find that many choices will confront you. With prices ranging from less than

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$40 to well into the thousands, it can be difficult to know what features are important and
how to choose a unit appropriate to your needs. While wattage, features, and connections
are obvious considerations, your final choice should take into account the inverter's wave
form output.

There are two general types of power inverters: true-sine wave or modified-sine
wave (square wave). True-sine wave inverters produce power that is either identical or
sometimes slightly better to power from the public utility power grid system. The power
wave when viewed through an oscilloscope is a smooth sine wave.

Modified-sine wave and square wave inverters are the most common types of
power inverters on the market. Modified-sine wave power inverters produce a power
wave that is sufficient for most devices. The power wave is not exactly the same as
electricity from the power grid. It has a wave form that appears as a choppy squared-off
wave when viewed through an oscilloscope.

What does that mean to the everyday user? Not much. Most household electrical
devices will run perfectly fine on either type of wave form. Most of our customers who
are using a power inverter to run a laptop, a/c cell phone charger, fan, or camera find that
a modified-sine wave power inverter that operates through the cigarette lighter socket the
easiest to use.
Usual suggestion is choosing power inverters that are rated under 300 watts when
using the 12-volt cigarette lighter socket found in most vehicles. We suggest this because
after reaching 300 watts of draw on the inverter, the fuses in your car will begin to blow.
The xPower 175 Micro ($35.00) is a great choice for dash boarders who would like an
easy solution to power their devices. It has only one outlet, but since plugging it into a 12
volt socket is all that is required for operation, it can't be beat for ease of use. This little
inverter can supply 140 watts of continuous operation and has a built-in surge protector.

Square wave inverters, which are appropriate for most roadtrippers, fall into the
following four groups:

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 300 watts ($40-$60): For household appliances, TVs (up to 27"), VCR, desktop
computers, other mobile office equipment. Most of these connect via a 12-Volt plug.

600 watts ($100-$120): For household appliances, large screen TVs, 5-amp power
tools, and bread machines. Most such inverters are connected directly to the 12-volt
battery and have three or more grounded outlets for powering several products at the
same time.

1750 watts ($199-$380): For household appliances, larger power tools,

microwave ovens, toasters, and hair dryers. All of these inverters are designed for direct
connection to the battery network and can generally supply 1500 watts of continuous
power.

3000 watts ($395-$750): With output power generally rated at 2500 watts for
continuous load, these inverters can power virtually all household appliances and office
equipment. For loads of this magnitude, special wiring and battery banks may be
required.

The problem with wave form only comes into play when specialized pieces of
equipment need to be powered. Here are a few devices which could have problems when
they are connected to an inverter producing a modified-sine wave signal: oxygen
concentrators, fax machines, laser printers, high voltage cordless tool chargers,
equipment with variable speed motors, electric shavers, and garage door openers.

There are a few other applications -- high-end audio video units, plasma displays,
gaming systems, and certain scientific testing equipment -- for which true-sine wave is
not usually required. Even so, these applications can usually benefit from the improved
clarity of the electrical signal produced by a true-sine wave power inverter. Users of these
particular items have usually spent a lot of money to achieve optimal results from their

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equipment, and it would be a shame to have a cheaper modified-sine wave signal cause
inaccurate readings on a piece of scientific equipment. It would be equally disheartening
to have small distortion lines appear on a $3000 plasma TV because the user saved
$250.00 by buying a modified-sine wave power inverter.

4.4. The Xantrex XS400 true-sine inverter

It is also important to understand that there is no way to upgrade or clean a

modified-sine wave signal. If your item does not work on a modified-sine wave inverter,
you will need to purchase a new true-sine wave power inverter. We often recommend
that users on a tight budget purchase only enough true-sine wave power to run required
equipment and purchase a less expensive modified-sine wave inverter to run the rest of
the load. The Xantrex XS400 ($375-$400), a true-sine wave power inverter, is often used
to power only the audio video loads in RV applications. The rest of the RV's electrical
loads are often powered by a larger modified-sine wave power inverter.

Many people are surprised at the overall improvement in signal quality when
using inverters on audio/video applications. They notice that there are fewer distortions
and few if any interference lines. While we don't recommend true-sine wave inverters to
most of our customers, we do advise customers with no budgetary concerns to choose a
true-sine wave product. They can then rest assured that their inverter will be able to
handle anything they plug into it.

Many stores do not carry true-sine wave power inverters because the price is often
significantly higher than their modified-sine cousins -- usually two to five times more.
Generally, expect to pay $200 to $3,000 for pure-sine wave inverters depending upon
how many output watts are needed. Our firm, 4lots.com has had great experience with
two brands of true-sine wave power inverters, namely the Xantrex Prosine line and the
Go Power! true-sine wave line.

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