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AUTHOR: Gilbert, Wade D.; Trudel, Pierre

TITLE: Learning to Coach through Experience: Conditions that Influence Reflection
SOURCE: The Physical Educator 62 no1 32-43 Late Wint 2005

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of
this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited.

Wade D. Gilbert
Pierre Trudel

ABSTRACT
The goal of the present article is to describe conditions that influence coach reflection, and to provide suggestions for
nurturing coach reflection. Coach reflection varies based on the interaction of four conditions: (a) peer access, (b) stage of
learning, (c) issue characteristics, and (d) environment. Data are presented to support the four conditions, and findings are
compared to literature on experiential learning, reflection, and coach and teacher education. Eight strategies are suggested
for facilitating coach development: (a) issue discussion groups, (b) coaching pods, (c) pre-training coach assessment tools,
(d) local coaching resource centers and educational partnerships, (e) issue-based training, (f) creation of sharedvisions
between coaches and sport participants, (g) coaching environments that value reflection, and (h) coaching consultant
programs.
Information on how coaches learn to coach is based mostly on anecdotal reports. For example, it has been suggested that
coaching experience and observation of other coaches are the primary sources of knowledge for coaching (GoncDalves, 1996;
Gummerson, 1992; Smoll & Smith, 1981). Yet, it is widely acknowledged that the simple accumulation of years of
involvement does not guarantee that one will become an effective coach (Bell, 1997; Douge & Hastie, 1993). It has been
proposed that effective coaches transform experience into knowledge through a process of reflection (Martens, 1997). The
definition of an effective coach will vary by sport level and context. An effective coach at the youth level may be one who
provides optimal encouragement and learning opportunities for participants. Coaching effectiveness at the professional level is
generally measured by winning percentage and championships. Regardless of sport context, effective coaches may share
some characteristics with definitions of expert coaches. Expert coaches generally have an extensive knowledge base, strong
self-monitoring skills, a desire for lifelong learning, and automaticity of behavior (Bell, 1996; Tan, 1996).
Gilbert and Trudel's (2001) recent investigation with effective youth team sport coaches provides empirically based support
for the proposition that coaches reflect in- and on-experience to learn how to coach. Gilbert and Trudel (2001) developed a
model of experiential learning based on reflection that comprises six components: (a) coaching issues, (b) role frames, (c)
issue setting, (d) strategy generation, (e) experimentation, and (d) evaluation. Central to the experiential learning process is
a reflective conversation triggered by a coaching issue (see Figure 1). Coaching issues (1) provide the impetus for the
coaches to reflect and engage in the experiential learning process. Common types of coaching issues that trigger reflection in
youth team sport coaches include: (a) athlete behavior, (b) athlete performance, (c) coach profile, (d) parental influence, and
(e) team organization (Gilbert, Gilbert, & Trudel, 200 la; 200 lb). A second component in the experiential learning process, a
coach's role frame (2), or approach to coaching, brackets the reflective conversation. Role frames act as filters through which
problems are constructed and addressed (Gilbert & Trudel, in press). The process of identifying an issue, and deciding why it
is an issue, is referred to as issue setting (3). When a coach sets a puzzling or troublesome situation as a coaching issue to
be addressed, it typically triggers a reflective conversation used to generate new coaching strategies (4). After one or more
strategies are generated, an experiment is conducted (5), and the effectiveness of the strategy on resolving the issue is then
evaluated (6). Once an experiment is evaluated, a coach either exits the reflective conversation, because the issue is resolved
or considered unworthy of further reflection, or returns to the strategy generation stage.
Although coaches often complete numerous cycles through a reflective conversation, the profile of a reflective conversation
will vary both within and between coaches (Gilbert & Trudel, 2001). This finding may appear to suggest that coaches'
reflection does not follow any pattern. However, reflection appears to be influenced by at least four conditions: (a) access to
peers, (b) stage of learning, (c) issue characteristics, and (d) environment. The goal of the present paper is to discuss the
conditions that influence the profile of reflection, and to provide suggestions for nurturing coach reflection.

Methodology
As a detailed description of the methodology used to collect and analyze the data has been presented elsewhere (Gilbert &
Trudel, 2001), only a brief overview will be provided. Six youth team sport coaches, three in ice hockey and three in soccer,
were selected as model coaches. The following criteria were used to define model youth sport coaches: (a) were well
respected in the sporting community for their commitment to youth sport and exhibited positive coaching behaviors (e.g.,
encouragement, support, equitable treatment of all athletes), (b) were generally considered good leaders, teachers, and
organizers (Leblanc & Dickson, 1997), (c) kept winning in perspective and encouraged participants to respect the rules of the
game, fellow competitors and the officials, and (d) demonstrated an interest in learning about the theory and practice of
coaching (i.e., coaches were active lifelong learners).
Coach demographic profiles were consistent with those of other youth sport coaches (Ewing, Seefeldt, & Brown, 1996).
Five of the coaches were male and one was female, and they averaged 10.7 years of coaching experience (R = 3-20 years).
Four of the coaches were dual parent-coaches. Data were collected with each coach over the course of an entire playing
season using semi-structured interviews, documents, non-participant observation, and video and audio taping of the coaches
in games and practices. The data collection sessions were organized into three intervals (early season, middle season, and
late season). On average, each coach was interviewed 25 times and observed in games and practices 10 times. The data
were analyzed using a modified version of Yin's (1994) case study analysis procedures combined with aspects of more
general qualitative data analysis procedures (e.g., Maxwell, 1996; Miles & Huberman, 1994).

Results and Discussion

Two coaches asked that their information remain confidential. Therefore, although only one of the soccer coaches was
female, all three soccer coaches were assigned female pseudonyms. The profile of a reflective conversation was found to
depend on (a) access to knowledgeable peers, (b) stage of learning, (c) issue characteristics, and (d) environment (see
Figure 1).

Access to Knowledgeable Peers

If a coach had convenient access to one or more individuals with coaching experience, referred to as peer sounding
boards, then it was likely that peer-related options would be selected in a reflective conversation (see italicized options in
Figure 1). However, the simple presence of coaching peers was not enough to lead a coach to select peer options. Although
peer sounding boards must be accessible, they must also be respected and trusted for their knowledge of coaching. Two
examples are provided to support this conclusion.
The first example is taken from one of the soccer coaches, Jackie. Jackie's assistant coach (Bob) was highly regarded for
his competence as a youth soccer coach, yet she seldom had access to him. During the soccer season, Bob was absent from
many games and practices because of his work and family situation. Because of limited access to Bob, Jackie modified her
selection of peer-related options at most of the stages of the reflective conversation, other than issue setting. Jackie and Bob
generally would jointly set issues but then Jackie would proceed through the remainder of the stages in the reflective
conversation without consulting Bob.

A lot of what has happened this year is, because we are so busy, it is hard for Bob and I to get
together. We haven't jointly planned any practices. I thought at the beginning of the season we would
have done more of that and I had good intentions of doing that, getting together and maybe planning
out a season plan, but it is hard. So the way it has been working is primarily Bob will make some
observations and his observations are pretty accurate. He has been around the game quite a while and
he has coached a lot and quite often his observations match mine so then, okay, we should address
this. So then it comes back to me to plan something, to fit it in. [Jackie, Soccer Coach]

In the second example, the opposite situation is evident. Barbara, a soccer coach, generally had access to two of her
assistant coaches but did not consider them knowledgeable enough to serve as peer sounding boards. Therefore, Barbara
mostly selected non-peer types of options at each stage in the reflective conversation. She repeatedly stated that she wanted
to involve her assistant coaches more in the coaching process. However, she realized that one in particular was not
knowledgeable enough about coaching soccer to be considered an option at any stage in a reflective conversation. Similar to
Kruse's (1997) study with teachers, consultation with peer sounding boards was based on three criteria: trust, respect and
expertise. For example, all of the coaches worked with a coaching staff that included one or more assistant coaches. If
assistant coaches were not accessible, or not highly regarded for their coaching knowledge, then a coach would often seek a
peer sounding board outside of the immediate coaching staff (e.g., a parent), and even sometimes outside of the team (e.g.,
other coaches)
The value of consulting with knowledgeable peers has frequently been advocated, both in the literature on coaching (De
Marco & McCullick, 1997; Smith & Smoll, 1997) and experiential learning (Beynon, 1994; Schön, 1983). However, to date the
role of peers has only been described as an option for strategy generation, either in the form of advice seeking or reflective
transformation (a form of observational learning). Therefore, data supporting access to peers make a unique contribution not
by revealing peers as pivotal consultants in the experiential teaming process, but by providing insight into how peers serve
as sounding boards in numerous ways and at different stages in a reflective conversation (see Figure 1).
The important and diverse role that peers play in the experiential learning process can be nurtured through community-
based sport associations. Although coaches are often expected to consult with members of their coaching staff such as
assistant coaches (Smith & Smoll, 1997), in the youth sport environment this option is not always feasible, nor preferable. If
a member of the coaching staff is not selected as a peer sounding board, the coaches will find a peer sounding board
elsewhere if possible (e.g., parent, league administrator, other coaches). However, not all youth sport coaches will have
access to peer sounding boards outside of their team either. A similar warning has been expressed in the public school
teaching environment where teachers have few opportunities for reflection with their peers (Beynon, 1994; Kruse, 1997;
Schön, 1983). This limitation is magnified in the youth sport environment where coaches do not work in close physical
proximity to their peers. Coaches may also have limited contact with their peers because of the competitive aspect of sport,
in which some coaches may be hesitant to share information with their competitors.
Two suggestions for increasing access to coaching peers are issue discussion groups and coaching pods (Gilbert & Trudel,
2001). Time could be provided at coaching meetings and training sessions for coaches to discuss real issues they currently
are addressing. It is likely that coaches "will pay more attention to information that has immediate and personal meaning for
them, or when their 'operative attention' is high" (Gilbert & Trudel, 2001, p. 32). In addition, coaches within the same local
sport association or club could form a peer network, or coaching pod, to discuss coaching issues. The most senior or
respected coaches could be assigned the responsibility for periodically meeting with the other coaches and coordinating group
discussions. Coaching pods, because of their small size and more personal connection, would allow coaches to consult with
peers more frequently than issue discussion groups.
Access to peers is critical for coach development because it encourages a community of practice approach to learning
(Wenger, 1998). In the present study the encounters between the coaches and their peer sounding boards (assistant
coaches, parents, league administrators, other coaches) provided a privileged context to negotiate meaning (e.g., to learn
about ice hockey or soccer coaching). However, it was also found that the community of practice for each coach was
somewhat limited. Those in charge of organizing youth sport leagues should develop and encourage strategies to help
coaches exchange information; in other words, stimulate communities of coaching practice. Coaching pods and discussion
groups are two suggestions to facilitate contact between coaches and coach reflection.

Stage of Learning
A second condition that influenced the profile of a reflective conversation was a coach's stage of learning. Identical
statements from each of the coaches support the existence of a continuum of learning stages. At one extreme coaches appear
to rely mostly on acquisition types of strategy generation options (e.g., coaching materials and advice seeking). The other
end of the learning stage continuum is characterized by a reliance on construction types of strategy generation options (e.g.,
creative thought, joint construction).
Each of the coaches indicated that with their perceived development as a coach, they gradually decreased their reliance on
coaching materials. For example, one of the coaches indicated that early in his coaching career he carried a coaching book in
his pocket with him at all times. Most coaches explained that when they first started coaching they frequently visited libraries
in 'search' of coaching knowledge.

A large amount of time was dedicated to increasing coaching knowledge in the first three or four years
until a comfort level was achieved. I put an awful lot of work in at the front end. I took some courses,
purchased some books, watched some videos. If I wanted to do something on finishing I would have to
go and watch a video and I would make notes while I was watching the video, or if I needed some drills
I would go to a book and find some drills, or maybe talk to another coach. But once you have used a lot
of this stuff it just becomes second nature and you know what works. In the first (few years of
coaching) I was just acquiring (knowledge), I was just trying to learn as much as I could. Learn as
much about the game and then you really start to construct it. [Jackie, Soccer Coach]

There is evidence to suggest that most of the coaches started their coaching careers in an acquisition stage of learning,
and gradually shifted towards a construction stage of learning. This is consistent with research on elite coaches (Salmela,
1996) and teachers (Calderhead, 1989; Munby & Russell, 1989). The shift in preference for sources of strategy generation,
from acquisition to construction, can be extended even further when compared to theories that explore different types of
learning. Rumelhart and Norman (1978) proposed a continuum of human learning consisting of three types of learning
labeled accretion, tuning and restructuring. Accretion is the simplest form of learning where facts are acquired and stored in
long-term memory. The second type of learning, referred to as tuning, is more complex and involves refining existing
knowledge structures (schema) based on new information. Lastly, restructuring is considered the most complex type of
learning because it involves the creation of new schema. Restructuring can be considered analogous to the 'aha' experience
where one appears to gain a sudden insight or discovery, but is actually based on many hours or years of accumulating,
revising and reflecting on experience (Gruber, 1981).
A practitioner's position on the continuum of learning stages may also be influenced by his or her approach to learning,
also referred to as a learning orientation (Calderhead, 1989). Although all of the coaches were found to reflect on their
practice, there was a difference in the extent of their reflection. Schön (1983) also found varying degrees of reflective
practice. He concluded that the most reflective practitioners possess a special type of quality of practice referred to as
artistry. Schön discussed the concept of artistry with an example of a reflective teacher. It is evident from his explanation of
artful practice that a reflective practitioner will internalize challenging practice dilemmas, seeing them as deficiencies in his or
her professional practice as opposed to externalizing them as deficiencies of others, or placing them beyond the realm of
personal control.

An artful teacher sees a child's difficulty in learning to read not as a defect in the child but as a defect 'of
his own instruction.' So he [sic] must find a way of explaining what is bothering the pupil. He must do a
piece of experimental research, then and there, in the classroom. And because the child's difficulties
may be unique, the teacher cannot assume that his repertoire of explanations will suffice, even though
they are 'at the tongue's end.' He must be ready to invent new methods and must 'endeavor to develop
in himself the ability of discovering them.' (p. 66)

Schön's (1983) description of how an artful teacher internalizes challenging practice dilemmas is remarkably similar to
comments from the most reflective coaches. For example, one of the soccer coaches (Jennifer) had an athlete who was
extremely disruptive throughout most of the soccer season. Instead of viewing the dilemma as solely a result of an athlete
deficiency, she regarded it as a personal inadequacy of her coaching. Although the issue persisted and her frustration
mounted, she refused to terminate the reflective conversation and her search for an effective coaching strategy. Jennifer
proceeded through at least seven separate, yet connected, cycles of reflection in her attempt to resolve this issue.

So your gut reaction is to say 'Take a hike, I don't need this headache. These kids are not going to be
pulled down by one that doesn't want to put the effort in and is going to pull away from my energy.'
Because that is what it does, it just drains you and as an individual, as a coach working with a group
where you have one who is just ruffling feathers and being disruptive. But on the other hand I was also
looking at it as a challenge and saying, 'All right, where am I failing here to be able to maintain his
interest and desire to participate?' So I look at it as my inadequacies if I can't capture him. [Jennifer,
Soccer Coach]

A coach's learning orientation, in turn appears to be influenced by his or her experience in the sport. Moreover, it is the
combination of experience as a coach and an athlete. In the present study, the two coaches with the most years of
experience as competitive athletes (Richard and Jennifer) relied on coaching materials less than any of the other coaches and
preferred to evaluate the experiments on their own (self-evaluation). In fact, these two coaches were the only two who had
not accumulated an extensive personal library of coaching materials. Their many years of experience as athletes, watching
and learning from their coaches, likely influenced their learning orientation. This conclusion is also supported in research on
teaching (Barnes, 1989; Powell, 1992). Before they enter teacher education programs, most teachers will have spent at least
12 years in the public school system as 'teacher-watchers.' This extended 'apprenticeship of observation' has been found to
influence most beginning teachers' approach to learning to teach.
The examples provided from different theoretical frameworks and different fields of study (coaching, psychology,
education) all support a continuum of learning stages. If the continuum of learning stages proposed herein is supported in
future research, this breakthrough can have important implications for coach education. Although coaches may enter the
program from different learning stages and learning orientations, the content and structure of most courses is pre-set and
fixed. If coaches could be assessed at the beginning of a course to determine their stage of learning and learning orientation,
perhaps the course content and structure could be modified to fit the profile of the coaches. It appears that most youth sport
coaches may actually start their development as a coach long before they ever assume their first coaching position. Similar to
teachers, coaches typically accumulate many years in an 'apprenticeship of learning' while they are participating in sport as
an athlete. These years of experience provide many opportunities for reflection and the development of a preliminary
coaching repertoire.
Coach training programs, therefore, may be viewed as more meaningful and valid to coaches if the programs use coaches'
experience as a starting point for further development.

Issue Characteristics
Issue characteristics, such as the type of issue and the complexity of the issue, were also found to influence the profile of
a reflective conversation. For routine performance issues (e.g., techniques or tactics) the coaches would often rely on
coaching materials as a strategy generation option. Early in the study most of the coaches reported that they had
accumulated extensive personal libraries of coaching materials. However, while discussing other types of coaching issues
(e.g., parental influence or team organization) they seldom referred to their coaching materials as a source for generating
strategies. When questioned about this apparent contradiction, each of the coaches revealed that they did sometimes refer to
the coaching books and videotapes, but mostly to address performance related issues. For example, one of the soccer
coaches (Jackie) reported that if she needed a drill for shooting she would likely refer to a soccer book on attacking. Jackie
further explained that for common types of performance issues, it was more efficient to simply review a soccer book than to
consult with peers. Coaching strategies derived from coaching materials were typically in the form of practice drills. Another
example to support this conclusion is evident in a dialogue with one of the ice hockey coaches.

Researcher: But when you go to those books it is mostly just for drills?

Oh yeah, for drills, for practices, for things where we want some variation. Or like I say I will often take
a drill designed for a higher level of hockey and modify it for the division that I am coaching.
Researcher: But other types of issues, do you go to the books for that too?

No, no. I just use my own experience. [Duane, Ice Hockey Coach]

In addition to the type of coaching issue, the degree of challenge in the issue was a strong condition on reflection. For
example, if an issue was perceived by a coach to be of minor significance and expected to be resolved easily, any
consultation with peers was likely bypassed. Instead the coach would typically generate a strategy from his or her coaching
repertoire, or possibly from a coaching material if it was a performance type issue, conduct a real-world experiment and self-
evaluation. Just the opposite pattern was found when the coaches experienced very challenging dilemmas in their practice.
For example, Barbara the soccer coach indicated that she would consult with her assistant coaches to generate strategies
only for extremely challenging coaching issues, "I may talk to the assistant coaches to get their input, but it depends on how
serious the problem is." Also, the challenge of the issue is closely tied to the coach's stage of development. For example,
issues that were once considered extremely challenging, are later viewed as routine as a coach progresses from knowledge
accretion to knowledge restructuring. This conclusion is supported by one of the soccer coach's statements.

At this point, after 10 years (of coaching), I am often relying on creative thought and personal repertoire
when I am stuck. When I look back at all the issues that had to be resolved this year, 90% of them
were resolved by creative thought. Year one or two of my coaching that would have been radically
different. It would have been, 'Oh yeah, I have to go and consult this manual or this book or watch the
video.' Coaching knowledge is acquired as well as constructed. [Jackie, Soccer Coach]

Coaching is a complex task and youth sport coaches face many types of issues over the course of a playing season (Gilbert
et al., 2001a; 2001b). It appears that although reflection is an important tool for generating strategies to deal with coaching
issues, the type and severity of the issue will influence how coaches prepare to handle the issue. This finding is consistent
with the description of how practitioners in other fields generate strategies dependent on the type and challenge of the issue
experienced (Argyris, 1982; Schön, 1983). This awareness can be used in several ways to foster coach development. First,
coaches need access to a wide array of coaching materials (e.g., books, videos, articles, research). Most youth sport coaches
are volunteers and coach on a part-time basis. Although many coaches appear to purchase some coaching materials for their
own personal library, it is unrealistic to expect the typical youth sport coach to construct a comprehensive sport science
library. One of the primary roles of community sport associations or coaching associations should be to provide their coaches
with easy access to a community coaching library. Coaching materials could be acquired through fundraising efforts or by
reallocating a small portion of registration fees. Costs can be offset by developing partnerships with local colleges and
universities, thereby providing coaches with access to the coaching literature available through most interlibrary loan
services.
Second, as coaching issues appear to be important triggers for reflection, time could be spent in coach education
programs on reviewing coaches' current or past coaching issues, and how the issues are addressed. In this sense, coach
training programs could take an issue-based approach to development. This tactic allows coaches to use their own experience
as a starting point for developing coaching knowledge, and gives them ownership of the learning experience.
Ultimately, coach education programs should strive to foster independent, self-directed learners, as coaches typically spend
a very limited amount of time in training programs.

Environment
The fourth condition that emerged was the environment in which each coach was situated. For example, parental input
was cited as an environmental condition that influenced the profile of reflection. A case in point is the soccer coach Jennifer,
who received input from parents (other) frequently at the issue setting stage of reflection (see Figure 1). This type of input
was perhaps a result of the unusual difficulty of the season in which the data were collected. Jennifer mentioned several
times that the environment, notably the parents, was one of the most challenging in which she had coached. The team
manager would frequently give reports to Jennifer after the games. At the end of one game, while the researcher was walking
across the field with the coach, the team manager came running out and immediately informed Jennifer that 'they' were
really bad tonight: 'they' referring to the parents who were making negative comments on the sidelines during the game.
Jennifer likely wouldn't have identified and set many of the issues she was forced to deal with if she had coached in a less
hostile environment. For example, she preferred to reflect on athlete personal growth and development strategies but the
environment forced her to reflect mostly on parent issues, and therefore influenced how issues were set and how strategies
were evaluated. This is supported in her response to how she would address the issue of parents making negative comments.
As well as parental pressure, other environmental variables such as support from the sport association (resources,
finances, facilities), the profile of the community, the level of competition, and the age of the athletes were cited. For
example, the ice hockey coaches repeatedly expressed a concern over the lack of support from the community and their local
sport association. In at least one case a coach believed that the profile of the community in which he coached, and the lack
of importance placed on competitive sport, severely restricted his ability to generate and experiment with creative strategies.

It depends on your parents, you know. You will notice around town there are some programs there that
are very serious. But the parents are right in line with those coaches. Those kids were there an hour
before (the game). That is ultimately what you would like to have but I am in a different environment in
our neighborhood. The lifestyles are different. Hockey is not that important, it is more recreation
oriented. Those programs are always the envy to me when you see how more successful they are from
that perspective. [Bren, Ice Hockey Coach]

The age of the athletes was also sometimes mentioned as an environmental condition that influenced the profile of
reflection. For example, coaches of young athletes may be hesitant to seek advice from senior coaches at older levels of
competition for fear of burdening a high level coach with a 'simple' issue. One of the soccer coaches actually had access to a
senior level coach (Trent), but was reluctant to consult with him because of the age of her athletes.

I think you also have to look at the age group. I am dealing with a different set of players, a different
age group. I feel that if I was coaching an older team I would probably rely on Trent a bit more. I think
part of the reason is, maybe I felt that coaching at this young age group, maybe I shouldn't burden him
with that. [Barbara, Soccer Coach]

The environment in which a youth sport coach 'works' appears to be an important condition that influences reflection. For
example, if a coach perceives a restriction on his or her freedom to be creative and experiment with new strategies, then he
or she may rely less on creative thought as a source of strategy generation. Instead, the coach may shift to a reliance on
existing strategies from his or her repertoire that have been tested and proven to be safe and acceptable. The influence of
environmental variables on a practitioner's freedom to reflect and engage in creative thought was also discussed by Schön
(1983). Schön concluded that institutional environments that were open, cooperative, and nurtured creativity would be
conducive to reflective practice.
An awareness of the type of environment needed to nurture reflective practice is useful for community-based sport
associations. By developing shared visions and objectives, through communication with parents, coaches, administrators and
athletes, an environment should be created in which practice dilemmas should not be viewed as coaching deficiencies, but
instead should be shared and openly discussed. Coaches may then be provided discretionary freedom to reflect and invent
novel strategies. Also, community sport associations may consider assigning senior model coaches as mentors to novice
coaches. Peer mentoring has been cited as a valuable method of fostering coach development (Salmela, 1996). It may be
possible in some communities to even hire a coaching consultant to provide support to novice coaches. Coaching consultants
could assume the role of a research-practice facilitator (Silverman, 2002). The research-practice facilitator would work for the
sport organization or club and meet weekly with each of the coaches to discuss current coaching issues. The research-
practice facilitator would provide the coaches with access to the latest sport science literature, and jointly they would create
or modify coaching strategies. In this sense, a coaching consultant program is designed for the participants to meet and work
in the 'gap' between coaching science and coaching practice.
Youth sport communities can also de-emphasize a winning at all costs attitude, and avoid treating children as miniature
versions of professional athletes. Community leaders and scholars have long advocated taking the focus off of winning in
youth sport. Youth sport coaches need to feel safe to experiment and reflect, without being chastised for lack of team
success as measured by win-loss record. Although winning may be very important in some contexts (i.e., high school
varsity), no youth sport experience should be governed by a win at all costs environment.
Implications for Coach Development
To summarize, four conditions that influence reflection are (a) access to knowledgeable peers, (b) stage of learning, (c)
issue characteristics, and (d) environment. Understanding how these conditions influence the experiential learning process is
critical to help coaches develop their coaching repertoires. It is not likely that coach education programs will soon be, or ever
be, as comprehensive as teacher education or other professional preparation programs given that most youth sport coaches
are volunteers who follow the sport involvement of their children. For example, most teacher education programs consist of
four years of university coursework and practice teaching, whereas most coach education programs last a few weekends. Yet,
the critical role that youth sport coaches play in youth development, and the fact that they appear to learn most of their
coaching knowledge while in the field, requires that we continue to examine how coaches learn to coach and find more
effective ways to foster learning.
Numerous strategies for fostering coach reflection and development are suggested in this article. There is abundant
evidence, in the coaching and education literature, to support the critical role of reflection in professional growth. In an effort
to promote opportunities for coach reflection, and develop a community of learning, the following strategies are suggested:
(a) issue discussion groups, (b) coaching pods, (c) pre-training coach assessment tools, (d) local coaching resource centers
and partnerships with educational institutions, (e) issue-based approach to coach education, (f) creation of shared visions
between coaches, sport organizations, parents, officials, and athletes, (g) coaching environments that value reflection and
experimentation, and (h) peer or coaching consultant programs. While some of these strategies are already being
implemented in youth sport associations, consideration of existing and new ways to foster coach reflection is critical in the
continued effort to prepare coaches for their important role in society.

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Acknowledgement
This research was supported by grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the
Ontario Graduate Scholarship program.
ADDED MATERIAL
Dr. Gilbert is in the department of Kinesiology at California State University, Fresno and Dr. Trudel is in the School of
Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa, Canada.
Figure 1. Experiential learning process and reflective conversation (Gilbert & Trudel, 2001)