College Physics Core Concept Master Cheat Sheet

O1: Introduction to Physics 03: Problem Solving in Physics

• Physics: Study of the physical world. Science of energy
• Metric System: System of measurement based on
multiples of 10.
• SI System: Systeme International d’Unites (Internation
system of units).
• Uncertainty: The last digit in a measurement is
uncertain—each person may see it slightly differently when
reading the measurement.
• Significant Figures: Digits that were actually measured
and have physical significance. (Also called “significant
digits”)
General Problem Solving Strategy:
Step 1: Identify what’s being given
Step 2: Clarify what’s being asked.
If necessary, rephrase the question
Step 3: Select a strategy
Trial & error, search, deductive reasoning,
knowledge-based, working backwards
Step 4: Solve using the strategy
Step 5: Review the answer
Use the KUDOS method for solving word problems.

The metric system uses prefixes to indicate multiples of 10 K = Known

U = Unknown
Metric Prefixes commonly used in physics D = Definition
Prefix Symbol Multiple O = Output
Kilo k 1000 S = Substantiation
Deci d 0.1
Centi c 0.01 Multiple-choice tips:
Milli m 0.001 Scan all the choices
Micro µ 0.000001 Avoid word confusion
Nano n 0.000000001 Beware of absolutes
The “base unit” is when there’s no prefix. Essay tips:
Understand the question
To determine the equivalent in “base units”: Answer the whole question and only the question
1. Use prefix to determine multiple Watch your time
2. Multiply number by the multiple Free-Repsonse tips:
3. Write the result with the base unit Show partial work
Examples: Don’t forget units
1.25 mL Æ “milli” means 0.001 Æ 0.00125 L Don’t be fooled by blank space
87.5 kg Æ “kilo” means 1000 Æ 87500 g
04: Describing Motion Kinematics in 1
02: Basic Math for Physics Dimension
• Vector: A quantity that represents magnitude (size) and
If a # is … to a then … the # to Example direction. It is usually represented with an arrow to indicate
variable, solve for the the appropriate direction. They may or may not be drawn to
variable scale.
Added Subtract 5=x+2 • Scalar: A quantity that can be completely described its
-2 -2 magnitude, or size. It has no direction associated with its
5-2 = x size.
Subtracted Add 3=x–6 • Velocity: Speed of an object which includes its direction of
+6 +6 motion. Velocity is a vector quantity.
3-6 = x • Acceleration: Rate at which an object’s velocity changes
Multiplied Divide 2 = 4x with time; this change may in speed, direction, or both.
1. 4
2/4 = x • v=d/t
Divided Multiply 2·6=x·2 • a = ∆v/∆t=(vf-vi)/t
2 • d=vit+at2/2
2·6=x • vf2=vi2+2ad
• acceleration due to gravity = -9.8 m/s2
On Your Calculator:
• For sign conventions, assign a direction as positive, keep
• Always use the ÷ key to designate a number is on the
this convention throughout the problem, any quantities in
bottom of an expression.
the opposite direction must be negative.
• Always use the EE (or EXP) key to enter scientific notation.
• Often, up and right are positive, while down and left are
• Always use parenthesis around addition or subtraction
negative.
when combining it with other operations
• To make something negative (when taking the number to a
The motion of an object moving with a constant acceleration is
power), keep the negative outside of the parenthesis.
pictured below. The distance moved in each unit of time
increases. In fact, it is proportional to the square of the time.
Important Formulas:
opposite opposite
sinθ = tanθ =
hypotenuse adjacent
• An object moving with a constant velocity would cover
adjacent − b ± b 2 − 4ac
cosθ = x= equal amounts of distance in equal time intervals.
hypotenuse 2a • An object moving with a constant acceleration would cover
varying amouts of distance in equal time intervals.

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05: Kinematics in Two Dimensions: Vectors 07: Work and Energy
• Resultant: the result of adding two or more vectors; • Work: Product of force on an object and the distance
vector sum. through which the object is moved.
• Vector Component: the parts into which a vector can be • Power: Work done per unit of time.
separated and that act in different directions from the • Energy: The ability to do work.
vector. • Base level: An arbitray reference point from which
• Vector Addition: The process of combining vectors; added distances are measured.
tip to tail. • Kinetic Energy: The energy an object has due to it motion.
• Gravitational Potential Energy: The energy an object has
Vertical due to its position above some base level.
Velocity of a projectile
component • Work Energy Theorem: The work done is equal to the
change in energy.
• Conservation of Energy: energy is not created or
destroyed, just transformed from one type to another.
Horizontal compoent
• v=d/t • W= F d = mad
• a = ∆v/∆t=(vf-vi)/t • W = F d cos θ
• d=vit+at2/2 • P = W/t
• vf2=vi2+2ad • a = ∆v/∆t
• Pythagorean Theorem: c2=a2+b2 • cos θ = adjacent / hypotenuse
• Sin θ = opp/hyp • KE = ½ mv2
• Cos θ = adj/hyp • PE = mgh
• Tan θ = opp/adj
• acceleration due to gravity = -9.8 m/s2 • Work is done only when a force acts in the direction of
• Important formula note: All of these formulas could motion of an object
apply to any direction. Common subscripts are shown that • If the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion, then
indicate the direction of a particular quantity no work is done.
• v or y = vertical direction • Power is the ratio of work done per time
• h or x = horizontal direction • Energy may appear in different forms, but it is always
conserved.
• Projectiles move with a constant acceleration due to • The total amount of energy before and after some
gravity only in the vertical direction. interaction is constant.
• Projectiles move with a constant velocity only in the • Work and energy are interchangeable.
horizontal direction.

06: Force and Motion - Newton’s Laws
• Static Equilibrium: A motionless state where all the
forces acting on an object yield a net force of zero.
• Dynamic Equilibrium: A condition of constant
motion/zero acceleration where all the forces acting on an
object yield a net force of zero.
• Friction Force: A force that acts to resist motion of
objects that are in contact.
• Normal Force: Support force that acts perpendicular to a
surface. If the surface is horizontal, this force balances the
weight of the object.
• Force: A vector quantity that tends to accelerate an object;
a push or a pull.
• Net Force, Fnet: : A combination of all the forces that act
on an object
08: Momentum and Collisions
• Momentum: A vector quantity that is the product of mass
and velocity of an item. It may be considered as inertia in
motion.
• Impulse: A change in momentum. The product of force
and the time through which the force acts.
• Conservation of Momentum: The momentum of a system
will remain constant. Momentum isn’t created or destroyed
unless an outside force is acting on the system.
• Elastic Collision: A collision where there is no kinetic lost,
momentum is still conserved, the object have no
deformation.
• Inelastic Collision: A collision where kinetic energy is lost
due to heat, deformation, or other methods. However,
momentum is still conserved for the system.

• Fnet=ma • P=mv
• µ=Ff/FN • Ft=m∆v
• Fnet=ΣF = the sum of all forces • J=Ft

• Newton’s 1st law : An object at rest wants to stay at • Explosion: one object breaking into more objects.
rest, an object in motion tends to stay in motion; inertia. 0=mv+mv+…
• Newton’s 2nd law : Fnet=ma. • Hit and stick: one object striking and joining to the other.
• Newton’s 3rd law: For every force that is an equal and m1v1+m2v2=(m1+m2)v3
opposite force; action and reaction. • Hit and rebound: one object striking and bouncing off of
the other. m1v1+m2v2=m1v3+m2v4
An inclined A
plane showing FN
all the forces Ball A strikes
acting on the m A B motionless ball B.
object: F┴ After the collision
Ff they move off as
shown.
W
B
Note how momentum is conserved. In the X direction, the
momenta add up to the original momentum before the
θ F║ collision. In the Y direction, the momenta cancel out since
there was no momentum in that direction initially.

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 09: Circular Motion and Gravitation 11: Solids and Fluids
• Centripetal Force: a center seeking force for an object • Solids: Matte with definite shape and volume
moving in a circular path. • Fluids: Matter with indefinite shape and definite volume
• Centrifugal Force: An apparent, but nonexistent, outward • Thermal expansion: Volume of matter increase with
pointing force for an object moving in a circular path. A temperature
rotating object may seem to be pushed outward, but • Stress: Force causing deformation
actually must be pulled inward in order to maintain any • Strain: Degree of deformation
circular path. • Buoyancy: The force caused by pressure variation with
• Inverse Square Law: A relationship relating the strength depth to lift immersed objects
of an effect to the inverse square of the distance away from • Surface tension: The force to attract surfaced molecular to
the source. make the surface area of fluid as small as possible
• Gravitational Field: The map of influence that a massive • Capillary action: The phenomena of fluids automatically
body extends into space around itself. raising in open-ended tubes
• Linear Speed: Straight path distance moved per unit of • Viscosity: The inter-friction mechamism in fluid to dissipate
time, also referred to as tangential speed. energy
• Rotational Speed: Number of rotations or revolutions per • Laminar flow: Every particle passing a particular point
unit of time, often measured in rpm, revolutions per moves exactly along the smooth path followed by particles
minute. passing that point early
• Universal Gravitational Constant: A proportionality • Turbulant flow: The irregular flow when the velocity of the
constant that relates the strength of gravitational attraction flow is high
in Newton’s law of universal gravitation. • Thermal expansion: (L − L0 ) = α (T − T0 )
• Fg=Gm1m2/d 2
• Pressure variation with depth: P = ρgh
• G=6.67x10-11Nm2/kg2
• ac=v2/r • Buyonancy (Archimedes’ princple): B = ρgV
• Fc=mv2/r • Bernoulli’s equation (along any streamline):
1 2
• Weightlessness: Astronauts “floating” in space may P+ ρv + ρgh = const
appear to be weightless. However, the pull from gravitiy 2
definitely still acts on them. If it didn’t, their inertia would
carry them off in a straight line never to return to the Applied force
earth. Instead, the pull from gravity acts as a centripetal
• Stress =
force to maintain their orbit about the earth.
Loaded area

10: Rotational Motion and Equilibrium 12:Temperature and Kinetic Theory of Gases
• Pressure: Force of gas molecules colliding with surfaces
• Torque: The rotational quantity that causes rotation; the
1 atm = 101300 Pa = 101.3 kPa = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi
product of force times lever arm.
• Standard Temperature and pressure: 1 atm (or anything
• Lever Arm: The distance from the axis of rotation to the
it’s equal to) and 0°C (273 K)
location where the force is applied.
• Ideal Gas: all assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory
• Moment of Inertia: The rotational equivalent of linear
are true.
inertia; a measure of the ease of rotating some object.
• Real Gas: real gases have significant particle volume and
• Angular Momentum: The rotational equivalent of linear
significant attractions/repulsions
momentum that describes the tendency of an object to
continue rotating.
• Rotational Equilibrium: The situation when the net Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
torque on an object equals zero. P = Pressure
• Radian: A unit of rotational displacement; one revolution V = Volume
equals 2 ∏ radians. n = moles
T = Temperature (in Kelvin)
• I=Σmr2 R = Gas constant = 8.31 L × kPa or L × atm
0.0821
• L=Iω mole × K mole × K
• Ƭ=F l
• Root-Mean-Square Speed (Vrms): one measure of
Linear motion formula Rotational motion average particle speed in a gas
formula 3RT
d
vrms =
v= ∆θ M
ω=
t ∆t
∆v ∆ω • Average Translational Kinetic Energy (KEave): average
a= α=
∆t ∆t kinetic energy (energy due to motion) of each particle
3
d = v i t + at 2 /2 θ = ωi t + αt 2 /2 For the entire gas: KE ave = RT
2
v 2f = v i2 + 2ad ω2f = ωi2 + 2αθ Per molecule:
K ave =
3 R
T
2 NA
• θ= angular displacement • Diffusion: The rate at which a gas travels through a
• ω=angular speed container
• α=angular acceleration • Effusion: The rate at which a gas escapes through a tiny
hole
• Ƭ=torque
Attacking Strategy for Gas Laws
• I=rotational inertia 1. Identify quantities by their units
• Draw a diagram if needed. Identify all given information. 2. Write known and unknown quantities symbollicaly
Be sure to make diagrams or calculations with direction in 3. Choose equation based upon list of quantities
mind. Draw all forces and components. Plug quantities into equation and solve.

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 13: Heat and Thermodynamics 15: Conductors, Capacitors and Dielectrics
• Thermodynamics: Study of heat changes. • Conductor: Material where electrons are loosely bound and
• Specific Heat Capacity (Cp): Amount of energy that 1 are able to flow throughout due to the free electrons.
gram of material can absorb before increasing in • Insulator: Materials where electrons are bound and don’t
temperature. Cp for water: 4.18 J or 1.00 cal flow easily.
For changes in temperature: • Semiconductor: Materials in between insulator and
Qheat = m × C p × ∆T m = mass; ∆T = T2 – T1 conductor.
• Superconductor: A material where electrons flow without
For increases in temperature that cross several phases any resistance. Generally, superconductivity only occurs at
simply sum the Qfus, Qvap, and Qheat as needed. very low temperatures.
For changes in state: Temperature doesn’t change as the • Resistor: A device used to control or regular the amount of
added energy is used to break intermolecular forces. electric charge flowing.
Melting: ∆Q fus = m × L fus Qfus = heat of fusion • Resistivity: An intrinsic property of a material that partially
determines the resistance of a wire.
Boiling: ∆Qvap = m × Lvap Qvap = heat of vaporization • Capacitor: A device used to store or accumulate electric
energy. This is done by oppositely charging two nearby
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Objects in thermal conductive surfaces that are not in contact with each other.
equilibrium are at the same temperature. Objects in • Dielectric: an insulating material is inserted between the
contact will eventually come to thermal equilibrium. plates of a capacitor.
• 1st Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of • Dielectric Constant: the factor that describes the
Energy): Energy cannot be created nor destroyed in a additional capacitance gained by adding a dielectric material
chemical or physical process. between the plates of a capacitor.
∆U = ∆Q + W
U = internal energy (in J) • R=ρ L/A
Q = heat (in J); • q=CV
W = work done on (W>0) or by (W<0) the system • C= kε o A/d
• Entropy (S): Disorder or random-ness
• 2nd Law of Thermodynamics: The total entropy of the •ε o =8.85x10-12C2/Nm2
universe can never decrease. • Uc=qV/2=CV2/2
Linear and Volume Expansion: Objects expand when • V=PE/q
heated.
∆L = L × α × ∆T Factors that determine the resistance of a wire:
L = length; α = linear expansion coefficient; ∆T = T2 – T1 • Resistivity of wire material
• Length of wire
14: Electrostatics • Cross sectional area of wire
• Temperature of wire
• Charge: A fundamental intrinsic property of matter that
gives rise to the attractions and repulsions between 16: Electric Circuits
electrons and protons. • Series Circuit: A circuit where the components form one
• Charging by Contact: The transfer of electric charge from continuous loop. The current is constant throughout.
one object to another by simple contact or conduction. • Parallel Circuit: A circuit where each component is connect
• Charging by Induction: Redistribution or charging or an to form its own separate independent branch. The voltage is
object by bringing a charged item in close proximity to, but constant throughout.
not touching, an uncharged object. • Internal Resistance: Resistance from the processes inside
• Coulomb’s Law: Mathematical relationship between a voltage source; reistance due to the battery itself.
electric force, charge, and distance. The electric force • Kirchhoff’s Laws: Two laws, the junction and loop rule,
varies directly with the product of the charges, and that help describe circuits with multiple loops or voltage
inversedly to the square of the distance between the sources.
charges. • Junction Rule: A restatement of conservation of charge;
• Polarized: Separation or alignment of the charges in a the current going into a junction must equal the current
neutral body so that like charges are grouped together, going out of the junction.
resulting in a positive and a negative region. • Loop Rule: A restatement of conservation of energy; the
• Electric Field: A force field that fills the space near any sum of all voltages in the elements of a loop is zero.
charge.
• Electric Potential: The ratio of electric potential energy to • V=IR Ohm’s law
electric charge at a particular spot in an electric field. It is • P=IV=I2R
often referred to as voltage since it is measured in volts. • RS=R1+R2+R3+…
• Equipotential Line: A line where all points have an equal • RP=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…
electric potential, or voltage. In this series
sw itch
circuit the
2
• FE=kq1q2/r current flow
• k=9x109Nm2/C2 2 Light would be
batteries
• k=1/4π ε o ε o =8.85x10-12C2/Nm2 bulb equal
• 1 Coulomb = 6.25x1018 electrons throughout.
resistor
• E=F/q -
• V=PE/q
• V=kq/r

Diagram shows the electric field In this parallel

surrounding an area of negative circuit the 2
charge. The E field lines always point in the direction that a voltage to each batteries
small positive test charge would move in the field. resistor would
be equal.

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 17: Magnetic Fields 19: Vibrations and Waves
• Magnetic Domains: Microscopic areas of atoms where the • Wave motion : The process in which the disturbance in a
magnetic fields are aligned. point in the medium is transmitted to other parts of the
• Ferromagnetic: A naturally magnetic class of materials medium with out the bodily movement of the particles.
where the magnetic domains are ordered and do not cancel • Longitudional Waves: The particles in the medium move
out. parallel to the direction of the wave. Eg. Sound waves
• Magnetic Field Lines: Lines showing the shape and exent • Transverse waves: In a transverse wave the particles in
of a magnetic field around a permanent magnet or a the medium move perpendicular to the direction of the
moving charged object. wave. Eg. Light waves, waves on strings.
• Mass Spectrometer: A device that magnetically • Time period (T): The time taken by a body to complete
separates charged ions according to their mass. A one vibration.
magnetic field is used to accomplish this separation. • Frequency: Frequency is the number of oscillations
completed in a unit time
• FB=BIL sinθ • Amplitude (r): The maximum displacement of the body in
• FB=qvBsinθ vibration.
• B = μ o i / 2π r • Mechanical waves: A mechanical wave is just a
disturbance that propagates through a medium
• μ o=4π x10 Tm/A
-7
• Electromagnetic wave: An electromagnetic wave is simply
light of a visible or invisible wavelength. Oscillating
Right Hand Rule, RHR intertwined electric and magnetic fields comprise light. Light
1. The fingers extend or curl in the direction of the magnetic can travel without medium.
field. • Crest: The maximum displacement position in a wave is
2. The outstretched thumb points in the direction of called a crest.
conventional current, or the direction of a positively charged • Trough: The minimum displacement position in a wave is
moving particle. called a trough
3. A line perpendicular to the palm indicates the direction of
the magnetic force. • Period of a swinging pendulum: T = 2π√(l/g)
X X X X X • Period of a mass on a spring: T = 2π√(M/K)
• Wave speed equation: v=fλ
X X X • f = 1/T
. . .
• Reflection of a wave at a boundary: When a wave is
. . . progressing towards an open end or from a medium of
greater to lesser density it reflects back with the same
X X direction of displacement. When a wave is progressing
towards a fixed end it gets inverted.
X X X X X
20: Sound
18: Electromagnetism • Sound: Sound is a form of energy .When Matter vibrates
• Electromotive Force, EMF: A voltage that gives rise to a very quickly it transports energy in the form of waves. It
current flow. This voltage can be induced or created by a stimulates our sense of hearing. Sound waves are pressure
changing magnetic field. waves (energy per unit area). Sound cannot travel through
• Induced current: The flow of charge in a conductor due vacuum. A wave is a carrier of sound energy.
to the changing magnetic flux near that conductor. • Beats: Beats are the periodic and repeating fluctuations
• Lenz’s Law: The induced emf always gives rise to a heard in the intensity of a sound. Two sound waves of nearly
current whose magnetic flux opposed the original change in same frequencies interfere with one another to produce
magnetic flux. Thus, the induced current tries to maintain beats
the level of magnetic flux. • Pitch: Pitch is the highest or lowest sound an object makes.
• Generator: A machine that produces electricity by a • Audible sounds: The audio spectrum extends from
rotating coil of wire immersed in a stationary magnetic approximately 20Hz to 20,000 Hz. These sounds can be
field. This rotating motion could be obtained from a variety heard by human ear
of sources. • Below 20 Hz – Infrasonics
• Above 20KHz – Ultrasonics
• ΦB=BAcosθ • Doppler effect: The apparent change in the frequency of
• Acircle=∏r2 sound due to relative motion between the sound source and
• ε=-N∆Φ/∆t observer is called Doppler Effect.
• ε=BLv • Intensity: The loudness οφ sound is directly proportional to
the square of the amplitude or intensity (I). It is convenient
X X X to use a logarithmic scale to determine the intensity level
β = 10 log (I/I0)
• Reference intensity or threshold of hearing , I0 = 1.00
X X X x 10-12 W/ m2 ; β = 0 dB
• Stationary or Standing waves are formed due to
superposition of two identical waves moving in opposite
X X X directions.

Here the conducting loop begins to pass into the magnetic
field that goes into the page. An induced emf, and current
are created. The current flows so that the newly created B
field opposes the change in the original B field. While totally
immersed, no current would flow since there would be no
change in the B field flux.
• There is no net flow of energy in the medium.
• Node: The points of no displacement when standing waves
are formed.
• Antinodes: The points along the medium which vibrate
back and forth with maximum displacement.
• Echo : The sound obtained by reflection at a wall, cliff or a
mountain is called an echo.

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 21: Physical Optics 23: Atomic Physics
• Electromagnetic Spectrum: A diagram that illustrates all Bohr’s atom model - Proposed by Neil Bohr in 1913
the varieties of electromagnetic waves based on their
relative frequency/wavelengths. Our eyes observe only a
small amount of this spectrum.
• Principle of Superposition: When two or more waves
occupy the same region of space simultaneously, the
resulting wave disturbance is the sum of separate waves.
• Constructive Interference: Two or more waves
superimposing to create a resulting wave that has a larger • First postulate: An atom consists of a positively charged
amplitude. nucleus at the centre. The electrons move round the nucleus
• Destructive Interference: Two or more waves in certain stationary orbits of definite radii and not all
superimposing to create a resulting wave that has a smaller possible radii.
amplitude. • Second postulate: The radius of the orbit is such that the
• Diffraction: The bending of waves around corners or small angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of
openings. h/2p
• Young’s Double Slit Experiment: Experiment that • Third postulate: Electron may jump from one orbit to the
measured the wavelength of light by interference from two other, in which case the difference in energy between the
small slits two states of motion is radiated in the form of a light
• Polarization: Light where the electric field fluctuates in quantum.
only one direction. • Atomic Spectra Solids, liquids and diffused gases emit
light when heated. This light produces ordered arrangement
• 3x108m/s speed of light in a vacuum of lines or bands or continuous patch of light.
• sinθ=mλ/d bright fringe formula
• sinθ=(m+1/2) λ/d dark fringe formula
• sinθ=mλ/d diffraction grating formula
• S=Socos2θ Malus’ law
Here a
polarizing filter
changes
random
unpolarized
light into a
wave that
vibrates in only Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Unpolarized Polarizing Polarized one direction.
light filter light If position is identified the momentum cannot be measured
If momentum is measured the position is lost.
∆x X ∆p ≥ h / 4π
22: Geometric Optics 24: Nuclear Physics
• Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence equals the
• Radioactivity: Emission of radiation as a consequence of a
angle of reflection.
nuclear reaction, or directly from the breakdown of an
• Virtual Image: An image that cannot be projected onto a
unstable nucleus.
screen. The rays of light don’t actually converge there,
• Half Life: The time required for half of the nuclei in a
they just seem to originate from that location.
sample of a specific isotope to undergo radioactive decay.
• Real Image: An image where the rays of light actually
• Alpha Particle: A positively charged helium nucleus
meet at a location. It can be projected onto a screen.
(consisting of two protons and two neutrons).
• Refraction: The bending of light due to its change in
• Beta Particle: An energetic electron produced as the result
velocity in various media.
of a nuclear reaction or nuclear decay.
• Index of Refraction: The ratio between the speed of light
• Gamma Particle/Ray: Very high frequency
in a vacuum and a particular medium.
electromagnetic radiation emitted as a consequence of
• Total Internal Reflection: The complete reflection of
radioactivity.
light when it strikes the boundary between two media at
• Fission: The process whereby one item splits to become
greater than a critical angle.
two.
• Binding Energy: The energy needed to separate the
• 1/f=1/do+1/di
constituent parts of an atom or nucleus
• m=hi/ho=-di/do
• Mass Defect: The difference between the mass of an atom
• n=c/v
and the sum of the masses of its individual components.
• n1sinθ1=n2sinθ2
Half Life: The amount of time needed for half of the original
nuclei to decay away into another element.
angle of
normal
Note how the incidence Calculating Binding Energy:
beam bends to 1. Determine the masses of each of the particles
the normal individually.
when entering 2. Determine the mass of a whole nucleus.
the more dense 3. The difference between the two provides “m”.
air Refracted
glass medium. angle of 4. Use m in the equation E=mc2 to calculate E.
beam
Then it bends refraction
away from the • Nuclear power plants have provided energy for half a
normal when re glass century.
entering air. • Atomic bombs are based on fission and among the most
“unrefracted” destructive weapons ever created.
beam Medical applications of radioactivity are commonplace in
our society, and are seen in cancer therapy, tracers,
tomography (PET scans), NMRs and MRIs.

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