1284 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO.
4, APRIL 2006
Radio-Propagation Model Based on the Combined
Method of Ray Tracing and Diffraction
Xiaoyang Huang, Student Member, IEEE, Bingquan Chen, Hong-Liang Cui, Member, IEEE, Jakob J. Stamnes,
Robert Pastore, Mark Farwell, Wilbur Chin, and Jennifer Ross
Abstract—In this paper, we consider UHF radio wave propa-
gation in vegetated residential environments. The attenuating ef-
fects of trees as well as those due to diffraction over the build-
ings are investigated. A new radio wave propagation prediction
model based on the combined method of ray tracing and diffrac-
tion (CMRTD) is proposed. A row of trees is modeled as a two-di-
mensional (2-D) cylinder. It is then represented by an equivalent
phase object (EPO); a row of buildings is replaced by an absorbing
screen. The position and size of the EPO as well as the ampli-
tude and phase distributions of the input field at the EPO are de-
termined by ray tracing. Next the scattered field is computed by
the Kirchhoff diffraction theory. Among the numerical results are
those of the scattering from a row of trees with circular or elliptic
canopies and the scattering from a row of trees/buildings configu-
ration. The calculations treat both plane- and cylindrical-incident
waves. By comparing the results with those obtained from the exact
eigenfunction expansion method, we show that the CMRTD is an
accurate and efficient method to calculate the scattering from a 2-D
cylinder. Moreover, the range of the validity of using the CMRTD
to model the scattering from one row of trees is determined.
Index Terms—Diffraction, ray tracing, elliptic cylinder, radio
wave propagation, scattering.
I. INTRODUCTION
I N RADIO communication systems, the environments in the
propagation path have a significant impact on the quality of the
transmitted signal. In metropolitan areas, buildings are the main
source of attenuation. In urban and suburban environments, trees
in the radio path can also have scattering and absorption effects on
the radio signal. It is these attenuations from trees and buildings
that need to be accounted for in order to improve the accuracy of
the planning of radio communication systems.
Modeling attenuation due to trees has been widely studied. In
general, there are three kinds of models: empirical, semi-empir-
ical, and theoretical models. After reviewing several exponential
decay models (EXD), Weissberger developed a modified expo-
nential model (MED) [1] that is applicable to cases in which
the ray path is blocked by dense, dry, in-leaf trees found in tem-
perate climates in the 230 MHz to 95 GHz band. Another em-
pirical model was recommended by the International Telecom-
munications Union of Radio sector (ITU-R) [2]. It can be ap-
plied to evaluate excess loss for different path geometries and
Manuscript received September 9, 2004; revised December 2, 2005.
X. Huang, B. Chen, and H.-L. Cui are with the Department of Physics and En-
gineering Physics, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA.
J. J. Stamnes is with the Department of Physics and Technology, University
of Bergen, N-5007 Bergen, Norway.
R. Pastore, M. Farwell, W. Chin, and J. Ross are with the U.S. Army
RDECOM-CERDEC, Fort Monmouth, NJ 07703 USA.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TAP.2006.872593
0018-926X/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
different types of vegetation between 30 MHz and 60 GHz. A
semi-empirical model (dual gradient model) was presented for
the millimeter spectrum [3]. Considering measurement geome-
tries, this model gives better fit to measured data than purely
empirical models. Attenuation through the canopies of single
trees was found to be between 10 to 20 dB for measurements
conducted at 869 MHz for low elevation angles [4]. Measure-
ments conducted by Cavdar [5] showed that the average value
of the tree attenuations was 8.6 dB at UHF band, with the av-
erage specific attenuation dB/m. The empirical
and semi-empirical models are simple and easy to use. How-
ever, they are only applicable to specific measured data sets and
fail to reveal the underlying physical mechanisms affecting the
propagation.
By contrast, theoretical models are based on various mech-
anisms of radio wave propagation through vegetation. They
can be classified into three categories. The first is known as the
radiative transfer model, based on the radiative energy transfer
theory [6]. Ulaby et al. developed such a model [7] for radar
backscattering. To overcome the shortcomings of the traditional
EXD and the MED models, a radiative transfer model was
presented to predict the attenuation effects by the trees [8].
Subsequently the results were compared with measurements
[9]. The second category is based on physical optics. Torrico,
Bertoni, and Lang (TBL) developed a theoretical model to
compute the effects of trees as well as of buildings on the propa-
gation loss in residential areas [10], [11]. Each row of buildings
was represented by an absorbing screen and each row of trees
planted in front of the buildings by a partially absorbing phase
screen. Physical optics was then used to evaluate the diffracting
field at the receiver by using a multiple Kirchhoff–Huygens
integration for each absorbing/phase half-screen combination.
Based on the Fresnel–Kirchhoff theory, this method is free
of shadow boundary problems. An iterative formula was used
to deal with a single tree/building as well as many rows of
trees/buildings. The third is based on the geometrical/uniform
theory of diffraction. Examples of models in this category are
referred to [12], [13]. The effects of buildings on the prop-
agation have been investigated [14], [15]. A comprehensive
description of propagation in the presence of buildings can
be found in [16].
In this paper the attenuation effects of a row of trees with
circular or elliptic canopies are investigated based on the com-
bined method of ray tracing and diffraction (CMRTD). CMRTD
was first used to compute the scattered field in focal regions of
optical systems [17]. It was later extended to compute the field
scattered by objects of simple as well as nonsimple shapes [18].
HUANG et al.: RADIO-PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON CMRTD 1285

first diffraction integral formula is used to obtain the scattered

field. Thus, the field scattered from the 2-D elliptic cylinder can
be expressed as ([18, (2.29)])

(1)

where is the size of the EPO, and are the ampli-

n >
Fig. 1. Geometry of a plane wave scattered from a 2-D elliptic cylinder (
n ).
Recently, CMRTD was employed to model the scattering from
a row of trees with circular canopies planted in front of a row of
buildings [19].
The formulation based on the CMRTD for scattering from
a two-dimensional (2-D) circular cylinder was completed in
[18], while the formulation based on the CMRTD for scattering
from a 2-D elliptic cylinder will be completed in this study.
There have been many works dealing with scattering by elliptic
cylinders. One method used was to separate the wave equation
in elliptic cylindrical coordinates and to express the waves in
the form of eigenfunction expansions in terms of Mathieu and
modified Mathieu functions [20]–[23]. Boundary conditions
were employed to find the unknown coefficients of the scattered
and transmitted waves. Due to the complexity of the computation
of eigenfunction expansion in terms of Mathieu functions, it is
necessary to find approximate techniques to simplify and speed
up the computation while maintaining the required degree of
accuracy, which is one of the salient features of the present
work.
II. MODELING PROPAGATION THROUGH TREES WITH ELLIPTIC
CANOPIES
tude and the phase of the incident field at the EPO, respectively.
is the impulse response. Consider a unit-ampli-
tude plane wave at normal incidence, the scattered field becomes
(2)
with being the wavelength in the surrounding medium,
representing the wavenumber in the surrounding
medium, denoting the position of the EPO, and
being the distance between an inte-
grating point on the EPO and an observation point. The integral
can be computed accurately and efficiently by the Stamnes–Sp-
jelkavik–Pedersen method [17], [24].
The parameters of the EPO are next to be determined by ray
tracing. The size of the EPO, in this case, is the length of the line
. Note that the length of is shorter than because
total internal reflection occurs near both the top and the bottom
of the cylinder. Therefore, unlike the case of scattering from the
2-D circular cylinder, an iterative algorithm is used to determine
the size of the EPO.
It can be readily shown that the position of the EPO, , can
be written as

In CMRTD, an equivalent phase object (EPO), a planar (3)

obstacle, is introduced to replace a 2-D circular/elliptic cylinder
so that the scattering from the cylinder reduces to that from
where and are the coordinates of points and , and
the EPO. The scattered field is then calculated by the Kirch-
and are the coordinates of points and , as illustrated
hoff diffraction theory. In this section, the formulation of
in Fig. 1. is the slope of line .
the CMRTD to compute the field scattered by a 2-D elliptic
To determine the amplitude , we consider an incident ray
cylinder is derived and then applied to the modeling of the
which intersects the cylinder at the height . It
radio wave propagation in the presence of a row of trees with
can be readily shown that the refracted ray intersects the
elliptic canopies.
EPO at point at the height
A. Plane-Wave Incidence
(4)
Consider a plane wave normally incident upon a 2-D elliptic
cylinder. The geometry of the problem is illustrated in Fig. 1. where is the ray refracted into the cylinder, is the angle
Let the -axis be along the ellipse’s semi-major axis , and of incidence at point , and is the angle of refraction at point
-axis along its semi-minor axis . The refractive index of the . The ray refracted out of the cylinder makes an angle with
cylinder is assumed to be a complex number, corresponding the axis.
to the lossy materials. The refractive index of the surrounding The amplitude has the form ([18, (3.12)])
medium is .
In accordance with the CMRTD, the 2-D elliptic cylinder is (5)
first replaced by an EPO which is located at the plane , as
shown in Fig. 1. The position, size of the EPO as well as the am- where is the absorption coefficient, is the length of ray
plitude and phase distributions of the incident field at the EPO (see [18, (3.15)]) is the geometrical spreading
are determined by ray tracing. Next, the Rayleigh–Sommerfeld factor and is the transmission factor,
1286 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO. 4, APRIL 2006

Fig. 2. Geometry of a cylindrical wave scattered from a 2-D elliptic cylinder

(n > n ). Fig. 3. Geometry of a row of trees with circular canopies located in front of a
row of buildings.

with and denoting the Fresnel transmission

coefficients at points and .
Next we shall decide the phase of the input field at the
EPO. As shown in Fig. 1, it is given by

(6)

where is the wavenumber in vacuum, and

(7a)
Fig. 4. Diagram of a row of trees with circular canopies located in front of a
(7b) row of buildings.

(7c)
with

B. Cylindrical-Wave Incidence (12a)

As shown in Fig. 2, a line source at an arbitrary location (12b)
generates a diverging cylindrical wave which is in-
(12c)
cident upon a 2-D elliptic cylinder. The semi-major and semi-
minor axes of the cylinder are and , respectively. (12d)
The field scattered from the 2-D elliptic cylinder has the form
([18, (2.35)]) As depicted in this section, the scattered fields for both plane-
and cylindrical-incident waves can be calculated by (2) and (8),
respectively.

(8)
III. MODELING PROPAGATION THROUGH TREES AND
BUILDINGS
The size of the EPO is again determined by an iterative algo-
In this section, we will discuss the combined attenuation ef-
rithm. We can readily show that the position of EPO, , is given
fects of a row of trees/buildings, as shown in Fig. 3. In the figure,
by
the single tree represents a row of trees and the single building
denotes a row of buildings with uniform height . The planes
(9) of these rows are perpendicular to the paper and the incident
wave is from the left.
where is the ray incident upon the circumcircle of the The transmission loss through a building (i.e., into and out
cylinder at point . is the slope of ray , and of a building) is 18.7 dB at 900 MHz and higher at higher fre-
is the slope of the refracted ray . quencies [25]. For simplicity, a row of buildings is replaced by
In this case, the amplitude can also be calculated after (5), a perfect absorbing screen located at the plane , as shown
with given by in Fig. 4. Note that the penetration through the buildings needs
to be included at lower frequencies because of the smaller atten-
(10) uation. If the threshold of received power is set to be 20% of the
input power ( dB in path loss), then the penetration through
Furthermore, the phase of the incident field at the EPO is the buildings should be considered at or below 300 MHz for a
row of buildings with dielectric constant and
(11) width 2.5 m [25].
HUANG et al.: RADIO-PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON CMRTD
For a single building, it is clear that diffractions at the rooftop
and the edges of the buildings should both be taken into account.
However for a row of buildings whose length is much longer
than the width, the diffraction at the edges of buildings can be
neglected. Therefore we will restrict our attention to propaga-
tion over buildings. The total field in the half-space is
given by the Rayleigh–Sommerfeld first diffraction integral
(13)
where is the total field incident upon the buildings
located at plane , and is given by
(14)
Here, is the incident field at the top of the buildings.
is the scattered field propagating onto the top of the
buildings; it can be computed by (1). Substituting (14) into (13),
we have
(15)
where
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
The scattering from a row of trees/buildings is addressed in
this section. The combined attenuation effects of a row of
trees/buildings can be evaluated by (15).
IV. NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS
The power distributions of the scattered and total fields be-
hind a row of trees with circular or elliptic canopies are given
for both plane- and cylindrical-incident waves. In addition, the
range of the validity of using CMRTD to model the scattering
from a row of trees is determined by comparing the results with
those of two empirical models and the TBL method [10].
A. A Row of Trees With Circular Canopies
1) Plane-Wave Incidence: The power of the total field
behind a row of trees with circular canopies is plotted in
Fig. 5. When the receiver is placed in the shadow region of tree
1287
Fig. 5. Power of the total field behind a row of trees with circular canopies
for a 900-MHz incident plane wave. The tree canopy has a radius of 4 m, and
the distance from the observation point to the center of the canopy is 50 m. The
refractive index of the tree canopy is n  1:014, and the absorption coefficient
is   0:103 nep/m at 900 MHz [16].
Fig. 6. Comparison of the field scattered from a 2-D circular cylinder for
a 900-MHz incident plane wave. The radius of the cylinder is 4 m, and the
observation point is 50 m from the center of the canopy. In the figure, the curve
with solid line denotes the result of the CMRTD; the curve with  character
corresponds to the result of the exact eigenfunction expansion method; the curve
with dotted line represents the result of the TBL.
canopies, the received power is small because of the scattering
and absorption from the trees, as shown in Fig. 5.
To verify the use of the CMRTD to compute the scattering
from a 2-D circular cylinder, the scattered field obtained by the
CMRTD is compared with those obtained by the exact eigen-
function expansion method and the TBL method. Note that the
result of the TBL method is obtained from [10, (15)]. As illus-
trated in Fig. 6, the CMRTD agrees with the exact eigenfunction
expansion method in the forward-scattering direction but less
accurate for the side lobes. Also note that the CMRTD does not
agree with TBL. This may be due to the different descriptions
of a row of trees. TBL regards a row of trees as a partially ab-
sorbing phase screen which describes the phase shift and attenu-
ation from the trees with an exponential factor [16]. In contrast,
CMRTD describes a row of trees by an EPO which accounts for
not only the phase shift and attenuation but also the variation in
amplitude of the incident field traveling through a row of trees.
1288 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO. 4, APRIL 2006
Fig. 7. Power of the total field behind a row of trees with circular canopies for
a 900-MHz incident cylindrical wave. The tree canopy has a radius of 4 m, and
the distance between the observation point and the center of the canopy is 50
m. The refractive index n  1:014, and the absorption coefficient   0:103
nep/m at 900 MHz.
Also, instead of using a complex exponential factor as in TBL,
CMRTD employs ray tracing to determine the phase shift and
change in amplitude of the incident field.
2) Cylindrical-Wave Incidence: Suppose a line source at
generates a diverging cylindrical
wave with horizontal polarization. The power of the total field
behind a row of trees with circular canopies is shown in Fig. 7,
which is similar to Fig. 5, showing that scattering and attenua-
tion are significant in the shadow region of tree canopies.
B. A Row of Trees With Circular Canopies in Front of a Row
of Buildings
1) Plane-Wave Incidence: Consider a unit-amplitude
plane wave with horizontal polarization incident upon the
tree/building configuration, as illustrated in Fig. 3. The received
signal power calculated by the CMRTD method is compared
with that of the TBL ([10, (15)]) in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 indicates that for the case of no trees in the propagation
path, the results denoted by “no tree-CMRTD” and “no tree-
TBL” are in good agreement. However when a row of trees is
planted in front of a row of buildings, the curves are different.
As shown in Section IV-A.1, this is mainly due to the different
treatments of the attenuating effects of a row of trees in two
methods. CMRTD uses an EPO to replace a row of trees and
TBL uses a partially absorbing screen to represent a row of trees.
In addition, In CMRTD, ray tracing technique is employed to
determine the phase shift, attenuation and variance in amplitude
of the incident field at the EPO; In TBL, a complex exponential
phase factor is used to depict the phase shift and attenuation of
the incident field at the screen.
2) Cylindrical-Wave Incidence: The propagation through a
row of trees/buildings for a cylindrical-incident wave is also
considered and the numerical result is plotted in Fig. 9. Similar
to the results given in Section IV-B.1, there is an interference
pattern in the shadow region of the tree/building configuration.
Fig. 8. Comparison of the power calculated by the CMRTD and the TBL
behind a row of buildings with/without trees for a 900-MHz incident plane wave.
The radius of the tree canopy is 4 m, the height of the building is 8 m, and the
distance between the building and the observation plane is 20 m.
Fig. 9. Power behind a row of buildings with/without trees for a 900-MHz
incident cylindrical wave. The radius of the tree canopy is 4 m, the height of the
building is 8 m, the distance from the building to the receiver is 20 m, and the
0
line source is located at S (x = 0; z = 100 m).
C. A Row of Trees With Elliptic Canopies
1) Plane-Wave Incidence: First consider a plane wave of
unit amplitude with horizontal (or vertical) polarization nor-
mally incident upon a row of trees with elliptic canopies. The
dependence of the total field behind the trees on the height of
receiver is plotted in Fig. 10. The parameters of the cylinder
shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are listed in Table I. Note that the sur-
rounding medium is air . The calculation of refrac-
tive index and the absorption coefficient of the trees are given
in [16]. Fig. 10 shows that the total field behind a row of trees
with elliptic canopies consists of two parts: the scattered and
the incident field. In the shadow region of the tree canopies, the
scattered field dominates. However when the observation point
is highly above the top of the trees, the scattered field is small
compared to the incident field. The observed oscillations above
the treetops are due to the interference between the incident and
scattered fields.
HUANG et al.: RADIO-PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON CMRTD
Fig. 10. Power of the total field behind a row of trees with elliptic canopies
for a 1.8-GHz incident plane wave.
TABLE I
PARAMETERS FOR A ROW OF TREES WITH ELLIPTIC CANOPIES
TABLE II
AVERAGE POWER BEHIND A ROW OF TREES
To determine the effect of polarization on the transmitted
signal, the power distributions of the total field behind a row
of trees with elliptic or circular canopies are calculated for a
unit-amplitude plane-incident wave. The average power distri-
butions computed along the height of the receiver for both the
horizontal and vertical polarizations are listed in Table II. The
observation plane is 50 m from the center of a row of trees with
elliptic canopies. From Table II, we can see that the average
power is smaller for the vertical polarization than the horizontal
polarization for both the circular and elliptic tree canopies, im-
plying that the tree attenuation is greater for vertical polarization
than for horizontal polarization. In addition it can be seen from
Table II that the received power tends to decrease with the in-
crease of the frequency, indicating that the attenuation increases
with the frequency. Table II also shows that the elliptic shape
of the canopy has a smaller attenuating effect than the circular
shape, this may be because that the refracted rays travel shorter
paths through the elliptic tree canopies than through the circular
ones. In general, the difference in attenuation between the two
polarization states decreases with increasing frequency for both
the elliptic and circular canopies.
1289
Fig. 11. Scattering from a row of trees with elliptic canopies for a 900-MHz
incident plane wave.
Fig. 12. Scattering from a row of trees with elliptic canopies for a 1.8-GHz
incident plane wave.
Next, in order to determine the range of the validity of the use
of the CMRTD to model the scattering from a row of trees, the
computed path losses are compared with those obtained from
the TBL method and two empirical models (ITU and MED),
as plotted in Figs. 11 and 12. Note that the specific attenuation
coefficients for computing the path loss by the use of the TBL
are obtained from [16].
It can be seen from Fig. 11 that CMRTD gives the largest
estimate of path loss, compared with other methods. Figs. 11
and 12 also show the results predicted by CMRTD overestimate
the path loss less than about 4.5 dB compared with the MED
model. One possible reason for this is that the MED model treats
the differential attenuation , in dB/meter, as a constant at short
tree depths (between 0 and 14 m) while some measurements [1]
show that increases slightly with the depths of trees at short
tree depths.
2) Cylindrical-Wave Incidence: For a line source at
, the computed power distributions of the
scattered and the total fields are given in Figs. 13 and 14. It can
be seen that the scattering is stronger for vertical polarization
than for horizontal polarization, showing a similar result to that
in Section IV-C.1.
1290 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 54, NO. 4, APRIL 2006
Fig. 13. Power of the scattered field behind a row of trees with elliptic canopies
for a 900-MHz incident cylindrical wave.
Fig. 14. Power of the total field behind a row of trees with elliptic canopies
for a 1.8-GHz incident cylindrical wave.
V. CONCLUSION
A new radio-propagation model has been presented to predict
the path loss in the residential environments in which there are
rowsoftreesplantednexttothebuildings.Theresultsshowthatthe
attenuation effects of the trees are dependent upon many factors,
such as the material of the trees, the shape of the tree canopy, and
the frequency. In addition theattenuation due to the trees increases
with frequency and is stronger for vertically polarized signals
than for horizontally polarized signals. The validity of the model
has been determined by comparing with empirical and theoretical
models. The model will be extended to investigate the attenuation
effects of multiple rows of trees/buildings and 3-D cases.
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Propag., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 1–11, Jan. 2002.
Xiaoyang Huang (S’03) received the B.E. degree in
computer engineering from Xi’an Institute of Tech-
nology, Xi’an, China, in 1994, the M.S. degree in
physics from Sichuan University, Sichuan, China, in
1997, and the Ph.D. in physics from Stevens Institute
of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, in 2005.
Since June 2005, she has been a Postdoctoral
Fellow in the Department of Physics and Engi-
neering Physics at Stevens Institute of Technology.
Her current research includes the modeling of radio
wave propagation, ultrawide-band communications,
theory of diffraction and scattering, computational electrodynamics, and
parallel programming.
HUANG et al.: RADIO-PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON CMRTD
Bingquan Chen received the Ph.D. degree in optics
from the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, in
1996.
From January 1997 to September 1999, he worked
as Postdoctoral Fellow at the Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska. Since October 1999, he has
been a Research Professor in the Department of
Physics and Engineering Physics, Stevens Institute
of Technology, Hoboken, NJ. His current research
interests include modeling and simulation of ra-
diowave propagation for wireless communication
systems; biomedical optics, optical imaging techniques in random media as
well as its applications in medical diagnoses; fiber optical sensors for nonde-
structive monitoring, imaging, testing and evaluation; diffraction theory and
diffraction tomography; ocean optics, atmospheric optics, radiation transport
in planetary media including the coupled atmosphere-snow/ice-ocean system,
optical/satellite remote sensing.
Hong-Liang Cui (M’93) received the B.E. degree
in applied physics from Changchun Institute of
Optics and Fine Mechanics, Changchun, China, in
1982 and the Ph.D. degree in theoretical condensed
matter physics from Stevens Institute of Technology,
Hoboken, NJ, in 1987.
Since 1987, he has been on the faculty at Stevens
Institute of Technology where he is currently a Pro-
fessor of physics and directs the Applied Electronics
Laboratory. His research efforts are concentrated in
the areas of solid-state electronics/nanoelectronics,
optical communications and sensing, electromagnetic wave propagation and
interaction with matters such as bio-agents, and high-performance computing
approach to modeling of physical devices and phenomena. He has published
more than 150 research papers in peer-reviewed scientific journals, holds five
U.S. patents, and has guided 20 Ph.D. dissertations to completion.
Prof. Cui is a member of the American Physical Society, Optical Society of
America, and Sigma Xi.
1291
Jakob J. Stamnes received the M.Sc. degree in
applied physics from the Norwegian Technical Uni-
versity, Trondheim, Norway, in 1969 and the Ph.D.
degree in optics from the University of Rochester,
Rochester, NY, in 1975.
He is a Professor of physics in the Department
of Physics and Technology at the University of
Bergen, Bergen, Norway. He has published a total of
more than 120 papers, mostly on wave propagation,
diffraction, and scattering, but recently on remote
sensing of the atmosphere and ocean as well as of
biological tissue. He is the author of Waves in Focal Regions (London, U.K.:
Adam Hilger, 1986) and Editor of the SPIE Milestone Series on Electromag-
netic Fields in the Focal Region (SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham,
WA: 2001).
He is a fellow of the Optical Society of America (OSA), a member of Inter-
national Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE), and a founding member of the
European Optical Society (EOS).
Robert Pastore, photograph and biography not available at the time of publi-
cation.
Mark Farwell, photograph and biography not available at the time of publica-
tion.
Wilbur Chin, photograph and biography not available at the time of publication.
Jennifer Ross, photograph and biography not available at the time of publica-
tion.