Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
by
Lisa Anderson-Umana
FINAL PROJECT
Deerfield, Illinois
July 2008
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Definition of terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Conceptual assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
iii
Methodological assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4. RESEARCH FINDINGS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Summary of findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Reoccurring themes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
iv
ILUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
8. Sigmoid Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
v
TABLES
Table Page
5. Comparison of the stages of role taking, moral reasoning, and cognitive development . . 15
8. Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
11. Summary of answers related to subject’s Stage of perspective and number of actions
taken toward developing other leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
vi
CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM
Statement of problem
“We have no direction.” We have little clarity in what our roles are, apart
from the instructors, no one really knows what to do.” Spoken by a Panamanian member of
“We do not delegate well, we do it all ourselves just to be sure it is done well.
Moreover, we know what we have to do but since we have not made it explicit, we cannot
really delegate the work to others. Spoken by the team of leaders from CCI/LA in Costa
Rica.
“We need new leaders, the ones who have been around a while are ready to
take a back seat but there is no one to take our place so we continue to do what we have
number of them to desert the team.” Shared by the President of the CCI/LA National Board
of Directors in Peru.
2008, where thirty of its core leaders gathered for four days of inspiration and learning. The
author, who serves as one of six full-time staff members concluded : “We are the association
leaders but we recognize we have a leadership problem. We are not performing up to our
own standards of leadership, much less are we developing other leaders who do.”
1
2
association is made up of members who voluntarily pay a yearly due to join. Besides
acquiring a sense of belonging, they receive benefits and are able to give shape to the
association by the expertise and contacts they bring to it. Networking and sharing resources
and ideas are among the key benefits. Of the twenty or so CCI associations around the
world, the majority of their leaders are volunteers and the few staff members are often
missionaries who raise their own support because of the inadequacy of dues and charges for
services to sustain paid personnel. The leadership of a business company is top down and
not dependent on the whims and wishes of volunteers to execute their plans (Bruneau 2008).
CCI/LA decentralized in the early 1990’s from being one central office run by
two missionaries to forming national offices in various Latin American countries, held
together by volunteers. This created more dependency on its volunteer leaders and weakened
the central office, thus provoking a greater sense of autonomy and independence among the
National Associations. This, in turn, seemed to feed an already nationalistic fervor causing
some to lose sight of the broader perspective of belonging to CCI Latin America as a whole.
Mexico, Central and South America (Anderson 1993). The focus has been to create in each
country where CCI/LA operates a team of instructors motivated and equipped to teach its
core curriculum consisting of five workbooks for forming camp counselors, program
directors and Bible study curriculum developers. Fifteen years of work has yielded 167
instructors, who have taught approximately 400 courses, which have trained 8000 some local
3
church or para-church leaders, who as a result have programmed Christ-centered camps for
Just like every virtue has its shadow side, every curriculum has its unintended
or hidden curriculum which refers to those unintended outcomes of the explicit instructional
agenda. In addition, what CCI/LA has not taught, which Eisner (1994) calls the null
curriculum, has had some negative consequences. Table 1 describes the manner in which
both the hidden and null curriculum have negatively impacted CCI/LA’s leadership image.
Table 1 Negative impact of hidden and null curriculum on CCI/LA's leadership image
Unintended outcomes of CCI/LA’s Negative impact on CCI/LA’s leadership image
training curriculum described by
quotes from its leaders
“We must protect CCI/LA’s name, This attitude hinders the formation of strategic alliances with those
we do not want our brand stolen or graduates of courses who started in CCI/LA but have felt led to branch
misused.” out into other ministries or set up their own camp related ministries.
“We know about camping because Response of some campsite personnel: “You may know the theory but I
we are graduates of CCI/LA’s live and breath camping 24/7.” CCI/LA cuts itself off from gaining the
Institute for Forming Instructors.” valuable expertise of practitioners.
“I am ready and equipped to teach CCI/LA’s explicit curriculum has focused on training trainers so its null
courses, who needs a National curriculum has “taught” its leaders the relative unimportance of a
Association anyway?” structure to sustain and support the ministry, i.e. a National Association.
“The core of CCI/LA is training, CCI/LA has focused on its strength—training—which is but one
that is what we do best.” component of leadership development (McCauley and Van Volser
2004). Networking one camp with another is a core part of being an
association and there are plenty of camps in Latin America who are
running excellent programs who have never heard of CCI/LA.
Therefore CCI/LA does not benefit from them nor do they benefit other
camps through the forum for sharing an association creates.
“In CCI/LA we have created our Unintentionally this reads: “If you do not follow our way of doing
own camping philosophy and modo things, it is not as good or second best.”
de proceder or way of doing things Camp leaders may feel forced to choose “CCI/LA’s way” or “their way”
(Lowney 2003). as if it is a choice between good and bad. Many experienced camp
leaders reject and rebel due to the projected “our way or the highway”
and therefore may not get involved in CCI/LA which represents a loss of
their vital input and participation in the association.
Leaders developed
4
Definition of terms
Since the hypothesis guides the research to measure perspective horizons and
the effectiveness of leadership development in the context of Latin America, the following
programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people
from another” (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005, 400). A somewhat broader definition defines
culture as “the more or less integrated systems of ideas, feelings, and values and their
associated patterns of behavior and products shared by a group of people who organize and
regulate what they think, feel, and do” (Hiebert 1985, 30).
men (Trompenaars and Turner 1997), educators (Dimmock and Walter 2005) and cultural
experts and consultants (Lanier 2000, Sorti 1999) have observed different cultures and
created categories to describe these patterns of thought and behavior. Hofstede cautions one
to remember that explicit cultural dimensions do not exist in and of themselves, they are tools
which help analyze a situation and may or may not bring clarity—one should not reify them.
On the other hand, while “cultural features may mask finer points of details and difference,
they enable groups of people to gain identity” (Dimmock and Walker 2005, 8).
5
Collectivism “stands for a society in which people from birth onward are
integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to
protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty” (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005, 399).
“The communitarian culture sees the group as its end and improvements to individual
in-group collectivism by noting that different individuals feel a greater sense of identification
with different groups, for instance, the Japanese identify strongest with the corporation or
institution, the Irish with the Catholic church, and Latin Americans with their family. House
et al. (2004) further elucidate this distinction by awarding separate scores to institutional
collectivism and in-group collectivism. Their studies reveal that most of Latin America and
African countries tend toward in-group collectivism in which there are close ties among
family members, people are concerned with others, are respectful of authority, and have
Indivdualism “stands for a society in which the ties between individuals are
loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family
only” (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005, 401). “The individualist culture sees the individual as
‘the end’ and improvements to communal arrangements as the means to achieve it”
Perspective or role taking. The ability to view the world (including the self)
taking another’s perspective implies the ability to differentiate the other’s view from one’s
own, and the ability to shift, balance, and evaluate both perceptual and cognitive object input,
all of which is clearly cognitive. Role taking is a prototypical social-cognitive skill (Selman
1971b, 1722) and it occurs in stages. These stages will be further described in Chapter II.
of individualism and collectivism describes how the worldview of leaders develops in phases
“just as a stone makes ever-widening ripples in a smooth pond, so the horizons of leaders
grow as their perspectives expand” (Plueddemann 2008, in press). The author perceives the
broadening of one’s perspective horizon as analogous to how Google Earth ® works. The
progressively zooms out to see the house and neighborhood (in-group--family-centric view),
then it zooms out further still to encompass a view of the entire nation (ethno-centric view)
until finally the camera zooms out to reveal the entire globe (world-centric view). Chapter II
perspective.
7
Christian camping associations throughout the world, helping each association to be more
ministries, to the glory of God and for the building up of his Church. CCI operates through
19 national/regional associations in more than 26 countries around the world (Bolin 2008).
The regional association in charge of serving the interests and members of the Spanish-
speaking countries of the Americas is called CCI/Latin America, abbreviated CCI/LA. The
author serves as a missionary in the role of Director of Leadership Development for the
region of CCI/LA.
twenty some countries that make up Mexico, Central and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean
Islands and countries of South America (Brazil has its own CCI association). Where CCI/LA
Association.
The second variable of this study’s hypothesis relates to leadership and its
development. Given the number of publications that exist on leadership, it would appear that
each author defines leadership in his or her own unique manner. “Leadership is an enigma—
a puzzle within a puzzle. It has an ‘I know it when I see it’ feel, yet there is no single,
comprehensive definition that encompasses all divergent views about leadership” (House et
This series of lists begs to be reread a second in order to answer the question:
Which part of the Biblical definition of a leader differs from what the Bible expects of every
believer? Almost without exception, every characteristic listed is also required of each and
9
every growing believer. This comparison highlights two of this study’s assumptions outlined
in Table four: (1) indispensable need for spiritual formation in the life of a leader and (2)
every Christian can and should be a leader in some sphere of their lives.
After reading the Globe leadership styles, it is odd to imagine that all of these
styles would not be very desirable, that some cultures view with suspicion a leader while
leadership development, which in turn informs those leaders how to develop others in a
similar manner.
Leadership. For the purpose of the study “good leadership is the spiritual gift
of harmonizing, enhancing and focusing the spiritual gifts of others toward a common vision
coincide with the tasks of leadership as espoused by the Center for Creative Leadership
(McCauley and Van Velsor 2004, 2) which are setting direction (determining the common
leaders have the responsibility and power to control people” (Plueddemann 2003, 1). Present
in the definition is the notion that people work best with a common vision (Katzenbach and
Smith 2003) and are driven by that vision as Collins discovered in his level five leaders
(Collins 2001).
expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in these leadership tasks, roles and processes.
10
support (McCauley and Van Velsor 2004, 2, 3). McCauley and Van Velsor clarify:
These are the elements that combine to make developmental experiences more
powerful. We know that although leaders learn primarily through their experiences,
not all experiences are equally developmental. For example, the first year in a new
job is usually more developmental than the fifth or sixth year. Working with a boss
who gives constructive feedback is usually more developmental than working with
one who does not. A training program that encourage lots of practice and helps
participants examine mistakes is usually more developmental than one that provides
information but no practice. Situations that stretch an individual and provide both
feedback and a sense of support are more likely to stimulate leader development than
situations that leave out any of these elements. You can make any experience—a
training program, an assignment, a relationship—richer and more developmental by
making sure that the elements of assessment, challenge and support are present (2004,
3).
Conceptual assumptions
the various stages of perspective or role taking (Selman 2003; Flavell 1968) as well as
leadership development which believes leadership can be taught (Parks 2005; McCauley and
Van Velsor 2004). The approach that leaders can be taught contrasts somewhat with the
power and influence. Table 3 outlines the core assumptions of developmentalism as they
Table 4 outlines the core assumptions as they relate to leadership and its
development.
12
The jury is still out on one definitive, universal, ageless model of leadership
development (Bass 1990) so this study is an initial attempt for CCI/LA to put its ear to the
ground to listen to the voices of those currently involved in leading its National Associations
focus zooms in on two aspects: (a) the point of view, perspective or role taking of the
CCI/LA leader currently active in the affairs of their National Association and (b) whether or
Such a brief incursion in the expansive field of leadership only wets the
appetite for further investigation. One may be compelled to read any and everything ever
written on leadership in hopes of finding the Holy Grail, but “the one best way” is a
yearning, not a fact (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 1998, 14). The image portrayed in
the ancient fable (Saxe 1887) of the six blind men groping different parts of the elephant in
an effort to discover what kind of animal it was illustrates the point that this side of heaven
we still see dimly (1 Corinthians 13:12), so one’s search for understanding leadership should
be done with humility and in cooperation with others around the Globe. This study begins
the walk around the proverbial elephant in the hopes of seeing the multiple aspects in need of
improving in CCI/LA’s mission to glorify God by linking the ministry of camping with the
work of the local church and para-church ministries to fulfill to Great Commission; training
leaders in camping.
collectivism. Chapter II also contains a brief foray into literature related to leadership
development including cross-cultural approaches. Chapter III briefly reviews the methodology
used for the three activities realized with the thirty-two subjects studied. Chapter IV analyzes the data
gathered from their questionnaires and prayer cards and Chapter V ends with conclusions regarding
This chapter reviews the literature related to the variables of the study:
(1) Perspective or role-taking: Studies done by Selman (1971a, 1971b, 1976, 2003) and
Flavell (1968, 1969) on the stages of perspective or role-taking will be reviewed as well as
(2) Leaders developing leaders: Research done by the Center for Creative
Leadership (McCauley and Van Velsor 2004) regarding leadership development will be
reviewed together with several other approaches (Lowney 2003; Plueddemann 2008 ).
Mention will be made of the research related to the cross-cultural nature of leadership
development of Hofstede and Hofstede (2005); Derr et al. (2002); of the Globe Study of 62
Societies (House et al. 2004); Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998); and Dimmock and
Walker (2005).
given the limited scope of this study. Their inclusion points to the fact that while no Holy
Flavell (1968) and Selman (1976) have done extensive research in role taking
14
15
stages (Selman, 1971b). The influence of Piaget is apparent in Kohlberg’s (1968) and
thought relative to some aspect of the social domain, for Kohlberg it was on moral judgment
him to strongly emphasize that higher levels of moral thought require the ability to take the
role of another. Stage three and above (i.e. conventional morality) are based in large part on
role taking, or taking the perspective of other people” (Selman, 1971a, 81, 88). Selman’s
study (1971a) supports this general hypothesis by indicating that reciprocal role taking (a
higher stage of role taking) is a necessary condition for the development of conventional
moral thought.
Table 5 contains a summary of Selman’s stages of role taking, Kohlberg’s stages of moral
Table 5: Comparison of the stages of role taking, moral reasoning, and cognitive development
Four Stages of role taking (Selman 1971a, Five-six Stages of moral reasoning Four Stages of cognitive
1971b, 1976, 2003) (Kohlberg 1968) development (Piaget 1936)
There are no parallel stages in social-cognitive or moral reasoning due to the very Stage 1: Sensorimotor (birth to
young age represented. Piaget’s first stage, however, does start at birth. 2 years)
The sensorimotor stage begins at
The ages cited are the approximate age of emergence, they show development levels birth, and lasts until the child is
and not exact time a given level appears. approximately two years old. At
this stage, the child cannot form
mental representations of objects
that are outside his immediate
view, so his intelligence
develops through his motor
interactions with his
environment.
16
Four Stages of role taking (Selman 1971a, Five-six Stages of moral reasoning Four Stages of cognitive
1971b, 1976, 2003) (Kohlberg 1968) development (Piaget 1936)
Stage Zero – Egocentrism Stage One: Preconventional stage Stage Two: Preoperational (2 to
Egocentrism refers, in part, to the young Obedience and punishment orientation: 6/7 years)
child’s (ages two to five years) inability to “Might makes right” The preoperational stage
perform role-taking operations. Role taking Motivation is to avoid physical typically lasts until the child is
as a skill does not really become functional punishment and give in to or defer to six or seven. According to
(accurate) until middle childhood, but power. This stage has an egocentric Piaget, this is the stage where
which shows distinct beginnings as young deference to superior power or prestige, true "thought" emerges.
as ages three or four. However, this early meaning the “child assumes that Preoperational children are able
role taking is rudimentary and inaccurate powerful authorities hand down a fixed to make mental representations
(Selman 1971b, 1722). set of rules which he or she must of unseen objects, but they
One perspective exists—not his or unquestioningly obey. The main cannot use deductive reasoning.
another’s, since he cannot differentiate concern is with what authorities permit
other viewpoints. The child may have a and punish” (Crain 1985, 119). At this age, according to Piaget,
sense of other, but fails to distinguish Stage Two: Preconventional stage children acquire representational
between the thoughts and perceptions of Naively egoistic (hedonistic) skills in the areas mental
other and self (Selman 1971b, 1733). orientation. imagery, and especially
Good is what I want. Bad is what I do not “At this stage children recognize that language. They are very self-
want. (Selman 1976, 313) there is not just one right view that is oriented, and have an egocentric
Motives or intentions are not relevant or handed down by the authorities. view; that is, preoperational
conceived of (Selman 1971a, 82). Different individuals have different chldren can use these
viewpoints” (Crain 1985, 120). representational skills only to
Stage One— Nonreciprocal role-taking Interpersonal reciprocity or instrumental view the world from their own
Emerges at roughly ages six to seven. exchange: “The Egoist” perspective (Dawson and
Person is aware that there are motives and “You do for me, I’ll do for you” or Medler).
intentions of others but cannot project what “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch
they might be (Selman 1971a, 82, 88). yours.”
Person may say: “I cannot read his mind.” Justice is an “eye for an eye,” as
But, this level reasoning is immature in vengeance is considered a moral duty.
that it goes no farther than understanding
that the other’s view is different than one’s
own.
Able to see what he might do for others in
order to win them to his side (Selman
1976, 313).
The differentiation of self’s and other’s
viewpoints is made. You are aware others
may have a different point of view, but it is
not clearly separate from your own
perspective (Selman 1976, 315).
Child’s sense of self is distinguished from
other, but he fails to see any commonality
of thoughts between self and other (Selman
1971b, 1733).
Stage Two— Self reflective role taking Stage Three: Conventional stage, Stage Three: Concrete
“By approximately ages eight to eleven, Good-boy orientation. operations (6/7 to 11/12 years)
most children are capable of articulating a Orientation to approval and to pleasing The concrete operations stage
second reflective level that includes an and helping others, often called the follows, and lasts until the child
understanding both that the self as subject “Tyranny of the They”. is eleven or twelve. Concrete
can look inward in a self-reflective manner Age range: Usually entering into teen operational children are able to
on psychological events (feelings, years, most people end up here with the use deductive reasoning,
thoughts, motives) and that humans acceptance of the rules and standards of demonstrate conservation of
interact on the basis of their capacity for one’s group. number, and can differentiate
realizing the reciprocity of shared “There is a shift from unquestioning their perspective from that of
17
Four Stages of role taking (Selman 1971a, Five-six Stages of moral reasoning Four Stages of cognitive
1971b, 1976, 2003) (Kohlberg 1968) development (Piaget 1936)
Stage Two— Self reflective role taking Stage Three: Conventional stage, Stage Three: Concrete
(cont.) Good-boy orientation (cont.) operations (6/7 to 11/12 years)
(cont.)
knowledge or subjective experiences obedience to a relativistic outlook and to
between persons” (Selman, et. al. 1983, a concern for good motives. They other people.
82). believe that people should live up to the
The actor can attribute a solution to the expectations of the family and As opposed to Preoperational
other by using her own ability to put community and behave in "good" ways. children, children in the concrete
herself in a hypothetical situation. She Good behavior means having good operations stage are able to take
progresses to inferring what the other’s motives and interpersonal feelings such another's point of view and take
view is by imagining what her own would as love, empathy, trust, and concern for into account more than one
be under the other’s circumstances others” (Crain 1985, 122). perspective simultaneously.
(Selman 1971b, 1730). Right is conformity to the stereotypical They can also represent
Child attributes his own ideas to other behavioral, values, expectations of one’s transformations as well as static
because he hypothetically puts himself in society or peer. situations. Although they can
other’s position, but sees other as having understand concrete problems,
interests similar to his own (Selman 1971b, Piaget would argue that they
1733). cannot yet perform on abstract
problems, and that they do not
Flavell (1968) noted a shift between ages consider all of the logically
8-10 toward a progressively less egocentric possible outcomes (Dawson and
view and towards a progressively greater Medler).
ability to use role-taking skills in solving
interactional problems. However, Selman
notes that this stage, although more
integrated and complex than the previous
levels, it is still egocentric in the sense that
the child does not really account for the
particular other’s different perspective—
that is, the child naively assumes other’s
thoughts to be the same as his own would
be if he were in the other’s situation
(Selman 1971b, 1733).
Stage Three— Mutual or reciprocal role Stage Four: Conventional stage, Law Stage Four: Formal operations
taking and order: The Good Citizen (11/12 to adult)
Emerges at roughly ages twelve to Authority and social-order-maintaining Formal operations is the final
fourteen. orientation: “Orientation to doing duty stage. Its most salient feature is
Child is aware that other has perspectives and to showing respect for authority and the ability to think abstractly.
based on her own reasoning which may or maintaining the given social order for its
may not be similar to her own. She can own sake” (Selman 1971a, 80). Children who attain the formal
weigh the perspective of self and of others The person makes a moral decision operation stage are capable of
(Selman 1976, 315). from the broader perspective of the thinking logically and abstractly.
society as a whole. Stage 1 answers may They can also reason
The actor can infer the other’s choice by concur with Stage 4’s, but the reasoning theoretically. Piaget considered
imagining what the other’s point of view behind their answers differs greatly. this the ultimate stage of
is, but he further indicates an awareness Regarding the famous “Heinz” moral development, and stated that
that the other may make his choice on the dilemma, they both say it’s wrong to although the children would still
basis of other factors like personality, steal. “Stage 1 reasons it is wrong have to revise their knowledge
hypothesized trickery, or other because stealing can get a person jailed, base, their way of thinking was
characteristics of the situation himself is whereas, Stage 4 respondents, in contrast, as powerful as it would get.
unaware of. Whereas at Stage 1, the actor have a conception of the function of laws It is now thought that not every
says he is unable to know what the other for society as a whole--a conception which child reaches the formal
will choose, at Stage 3, the actor implies far exceeds the grasp of the younger operation stage.
child” (Crain 1985, 121).
18
Four Stages of role taking (Selman 1971a, Five-six Stages of moral reasoning Four Stages of cognitive
1971b, 1976, 2003) (Kohlberg 1968) development (Piaget 1936)
Stage Three— Mutual or reciprocal role Stage Five: Postconventional or Stage Four: Formal operations
taking (cont.) principled morality stage (11/12 to adult) (cont.)
Social Contract and Individual Rights:
that his hesitation in making an attribution Few reach this stage, most not prior to Developmental psychologists
is not due to a general inability to impute middle age. also debate whether children do
another person’s thoughts and feelings, but At stage 5, people begin to tend to go through the stages in the way
is due rather both to his inaccuracy as a theorize, asking questions like: "What that Piaget postulated. Whether
role taker and to the presence of various makes for a good society?" They step Piaget was correct or not,
unknown influences (Selman 1971b, back from their own society and however, it is safe to say that
1731). consider the rights and values that a this theory of cognitive
society ought to uphold. development has had a
“Reciprocal role taking is the realization Stage 5 respondents basically believe tremendous influence on all
that others are making judgments on the that a good society is best conceived as modern developmental
basis of his own actions and intentions as a social contract into which people psychologists (Dawson and
he is on the basis of his own cognizance of freely enter to work toward the benefit Medler)
others’ intentions and actions” (Selman of all. They recognize that different
1971a, 90). social groups within a society will have
different values, but they believe that all
Development of reciprocal role-taking rational people would agree on two
ability implies an increasingly accurate points. First they would all want certain
perception of what another will do in a basic rights, such as liberty and life, to
given situation, and specifically of how be protected. Second, they would want
one’s own actions will affect the attitude of some democratic procedures for
another toward oneself (Selman 1971a, changing unfair law and for improving
80). society (Crain, 1985).
Stage Four— Third-person and Stage Six: Postconventional stage
generalized other level role taking Conscience or Universal principle
Emerges at roughly ages fifteen to orientation:
eighteen. Stage 6 individuals are rare, like
Mohandas Gandhi, Jesus of Nazareth,
Selman (2003) describes the person as Gautamo Buddha, Martin Luther King,
being able to understand his or her own Jr.
perspective in the context of multiple They define the principles by which
perspectives. agreement will be most just. Only when
Socially the person displays interdependent an individual right is clearly at stake
sharing of vulnerabilities and self- does violating the law seem justified,
identities. Their social perspective is which would form the rationale for civil
intimate, in-depth and societal. disobedience.
However, in his latter years, Kohlberg
deemed this stage more theoretical and
has dropped stage 6 from his scoring
manual (Crain 1985).
constructs.
19
(Mezirow and Associates 1990, 19). Selman’s Stage Two is self-reflective in nature, and
Mezirow and Associates put forward that “by far the most significant learning experiences in
adulthood involve critical self-reflection—reassessing the way we have posed problems and
reassessing our own orientation to perceiving, knowing, believing, feeling, and acting”
(1990, 13). One might suppose that only Stage Two is necessary for transformative learning
to occur within the individual. However, transformative learning also speaks of “meaning
schemes” and “meaning perspectives” which take into account the richness and growth
provoked by interacting with others, which then presupposes adults to be at formal cognitive
definition of critical thinking with the addition of an action component. He insists on the
individual acting on the new perspectives gained in order for transformative learning to
occur. Likewise in the arena of social development, there is an intricate interplay between
social understanding and social behavior (action). Selman quotes Piaget (1978) who pointed
out that “knowledge must occur on the plane of action before a child can fully understand
any social or logical concept on the plane of conscious thought and reflect on it” (Selman
20
1983, 99). Flavell and Wohlwill (1969) argue that concepts are constructed as the child puts
them into practice. The role of acting on new perspectives gained through self and –other
reflections appear to play a pivotal role in learning both for the child and the adult.
apprehend it, action must be taken, either to act in compliance with this new perspective or
react against it. Meek (2003), in her description of knowing uses the term “laying out” as
when you fling yourself out to grasp a frisbee. To really know in Polanyi’s (1966) tacit
model of knowledge, requires tacitly connecting the from (i.e. the broader perspective
acquired) and that to which one attends (i.e. a leadership decision or action).
The study’s hypothesis is that the more developed leaders are in their
to world-centric), the more and better they develop other leaders. The previous and
following Tables should be read with that Selman, et al.’s warning in mind.
It’s one thing to have the theoretical constructs all neatly laid out in a developmental
hierarchical manner but behavior in real life is not as qualitative and distinct as it
appears on paper. It should be remembered that although the use of the theoretical
construct of developmental levels paints a picture of behavior as qualitative and
distinct, this is a theoretical simplification (Selman 1983, 98).
children get what they want at each stage through what he calls negotiation strategies. The
a natural setting were assessed and related to a certain stage of role-taking. How a leader
gets things done—for example, pushing versus demanding versus asking politely, —
understanding. Through listening to what a leader says, one could identify what level of
social understanding or perspective taking they are at. For example, if one heard speech
demonstrating their ability to step back and take a second-person perspective of their own
could infer they were at least at Stage Two (Selman, et. al. 1983, 84, 88).
Table 6 lays out in column one Selman’s research results from studying the
negotiation strategies of children at each stage of role-taking, parallel to that in column two
are Pluedemann’s (2008 in press) stages of individualism and collectivism, and column three
Table 6: Social-cognitive stages (Selman et al. 1983), cross-referenced with the stages of collectivism vs.
individualism and leadership (Plueddemann 2008 in press. Used by permission.)
Levels of negotiation Cultural variables (Stage of How a leader may lead
strategies related to the perspectivism) (individualism vs.
stages of social-cognitive collectivism)
development (role taking)
Negotiation strategies at Ego-centric individualism Ego-centric individualism
Stage Zero—Egocentric
Strategies express the The size of the ripple-circle for a Leaders at this stage assume that the organization
actor’s raw will in a new-born baby is extremely exists for their benefit. While appropriate for an infant,
situation. They do not small. The whole universe is it will always lead to strife when found in adult leaders.
indicate that he or she is tied up in the egocentric, They may claim to be servant leaders, but in fact they
at all reflective about existential here-and-now. Since serve others for their own selfish ends. In John 10 Jesus
what he or she says or God intended for babies to be described bad shepherds as those who abandon the
does. Neither does he or egocentric, one does not blame sheep when the wolf comes because they care nothing
she reflect on the other’s them for being narrowly for the sheep. It seems that many shepherds are not
point of view. individualistic, a perfectly good leaders because they primarily care for
He is unable to see the normal stage of development. themselves. As ego-centric leaders climb the ladder of
perspective of his Immaturity is not a problem for success, they often climb over or dislodge others on the
followers, the only point babies, but will become a serious ladder.
of view that exists is his challenge if individuals
own. He leads to get what experience no personal At this stage, why they may not develop the leadership
is good for him and will development, they may get stuck of others:
not lead unless there is in egocentricism. They do not have time to develop others except if it
personal benefit. behooves them. They can get what they need done by
Followers are meant to do themselves and see no need to delegate, besides, they
things for him, to be nice are convinced they can a better job themselves.
to him, to do as he says
(Selman, 1976, 314).
What are the signs that a leader is developing other leaders? This relates to
the second variable of this study’s hypothesis: Broader perspective leaders develop more or
better leaders. This question serves as a filter for selecting salient points from the
publications chosen by the author. A disclaimer is merited at this point. Given the sheer
volume of books and articles available in electronic form and in printed form on the subject
of leadership and given the narrow scope of this study, only a random sampling of
development that do exist and to inform the author as to what to look for in the data gathered
from CCI/LA’s leaders, Table 7 contains clear signs that will indicate leaders are developing
other leaders.
but it also teaches them to ask different and more relevant questions while stretching and burdening their
hearts for peoples not their own. Leaders noted that such cultural exposure contributed towards their
ministry vision formation, helped them develop personal independence as well as dependence on God and
others, and taught them new ways of thinking and leading” (Information gleaned from 15 ethnographic
interviews of culturally diverse Christian leaders, Smith 1999, 32).
5 The leader prompts their fellow leader to progressively greater degrees of self-awareness, recognizing that
one reaches outward from one’s center, so caring for the “center” (one’s self) is a core aspect of leader
formation. For the Christian, “Christ in us” is our hope of glory. Although filled with sin and deceit, God
chooses to dwell within the unique individual he created. Self-awareness for the Christian holds the
paradox of discovering both the depths of one’s self-deception and the heights of one’s dignity and worth,
as one made in the image of God. The Arbinger Institute (2002) pinpoints the destructive effect of self-
deception and betrayal on the leader’s life. Self-assessment is one of the three cornerstones of the Center
for Creative Leadership’s (2004) approaches to leader development. The 450-year Company of Jesus
(Jesuits—Lowney 2003) started their leadership training with thirty-days of intensive spiritual exercises
designed among other things to foster self-awareness of one’s weakness, strengths, values and worldview.
Two thousand years of church history show the utter necessity of incorporating the spiritual disciplines into
the life of a leader who leads outward from the center (Willard 2006). So, a sure sign that a leader is
enhancing the leadership of another is the prompting the incorporation of spiritual disciplines in their lives.
6 A leader guides another to critically reflect on life’s experiences and grasp the value of that practice.
The underlying assumption is that every experience, good and bad, is a gift from God, brimming with
lessons and significance if one is willing to shift through them like a miner searching for gold.
development and a brief list of signs that would indicate that a leader is developing the
leadership of others.
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Subjects
leaders, representative of eight National Associations in addition to the Central Office. All
the subjects are graduates from at least one or more of the training courses CCI/LA offers.
Twenty of the thirty-two are recognized instructors, graduates of CCI/LA’s Institute for
Forming Instructors. These thirty-two people make up approximately half of the active
leaders in CCI/LA. The remaining twenty to thirty national leaders were unable to attend for
various reasons, like financial constraints, inability to be free from responsibilities both at
work and at home, and for some, lack of interest. Table 8 provides further details of the
thirty-two subjects.
Table 8: Subjects
Total Gender Age ranges Number of years Countries represented
number involved with CCI/LA
16 females 1 - 20-25 years 2 - 0-1 year 8 - Honduras 6 - Costa Rica
16 males 8 - 26-35 years 4 - 2-4 years 5 - Mexico 1 - Peru
32 17 - 36-50 5 - 5-10 years 5 - El Salvador
years
6 - 51+ years 16 - 11-20 years 2 - Guatemala
5 - 21+ years 5 - Panama
leaders gathered for four days. On the second evening of the assembly, the author applied a
27
28
Your specific involvement with your National Your responsibilities with your church:
Association:
The entire group of thirty-two participants gathered in a large room and for
Activity One: A four by six inch card was given to each participant. They
were asked to write out a prayer, to pray for whatever was on their heart and mind; no further
indications were given, even though more instructions were solicited. After all were finished
Activity Two: A two-page legal size paper questionnaire was handed out to
each individual. They were given as much time as they needed to complete the twenty-four
questions. Questions one through thirteen attempt to determine the stage of the subjects
Table 10 indicates the time line for the research activities connected with the
study.
Methodological assumptions
which was to measure the perspective horizons of the leaders currently serving in CCI/LA
Webb et al. (1966) outlines three sources for unobtrusive measures for
nonreactive research: (1) physical traces; (2) archives; (3) direct but unobtrusive
observations. This study employs a type of direct but unobtrusive observations. The
discover insights into the breadth of their perspective and ascertain whether or not they were
possible. These leaders know the author well, some for as long as 10-15 years, many are
close friends. In the Latin American culture the friendship factor might create a dynamic
whereby in their desire to please, they would try to guess what answer is being sought and
The other reason an indirect approach was chosen is due to the difficulty of
answering questions like: How broad are your perspectives? How would one expect a leader
to respond without skewing their very answer as the subject would naturally want to appear
as “broad-minded” as possible? Or, how effective are you at developing leaders? Asking
such direct questions would require far too much explanation to fully understand what
exactly is being inquired, which in turn, would tend to condition their answers as well.
The author read the questionnaires twice. The first reading consisted of
reading each person’s questionnaire from start to finish, taking note of general trends and just
getting a general feel for the data. The second reading entailed taking one questionnaire in
hand and for questions one through thirteen placing a code beside the answer for each
Just like for the first series of questions, the author read the questionnaires
twice. The first reading consisted of reading each person’s questionnaire from start to finish,
taking note of general trends and just getting a general feel for the data. The second reading
entailed taking one questionnaire in hand and for questions fourteen through twenty-four
placing a code beside the answer for each question according the criteria of the number of
actions taken in pro of leadership development. The focus of the criteria is establishing
whether the individual is taking any concrete action towards (a) being discipled or developed
Ethno-
centricism
collectivism
appropriate stage of perspectivism was In-group-
(Family)-centric
collectivism
estimated for each subject along with the Ego-centric
individualism
number of concrete actions they take. If the
1 2 3 4 5
score were to be plotted on the figure used to Key actions taken
illustrate the hypothesis, it would look like Figure 6: Sample score for subject Carlos Baca.
32
It is impossible to sort out all the factors that contribute to leaders developing
leaders, role taking (perspectivism) may well be only one of many contributing factors. In
addition, it is impossible to isolate and test just role taking. Selman et al. (1983) himself used
a combination of methods like reflective one-to-one interview, a real-life activity group, and
related group discussions in their Naturalistic Study of Children’s Social Understanding. The
use of a naturalistic setting to study perspectivism and leadership may yield a more accurate
The use of only one evaluation procedure (the questionnaire) provides only a
leaders. In-depth follow-up interviews would most likely be required to gain a more
whole.
The author is not aware of any statistically reliable assessment tool to test for
Another limitation is the small, non-random sample size, which represents less
than half of the number of leaders active in CCI/LA. Although the sample size would not be
statistically sound, it will provide the author with some descriptive statistics from which
questionnaire can provide for a complex problem like lack of leadership and the limits
Even so, this study represents CCI/LA’s first formal attempt to understand the
leadership challenge it faces; more studies are sure to follow in an ongoing effort to fulfill its
mission to glorify God by linking the ministry of camping with the work of the local church
and para-church ministries to fulfill the Great Commission; teaching leaders in the ministry
of Christian camping.
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS
The analysis of their answers is seen through the grid of the stages of
purpose of this study, the actions that were determined to imply leadership development were
writing to impact others, communicating electronically with others, both reading and loaning
written materials to others, being mentored or “fed” on some consistent basis and specifically
To determine the subject’s final scores, the author had to read between the
lines of the surveys taken, including reading and re-reading even their prayers, searching for
As adults one could safely assume that those surveyed operate at least at Stage
three role-taking, and as Latin Americans they are more collectivistic than individualistic in
34
35
Summary of findings
Table 11: Summary of answers related to subject’s Stage of perspective and number of actions taken
toward developing other leaders
# Name of subject Estimated stage Number of # Name of subject Estimated stage Number of
of Perspectivism Actions of Perspectivism Actions
taken taken (0-5)
Females (0-5) Males
1 Panama Ethno-centric 5 17 Costa Rica World-centric 5
2 Argentina World-centric 5 18 Costa Rica Ethno-centric 4
3 Costa Rica Ethno-centric 3 19 Panama In-group centric 4
4 Costa Rica Ethno-centric 5 20 El Salvador In-group-centric 4
5 El Salvador Ethno-centric 4 21 Honduras In-group-centric 2
6 Honduras In-group-centric 3 22 El Salvador Ethno-centric 4
7 Panama In-group-centric 4 23 Costa Rica In-group-centric 5
8 Panama World-centric 5 24 México In-group-centric 3
9 Honduras Ethno-centric 5 25 Guatemala World-centric 1
10 Honduras In-group-centric 4 26 México In-group-centric 3
11 Honduras In-group-centric 4 27 Peru Ethno-centric 2
12 México In-group-centric 1 28 Mexico Ethno-centric 4
13 El Salvador Ethno-centric 5 29 Costa Rica In-group-centric 1
14 El Salvador World-centric 5 30 Honduras Ethno-centric 4
15 Honduras In-group-centric 3 31 Mexico Ethno-centric 4
16 Honduras In-group-centric 4 32 Panama World-centric 5
The names have been changed to the country to protect their identities.
The findings are interpreted along the following lines: Relationship between
the Stages and leadership development, general trends observed from the reading of all
perspectivism and their development of other leaders. Upon observing the scores, one can
observe those at Stage In-group-centric with scores ranging from one to five regarding their
developing leaders; likewise, those at Stage Ethno-centric with scores ranging from two to
36
five. One leader who serves in his church mission committee has a strong transcultural
perspective but shows very little intentionality to develop leaders through writing,
communicating, loaning written resources, being mentored and specifically targeting leaders
nonetheless very intentional and active in developing the leadership of her children and her
small group.
leaders developed leaders at all Stages of perspectivism, there were also leaders at each Stage
of perspectivism that did not appear to be developing leaders. The findings revealed that
only two subjects mentioned they were forming leaders directly related to CCI/LA.
did intentionally develop others it was usually in relationship to a specific task, like teaching
Sunday School, completing a project at church, planting a new church, programming a camp.
Male/Female ratio: The same amount of males as females were found in the
Age of the CCI/LA present (see Table 8) Most of those present at the CCI/LA
development: There was no apparent relationship between the subject’s formal or informal
responsibility at church or in CCI/LA and their Stage or whether or not they developed
leaders
37
the age of the subject or how many years they had been involved with CCI/LA and their
Reoccurring themes
Role and vision of camping: In regards to what the subjects’ vision for
camping was, most linked the ministry of camping with the work of the local church, in
addition, what the subjects looked for in a church was openness and involvement in a
camping ministry.
Absence of writing for ministry impact: Very few subjects are developing
leadership through writing, but most do read and loan books to others.
Travel linked to CCI/LA: Many of the subject’s travels are directly related to
CCI/LA functions.
Aware of the news and events of their nation: With few exceptions, most of
the subjects are in-tune with the general happenings of their nation, most watch the local
without exception, the subjects had a strong social sense of the problems experienced by
those less advantaged in the area of education, food, calamities, and the energy crisis.
Intended use of financial resources and time: Over a third of the subjects, if
given $50,000 USD would use the money to purchase property to build a camp. A similar
response was found if they did not have to work, a third of them would invest their time in
camp-related activities.
38
Camping is linked to work of the local church: In light of how the subjects
described their vision for camping and what they looked for in a local church, one can infer
several things: (1) the subjects have a strong belief in the role camping plays in the work of
the local church; (2) CCI/LA has done a credible job aligning its leaders with its Mission
which is to glorify God by linking the ministry of camping with the work of the local church
Need for younger leaders to be developed in CCI/LA: The fact that most of
those present at the CCI/LA Leadership Summit were over thirty-five years of age points to
several issues: (1) The most obvious is for there to be a concerted effort for younger leaders
to be developed in general; (2) CCI/LA needs to make a greater effort at getting the younger
leaders that do exist moved up into the leadership of the National Associations; (3) Lastly,
CCI/LA needs to facilitate the attendance of its younger leaders to this type of international
event.
Intended use of financial resources and time for camping: This finding reveals
several things: (1) The urgent need to establish more campsites especially because there are
few in each country but those are always being rented; (2) The general lack of understanding
as to how much it costs to purchase property and build facilities; and (3) The love and
commitment that exists in people’s hearts for this ministry, something that could be drawn
upon in the recruitment process for more full-time workers for CCI/LA, camp programs and
camp sites.
39
Association and another and between the full-time staff and the National Association is
mostly verbal requiring phone calls, verbal exchanges via Skype or personal face-to-face
conversations. Frustration runs high for those who have an expectation for regular
and functions plays a vital role in the development of its leaders, as exposure and interaction
with people from other cultures broadened one’s horizons (Smith 1999).
The purpose of the present exploration was to delineate the possible nature of
this early role-taking development, to clarify the relation of perceptual and conceptual
role taking, and to search for empirical evidence of the existence of qualitative levels
of conceptual role taking that one would expect to find if the same principles of
development as have been posited by Piagetians in the physical domain applied to the
social-cognitive domain (1722).
development. Interpreting the data regarding perspectivism the author has not found there to
be a perfect correlation between higher levels of perspectivism and role-taking and leadership
development.
40
In the same manner that Kohlberg's scale with moral thinking has not always
obtained perfect correlations with moral action, a higher ability of role-taking appears not
lead to a leader developing other leaders. People who may be able to talk at a high moral
level may not behave accordingly. Likewise, a leader may be able to perceive the
perspectives of others but may choose to ignore them out of their own self-interests.
Kohlberg argues that there should be some relationship and as a general hypothesis, he
proposes that moral behavior is more consistent, predictable and responsible at the higher
with a broader perspective tend to develop more leaders. But, the empirical evidence does
not support that hypothesis. From the data one could infer that leaders develop leaders at
each Stage. Figure 7 illustrates how leaders develop like-minded leaders at all stages.
World-Theo
individualist—
collectivism
Ethno-centricism
Perspective
collectivism
In-group-(Family)-
centric collectivism
Ego-centric
individualism
1 2 3 4 5
Leaders being developed
It could be deduced that one tends to form like-minded leaders. So, at the
egocentric stage the leader would tend to form egocentric individualist leaders, leaders at the
in-group (family) –centric stage would form leaders with that level of perspective and so on.
41
revealed that some of the subjects who were intentionally developing the leadership of
another were motivated by a task to complete (one wanted to train someone to serve as a
Sunday School teacher to replace her, several were engaged in running a camp program and
advocate the essential nature a challenge or a compelling task (McCauley, and Van Velsor
2004; for which Lowney uses the term “Heroic ambitions”, Plueddemann 2008). A task that
needs to be completed may drive the development of other leaders. The nature of something
towards critical thinking. McPeck’s posture is that one needs a specific subject matter upon
which to develop critical thinking, he argues for the inseparability of critical thinking from
the subject matter thought about. One could infer the same for leadership development.
What drives leadership development? Having a task that needs to be completed or having a
compelling vision or ambitious goal to complete? Just like McPeck does not believe in the
existence of critical thinking in a vacuum, one may surmise that leadership development
cannot exist in a vacuum either. The task provides the impetus for leadership to surface and
the on-going realization of the task keeps one’s leadership growing, provided there is on-
advocates the existence of critical thinking skills independent of any particular subject
matter. This contrasts with McPeck who asserts that critical thinking is meshed with the
discipline or subject matter. He asks the question what kind of critical thinking is one
42
interested in developing? For whom and for what? (1990, 29). The same questions should be
independent of the task and of who is being led; leadership is a set of skills to be acquired.
Others may see leadership as being totally dependent on the situation at hand or the inherent
traits of the person. What if leadership development is not either-or but a mixture of both?
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
experienced at the National Association level having to do with a lack of direction, of not
being sure of what to do, of not knowing how to delegate, nor even being prepared to
delegate, of lacking a new generation of leaders, of just maintaining the status quo and not
moving forward, of experiencing debilitating relational difficulties among the team of leaders
and not performing up to good standards of leadership. It was noted that these problems are
further complicated by the nature of an association being volunteer-based and thus subject to
fluctuation in the leaders’ availability, desire to participate and ability to manage. Lastly the
namely zealousness for CCI/LA’s way of doing things that hinders establishing strategic
alliances with likeminded ministries, closes the door to experienced camping people with
other equally valid modus operandi, projects a snobbish attitude of being the experts and
lastly has concentrated the majority of CCI/LA’s training efforts on individual church or
A hypothesis was formed that more leaders would be formed if the leaders we
extrapolating the same type of progression in the perspective of an adult. To show the nature
of stage development, Selman’s social-cognitive stages were aligned with both Kohlberg’s
43
44
it relates to leadership development in order to provide a frame of reference for studying the
data gathered from the participants in this study. Literature in the area of leadership was
Chapter III clarifies the manner in which the twenty-four question surveys
were administered to thirty-two leaders currently active in CCI/LA and how the answers
would be scored.
between the subject’s Stages of perspectivism and whether they were developing other
leaders. There did appear to be a certain correlation between the existence of a clearly
defined task and whether or not the subject was intentionally developing leaders.
Conclusions
necessary but not sufficient condition for the leader to develop other leaders.
sufficient condition for the development of conventional moral thought (1971a, 79).
develop other leaders as clearly from the findings, one can infer that leadership development
occurred at all stages independently and even at the higher Stages of perspectivism
leadership development did not always appear to be taking place. So, that begs the question,
what are the conditions that need to be present for leaders to develop leaders? If a broader
45
perspective is but one of the necessary but not sufficient conditions, what are the other
The findings showed that only two subjects mentioned they were forming
leaders directly related to CCI/LA. One could infer that the responsibility to develop other
leaders is not on their “radar screen” so to speak. However, the National Association leaders
themselves expressed disappointment at the lack of new leadership (quotes from both
Guatemalans and Salvadorans on page one). Perhaps CCI/LA has the underlying assumption
that some of the graduates from their counselor and program director courses will eventually
become instructors (trainers) who in turn will become National Association leaders.
Moreover, CCI/LA seems to assume these training instructors will naturally know what they
have to do to lead the National Associations, which is a false deduction as noted by the
comment made by the Panamanian (on page one) who said that the trainers knew how to give
a course but there was little direction regarding how to lead a National Association.
CCI/LA has no explicit, consolidated process that teaches their leaders what is
expected of them in leading a National Association, other than the Association’s Board of
Director’s policy manual and an internal procedures handbook, which should not be mistaken
for a leadership development manual or process. CCI/LA has no critical path laid out, nor
National Association leader is the kiss of death to active ministry (Plueddemann 2003) so
they prefer being on the “front-lines” of ministry. But, the type of leader CCI/LA
desperately needs is one who has the spiritual gift of harmonizing, enhancing and focusing
the spiritual gifts of others toward a common vision of the Kingdom of God.
46
Recommendations
Discussion points for the next Board of Directors meeting (Oct. 15-19, 2008)
level. Although the CCI/LA Board of Directors consists of representatives from each
country where there is a CCI/LA National Association, they will have to take their “National
Association leader” hat off and put on their “Regional Latin America Association” hat as
since the Board needs to grapple with the situation from the point of view from their country
Second, they need to name it and to define the problem in their own words.
Thirdly, they must personalize the problem, sharing how their country is
As fodder for this Board discussion, the author perceives there to be a problem
with the leadership of the National Associations. Something is not working properly in spite
of the fact that over the last decade and a half hundred’s of thousand campers were impacted
for Christ at camps being directed by counselors and program directors trained and
influenced by CCI/LA. But CCI/LA should not be blinded by its own success.
47
fulfilled, in a slow but sure manner the ministry of camping is being linked to the work of the
local church and para-church to fulfill the Great Commission; leaders are being trained
consistently in ten or more countries due to the training materials published by CCI/LA.
The goal, the mission of CCI/LA is not to prepare the leadership of the
National Association leadership. It is a means. That does not make National Association
leadership irrelevant. The National Associations provide the structure to sustain the ministry
and not the other way around. So the fact that something is not working at the level of
National leadership in spite of yearly pastoral visits from the executive director and other
staff members, annual Board meetings and a Leadership Summit events every three to four
years makes patently obvious that just following the status quo is not a feasible alternative.
Operating just like CCI/LA has always operated will only further obscure the problem and
will lengthen the time needed to improve. Handy (1994) suggests that the need to make
changes is before an organization reaches its peak, at point A on the Sigmund curve (see
Figure 8). Whether or not CCI/LA is past or before its peak does not matter as much as the
Along the lines of more fodder for thought for the upcoming annual Board
meeting is the need to ask if an explicit curriculum needs to be created for training National
Association leadership? Does CCI/LA need a leadership development model for its National
Association leaders? CCI/LA possesses an explicit model of pedagogical training for the
formation of camp counselors, program directors and instructors, but it does not possess an
explicit model of leadership development for the level of its National Associations.
leaders (volunteer)? Are there alternatives like raising funds to hire full-time staff or
recruiting missionary staff that would report to the Central office but live and serve in the
countries where CCI/LA operates? Is there another structure that can be created to
accomplish the same objective of harmonizing the work of CCI/LA, like volunteer national
What does CCI/LA want that leader for? What will be their ultimate purpose
integrates theology and philosophy, theory and practice, culture and the Bible, goals and
methods.
49
Stand on the shoulders of others who are further down the road. Investigate
other regional associations around the world of CCI to discover how they are leading their
National Associations with volunteers. Include in the list to study other similar organizations
dimension of Latin America can be maximized for developing teams of leaders in each of
Arbinger Institute. 2002. Leadership and Self Deception: Getting Out of the Box. San
Francisco, Calif.: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Bass, Bernard M. 1990. Bass & Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory, research &
managerial applications. 3d ed. New York: The Free Press.
Chin, Clive S. 2006. Biblical and theologicial reflections on the Chinese paradigm of
Christian leadership. TMs (photocopy). Collection of research papers of James
Plueddemann, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Il.
Collins, Jim. 2001. From good to great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap... and Others
Don't. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Crain, W.C. 1985. Theories of Development. Upper Saddle River, New York: Prentice-Hall.
Bentley, Joseph C. New wine in old bottles: The challenge of developing leaders in Latin
America. In Cross-cultural approaches to leadership development, eds. Brooklyn
Derr, , Sylvie Roussillon, and Frank Bournois, 28-50. Westport, Conn.: Quorum
Books
50
51
Derr, Brooklyn, Roussillon, Sylvie and Bournois, Frank, eds. 2002. Cross-cultural
approaches to leadership development. Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books.
Dimmock, Clive and Walker, Allan. 2005. Educational leadership: Culture and diversity.
Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications
Eisner, Elliot W. 1994. The educational imagination: On design and evaluation of school
programs. 3d ed. New York: Macmillan.
Elmer, Duane H. 1993. Cross-cultural conflict: Building relationships for effective ministry.
Downer’s Grove, Il.: InterVarsity Press.
Flavell, John H., et al. 1968. The development of role-taking and communication skills in
children. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Flavell, John H. and Wohlwill, Joachim F. 1969. Formal and functional aspects of cognitive
development. In David Elkind and John H. Flavell (Eds.), Studies in cognitive
development: Essays in honor of Jean Piaget. New York: Oxford University Press.
Friedman, Thomas L. 2005. The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century.
New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Handy, Charles. 1994. The Age of Paradox. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Hiebert, Paul G. 1985. Anthropological insights for missionaries. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Baker Books.
Hofstede, Geert and Hofstede, Gert Jan. 2005. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the
Mind. 2d ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
House, Robert J. et al. eds. 2004. Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study
of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
52
Katzenbach, Jon R. and Smith, Douglas K. 2003. Wisdom of teams: Creating the high-
performance team. New York: McKinsey and Company. Original edition, Boston,
Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 1993.
Kohlberg, Lawrence. 1968. The development of children’s orientation toward a moral order,
I: Sequence in the development of moral thought. Vita Humana, 6:11-33
Lowney, Chris. 2003. Heroic Leadership: Best Practices from a 450-Year-Old Company
That Changed the World. Chicago: Loyola Press.
McCauley, Cynthia D., Van Velsor, Ellen, eds. 2004. The Center for Creative Leadership
handbook of leadership development. 2d ed. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.
McPeck, John E. Teaching critical thinking:Dialogue and dialectic. New York: Routledge,
Chapman and Hall.
Meek, Esther Lightcap. 2003. Longing to Know: The Philosophy of Knowledge for
Ordinary People. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brazos Press.
Mezirow, Jack and Associates. 1990. Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to
transformative and emancipatory learning. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.
Moran, Robert T., Harris, Philip R and Moran, Sarah V. Managing Cultural Differences:
Global Leadership Strategies for the Twenty-First Century. 7th ed. New York:
Elsevier.
Parks, Sharon Daloz. 2005. Leadership can be taught: A bold approach for a complex world.
Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Paul, Richard. 1990. Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly
changing world. Rohnert Park, Calif.: Center for Critical Thinking and Moral
Critique, Sonoma State University.
Piaget, Jean. 1936. Human Intelligence. Summary of his stages of intellectual development.
Accessed 11 June 2008. Available from http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/piaget.shtml;
Internet.
Piaget, Jean. 1978. Success and understanding. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Polanyi, Michael. 1966. The Tacit Dimension. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co.
Plueddemann, James E. 2003. What I’m still learning about leadership. SIM Intercom,
February 11, 2003: 1.
53
Plueddemann, James E. 2003. The quandary of missionary leadership. World Pulse, May 1,
2003.
Plueddemann, James E. 2008. Leadership in the global church. Downer’s Grove, Ill.:
Intervarsity Press (in press.)
Saxe, John Godfrey. 1887. Six blind men and the elephant, an ancient fable from India.
http://harind.com/blindmenandelephantjgsaxe.htm in public domain). In Leadership
in the global church. James E. Plueddemann. (in press). Downer’s Grove, Ill.:
Intervarsity Press.
Selman, Robert L. 1971a. The relation of role taking to the development of moral judgment
in children. Child Development, 42: 79-91.
Selman, Robert L., and Lieberman Marcus. 1975. Moral education in the primary grades: An
evaluation of a developmental curriculum. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67,
no. 5: 712-716.
Selman, Robert L., Schorin, Mira Zamansky, Stone, Carolyn R., Phelps, Erin. 1983. A
naturalistic study of children’s social understanding. Developmental Psychology, 19,
no. 1: 82-102.
Selman, Robert L. 2003. The promotion of social awareness: Powerful lessons from the
partnership of developmental theory and classroom practice. New York: Russell
Sage Foundation.
Smith, Tracey K. 1999. Global voices of Christian leadership: A qualitative study of the
leadership process across cultures. Master’s thesis, Wheaton College Graduate
School.
Soza, Lionel. 1998. The American dream: How Latin Americans can triumph in the United
States. New York: Plume.
Sorti, Craig. 1999. Figuring foreigners out: A practical guide. Boston, Mass.: Intercultural
Press.
54
Ward, Ted W. 1996. Servants, Leaders, and Tyrants. In With an eye on the future:
Development and mission in the 21st century, eds. Duane Elmer and Lois McKinney,
28-29. Monrovia, Calif.: MARC.
Webb, Eugene J., Campbell, Donald T., Schwartz, Richard D., Sechrest, Lee. 1966.
Unobtrusive measures: Nonreactive research in the social sciences. Chicago, Ill.:
Rand McNally & Company.
Willard, Dallas. 2006. The Great omission: Reclaiming Jesus’ essential teachings on
discipleship. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.