Economy of India

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Economy of India

Currency 1 Indian Rupee (INR) (₨) = 100 Paise

Fiscal year April 1–March 31

Trade
WTO, SAFTA
organisations

Statistics

GDP (PPP) $5.21 trillion (PPP) (2008 est.) (3rd)

GDP growth 9.6% (2006/07)

GDP per capita $1,089 (nominal); $4,543 (PPP) [2]

agriculture: 19.9%, industry: 19.3%, services:

GDP by sector
60.7% (2006 est.)

Inflation (CPI) 3.5% (2008 est.)

Population
25% (2002 est.) [3]
below poverty line

Labour force 509.3 million (2006 est.)

Labour force agriculture: 60%, industry: 12%, services: 28%

by occupation (2003)

Unemployment 7.8% (2006 est.)

Main industries textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel,

transportation equipment, cement, mining,
 petroleum, machinery, software, services

External

Exports $125 billion (Financial Year 2006-2007)

textile goods, gems and jewelry, engineering

Export goods
goods, chemicals, leather manufactures, services

Main export US 18%, the People's Republic of China 8.9%,

partners UAE 8.4%, UK 4.7%, Hong Kong 4.2% (2005)

Imports $187.9 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.)

Import goods crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals

the People's Republic of China 7.2%, US 6.4%,

Main import
Belgium 5.1%, Singapore 4.7%, Australia 4.2%,
partners
Germany 4.2%, UK 4.1% (2005)

Public finances

Public debt $132.1 billion (2006 est.)

Revenues $109.4 billion (2006 est.)

$143.8 billion; including capital expenditures of

Expenses
$15 billion (2006 est.)

Economic aid donor: $17.3 million (2006)

Main data source: CIA World Factbook

All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars

This box: view • talk • edit

The economy of India, measured in USD exchange-rate terms, is the twelfth largest
in the world, with a GDP of US $1.50 trillion (2008).[1] It has a GDP growth rate of 9.4%
for the fiscal year 2006–2007.[2] However, India's huge population has a per capita
income of $4,542 at PPP and $1,089 in nominal terms (revised 2007 estimate).[3][4]
The World Bank classifies India as a low-income economy.[5][6]
India's economy is diverse, encompassing agriculture, handicrafts, textile,
manufacturing, and a multitude of services. Although two-thirds of the Indian
workforce still earn their livelihood directly or indirectly through agriculture, services
are a growing sector and play an increasingly important role of India's economy. The
advent of the digital age, and the large number of young and educated populace
fluent in English, is gradually transforming India as an important 'back office'
destination for global outsourcing of customer services and technical support. India is
a major exporter of highly-skilled workers in software and financial services, and
software engineering. Other sectors like manufacturing, pharmaceuticals,
biotechnology, nanotechnology, telecommunication, shipbuilding, aviation , tourism
and retailing are showing strong potentials with higher growth rates.
India followed a socialist-inspired approach for most of its independent history, with
strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign
direct investment. However, since the early 1990s, India has gradually opened up its
markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade
and investment. The privatisation of publicly owned industries and the opening up of
certain sectors to private and foreign interests has proceeded slowly amid political
debate.
India faces a fast-growing population and the challenge of reducing economic and
social inequality. Poverty remains a serious problem, although it has declined
significantly since independence. Official surveys estimated that in the year 2004-
2005, 27% of Indians were poor.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
o 1.1 Pre-colonial
o 1.2 Colonial
o 1.3 Independence to 1991
o 1.4 After 1991
• 2 Government intervention
o 2.1 State planning and the mixed economy
o 2.2 Public expenditure
o 2.3 Public receipts
o 2.4 General budget
• 3 Currency system
o 3.1 Rupee
• 4 Natural resources
• 5 Physical infrastructure
• 6 Financial institutions
• 7 Sectors
o 7.1 Agriculture
o 7.2 Industry
o 7.3 Services
o 7.4 Banking and finance
• 8 Socio-economic characteristics
o 8.1 Poverty
o 8.2 Corruption
o 8.3 Occupations and unemployment
o 8.4 Regional imbalance
 • 9 External trade and investment
o 9.1 Global trade relations
o 9.2 Balance of payments
o 9.3 Foreign direct investment in India
• 10 See also
• 11 Notes
• 12 References

• 13 External links

[edit] History
Main articles: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of India
India's economic history can be broadly divided into three eras, beginning with the
pre-colonial period lasting up to the 17th century. The advent of British colonisation
started the colonial period in the 17th century, which ended with independence in
1947. The third period stretches from independence in 1947 until now.

[edit] Pre-colonial

The citizens of the Indus Valley civilisation, a permanent and predominantly urban
settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, practised agriculture,
domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons,
and traded with other cities. Evidence of well planned streets, a drainage system and
water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the world's
first urban sanitation systems and the existence of a form of municipal government.[7]

Silver coin minted during the reign of the Gupta king Kumara Gupta I (AD 414–55)
The 1872 census revealed that 99.3% of the population of the region constituting
present-day India resided in villages,[8] whose economies were largely isolated and
self-sustaining, with agriculture the predominant occupation. This satisfied the food
requirements of the village and provided raw materials for hand-based industries,
such as textiles, food processing and crafts. Although many kingdoms and rulers
issued coins, barter was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce
as revenue to the rulers, while its craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest
time for their services.[9]
Religion, especially Hinduism, and the caste and the joint family systems, played an
influential role in shaping economic activities.[10] The caste system functioned much
like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of labour, providing for the
training of apprentices and, in some cases, allowing manufacturers to achieve narrow
specialization. For instance, in certain regions, producing each variety of cloth was the
speciality of a particular sub-caste.
Estimates of the per capita income of India (1857–1900) as per 1948–49 prices.[11]
Textiles such as muslin, Calicos, shawls, and agricultural products such as pepper,
cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe, the Middle East and South East
Asia in return for gold and silver.[12]
Assessment of India's pre-colonial economy is mostly qualitative, owing to the lack of
quantitative information. One estimate puts the revenue of Akbar's Mughal Empire in
1600 at £17.5 million, in contrast with the total revenue of Great Britain in 1800,
which totalled £16 million.[13] India, by the time of the arrival of the British, was a
largely traditional agrarian economy with a dominant subsistence sector dependent
on primitive technology. It existed alongside a competitively developed network of
commerce, manufacturing and credit. After the fall of the Mughals, India was
administered by Maratha Empire. The maratha empire's budget in 1740s, at its peak,
was Rs. 100 million. After the loss at Panipat, the maratha empire disintegrated into
confederate states of Gwalior, Baroda, Indore, Jhansi, Nagpur, Pune and Kolhapur.
Gwalior state had a budget of Rs. 30M. However, at this time, British East India
company entered the Indian political theatre. Until, 1857, when India was firmly under
the British crown, the country remained in a state of political instability due to
internecine wars and conflicts.[14]

[edit] Colonial

Colonial rule brought a major change in the taxation environment from revenue taxes
to property taxes resulting in mass impoverishment and destitution of the great
majority of farmers. It also created an institutional environment that, on paper,
guaranteed property rights among the colonizers, encouraged free trade, and created
a single currency with fixed exchange rates, standardized weights and measures,
capital markets, a well developed system of railways and telegraphs, a civil service
that aimed to be free from political interference, and a common-law, adversarial legal
system.[15] India's colonisation by the British coincided with major changes in the
world economy—industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade.
However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the
poorest in the developing world,[16] with industrial development stalled, agriculture
unable to feed a rapidly growing population, one of the world's lowest life
expectancies, and low rates of literacy.
An estimate by Cambridge University historian Angus Maddison reveals that India's
share of the world income fell from 22.6% in 1700, comparable to Europe's share of
23.3%, to a low of 3.8% in 1952.[17] While Indian leaders during the Independence
struggle, and left-nationalist economic historians have blamed colonial rule for the
dismal state of India's economy in its aftermath, a broader macroeconomic view of
India during this period reveals that there were sectors of growth and decline,
resulting from changes brought about by colonialism and a world that was moving
towards industrialisation and economic integration.[18][19]

[edit] Independence to 1991

Growth rate of India's real GDP per capita (Constant Prices: Chain series) (1950–2006).
Data Source: Penn World tables.
Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience
(which was seen by Indian leaders as exploitative in nature) and by those leaders'
exposure to Fabian socialism. Policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong
emphasis on import substitution, industrialization, state intervention in labour and
financial markets, a large public sector, business regulation, and central planning.[20]
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister, along with the statistician Prasanta
Chandra Mahalanobis, carried on by Indira Gandhi formulated and oversaw economic
policy. They expected favourable outcomes from this strategy, because it involved
both public and private sectors and was based on direct and indirect state
intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system.[21]
The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive
heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticized by
economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard
the development of small manufacturers.[22]
India's low average growth rate from 1947–80 was derisively referred to as the Hindu
rate of growth, because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other
Asian countries, especially the "East Asian Tigers".[15]

[edit] After 1991

Goldman Sachs has predicted that India will become 3rd largest economy of the world by
2035 based on predicted growth rate of 5.3 to 6.1%. Currently It is cruising at 9.4% growth
rate.
In the late 80s, the government led by Rajiv Gandhi eased restrictions on capacity
expansion for incumbents, removed price controls and reduced corporate taxes. While
this increased the rate of growth, it also led to high fiscal deficits and a worsening
current account. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which was India's major trading
partner, and the first Gulf War, which caused a spike in oil prices, caused a major
balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of
defaulting on its loans.[23] In response, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao along with his
finance minister Manmohan Singh initiated the economic liberalisation of 1991. The
reforms did away with the Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing)
and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of foreign direct
investment in many sectors.[24] Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has
remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party, although no party has tried to
take on powerful lobbies such as the trade unions and farmers, or contentious issues
such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.[25]
Since 1990 India has emerged as one of the wealthiest economies in the developing
world; during this period, the economy has grown constantly, but with a few major
setbacks. This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates
and food security.
While the credit rating of India was hit by its nuclear tests in 1998, it has been raised
to investment level in 2007 by S&P and Moody's.[26][dead link][27] In 2003, Goldman Sachs
predicted that India's GDP in current prices will overtake France and Italy by 2020,
Germany, UK and Russia by 2025 and Japan by 2035. By 2035, it was projected to be
the third largest economy of the world, behind US and China.[28][29]

[edit] Government intervention

[edit] State planning and the mixed economy

Main article: Five-Year Plans of India

After independence, India opted for a centrally planned economy to try to achieve an
effective and equitable allocation of national resources and balanced economic
development. The process of formulation and direction of the Five-Year Plans is
carried out by the Planning Commission, headed by the Prime Minister of India as its
chairperson.[30]

The number of people employed in non-agricultural occupations in the public and private
sectors. Totals are rounded. Private sector data relates to non-agriculture establishments with
10 or more employees.[31]
India's mixed economy combines features of both capitalist market economy and the
socialist planned economy, but has shifted more towards the former over the past
decade. The public sector generally covers areas which are deemed too important or
not profitable enough to leave to the market, including such services as the railways
and postal system.
Since independence, there have been phases of nationalizing such areas as banking.
More recently, there have been phases of privatizing such sectors.[31]

[edit] Public expenditure

India's public expenditure is classified as development expenditure, comprising

central plan expenditure and central assistance and non-development expenditures;
these categories can each be divided into capital expenditure and revenue
expenditure. Central plan expenditure is allocated to development schemes outlined
in the plans of the central government and public sector undertakings; central
assistance refers to financial assistance and developmental loans given for plans of
the state governments and union territories. Non-development capital expenditure
comprises capital defense expenditure, loans to public enterprises, states and union
territories and foreign governments, while non-development revenue expenditure
comprises revenue defence expenditure, administrative expenditure, subsidies, debt
relief to farmers, postal deficit, pensions, social and economic services (education,
health, agriculture, science and technology), grants to states and union territories and
foreign governments.[32][33][31]

Headquarters of India's central bank, the Reserve Bank of India, in Mumbai (It's the tall
building in the background. The building in the foreground is the Asiatic Library)
India's non-development revenue expenditure has increased nearly fivefold in 2003–
04 since 1990–91 and more than tenfold since 1985–1986. Interest payments are the
single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non
development expenditure in the 2003–04 budget. Defence expenditure increased
fourfold during the same period and has been increasing due to growing tensions in
the region, the expensive dispute with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir and an
effort to modernise the military. Administrative expenses are compounded by a large
salary and pension bill, which rises periodically due to revisions in wages, dearness
allowance etc. subsidies on food, fertilizers, education and petroleum and other merit
and non-merit subsidies account are not only continuously rising, especially because
of rising crude oil and food prices, but are also harder to rein in, because of political
compulsions.[34][31]

[edit] Public receipts

India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union
government to levy income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance
tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to
levy sales tax on intrastate sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions,
excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and
collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by
the state government to levy property tax, Octroi and charge users for public utilities
like water supply, sewage etc.[35][36] More than half of the revenues of the union and
state governments come from taxes, of which half come from Indirect taxes. More
than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues is shared with the state
governments.[37]
The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and
increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions:

• Reducing the rates of individual and corporate income taxes, excises, customs and
making it more progressive
• Reducing exemptions and concessions
• Simplification of laws and procedures
 • Introduction of Permanent account number to track monetary transactions
• 21 of the 29 states introduced Value added tax (VAT) on April 1, 2005 to replace the
complex and multiple sales tax system[36][38]

The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest
receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are
grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from
general, economic and social services.[34]
Inter-State share in the federal tax pool is decided by the recommendations of the
Finance Commission to the President.

[edit] General budget

The Finance minister of India presents the annual union budget in the Parliament on
the last working day of February. The budget has to be passed by the Lok Sabha
before it can come into effect on April 1, the start of India's fiscal year. The Union
budget is preceded by an economic survey which outlines the broad direction of the
budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year.
This economic survey involves all the various NGOs, women organizations, business
people, old people associations etc.
India's union budget for 2005–06, had an estimated outlay of Rs.5,14,344 crores
($118 billion). Earnings from taxes amount to Rs. 2,73,466 crore ($63b). India's fiscal
deficit amounts to 4.5% or 1,39,231 crore ($32b).[39] The fiscal deficit is expected to
be 3.8% of GDP, by March 2007.[40]

[edit] Currency system

[edit] Rupee

Main article: Indian rupee

Indian bank notes depicting M. K. Gandhi, The 1000 rupee note is the highest denomination
printed.
The Rupee is the only legal tender accepted in India. The exchange rate as of May
23, 2008 is about 42.695 to a US dollar,[41] 67.335 to a Euro, and 84.5 to a UK pound.
The Indian rupee is accepted as legal tender in the neighboring Nepal and Bhutan,
both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee is divided into
100 paise. The highest-denomination banknote is the 1,000 rupee note; the lowest-
denomination coin in circulation is the 25 paise coin.[42]

[edit] Natural resources

India's total cultivable area is 1,269,219 km² (56.78% of total land area), which is
decreasing due to constant pressure from an ever growing population and increased
urbanisation.
India has a total water surface area of 314,400 km² and receives an average annual
rainfall of 1,100 mm. Irrigation accounts for 92% of the water utilisation, and
comprised 380 km² in 1974, and is expected to rise to 1,050 km² by 2025, with the
balance accounted for by industrial and domestic consumers. India's inland water
resources comprising rivers, canals, ponds and lakes and marine resources
comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other gulfs and bays
provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. India is the
sixth largest producer of fish in the world and second largest in inland fish production.
[citation needed]
India's major mineral resources include Coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world),
Iron ore, Manganese, Mica, Bauxite, Titanium ore, Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds,
Petroleum, Limestone and Thorium (world's largest along Kerala's shores). India's oil
reserves, found in Bombay High off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and in eastern
Assam meet 25% of the country's demand.[43][4]
Rising energy demand concomitant with economic growth has created a perpetual
state of energy crunch in India. India is poor in oil resources and is currently heavily
dependent on coal and foreign oil imports for its energy needs. Though India is rich in
Thorium, but not in Uranium, which it might get access to if a nuclear deal with US
comes to fruition. India is rich in certain energy resources which promise significant
future potential - clean / renewable energy resources like solar, wind, biofuels
(jatropha, sugarcane).

[edit] Physical infrastructure

Mumbai Airport

The Mumbai-Pune Expressway is a large infrastructure project taken up by the Indian

government
Development of infrastructure was completely in the hands of the public sector and
was plagued by corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, urban-bias and an inability to
scale investment.[44]
India's low spending on power, construction, transportation, telecommunications and
real estate, at $31 billion or 6% of GDP in 2002 had prevented India from sustaining
higher growth rates. This had prompted the government to partially open up
infrastructure to the private sector allowing foreign investment[45][46][31] which has
helped in a sustained growth rate of close to 9% for the past six quarters.[47] India
holds second position in the world in roadways' construction, more than twice that of
China.[48] As of 2005 the electricity production was at 661.6 billion kWh with oil
production standing at 785,000 bbl/day. India's prime import partners are: China
8.7%, US 6%, Germany 4.6%, Singapore 4.6%, Australia 4% as of 2006 CIA FactBook
As of 15 January 2007, there were 2.10 million broadband lines in India. [4] Low tele-
density is the major hurdle for slow pickup in broadband services. Over 76% of the
broadband lines were via DSL and the rest via cable modems.
 See also: States of India by installed power capacity
See also: Water supply and sanitation in India

[edit] Financial institutions

Cuffe Parade is an important business district in Mumbai, home to the World Trade Center
as well as other important financial institutions
India inherited several institutions, such as the civil services, Reserve Bank of India,
railways, etc., from its British rulers. Mumbai serves as the nation's commercial
capital, with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the
National Stock Exchange (NSE) located here. The headquarters of many financial
institutions are also located in the city.

Cyber Greens Office Complex. Containing offices like ABN Amro, Microsoft.
The RBI, the country's central bank was established on 1 April 1935. It serves as the
nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the financial system,
manager of exchange control and as an issuer of currency. The RBI is governed by a
central board, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Central government of
India.
The BSE Sensex or the BSE Sensitive Index is a value-weighted index composed of 30
companies with April 1979 as the base year (100). These companies have the largest
and most actively traded stocks and are representative of various sectors, on the
Exchange. They account for around one-fifth of the market capitalisation of the BSE.
The Sensex is generally regarded as the most popular and precise barometer of the
Indian stock markets. Incorporated in 1992, the National Stock Exchange is one of the
largest and most advanced stock markets in India. The NSE is the world's third largest
stock exchange in terms of transactions. There are a total of 23 stock exchanges in
India, but the BSE and NSE comprise 83% of the volumes.[49] The Securities and
Exchange Board of India (SEBI), established in 1992, regulates the stock markets and
other securities markets of the country.

[edit] Sectors
[edit] Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in India

Composition of India's total production (million tonnes) of foodgrains and commercial

crops, in 2003–04.
India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like
forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 18.6% of the GDP in 2005, employed 60%
of the total workforce[4] and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the
largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic
development of India. Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to
the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady
improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices
and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since Green revolution in India.
However, international comparisons reveal that the average yield in India is generally
30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.[50]
The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:

• Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land

reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm
produce.
• The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m²) and is subject to
fragmentation, due to land ceiling acts and in some cases, family disputes. Such small
holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment and low
productivity of labour.
• Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate,
hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of
small land holdings.
• Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 53.6% of the land
was irrigated in 2000–01,[51] which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall,
specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust growth for the
economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth.[52] Farm credit
is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent for rural development in
the subcontinent.

[edit] Industry

Per capita GDP (at PPP) of South Asian economies versus those of South Korea, as a
percentage of the US[20][53]
India is fourteenth in the world in factory output. They together account for 27.6% of
the GDP and employ 17% of the total workforce.[4] However, about one-third of the
industrial labour force is engaged in simple household manufacturing only. [5]
Economic reforms brought foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public
sector industries, opened up sectors hitherto reserved for the public sector and led to
an expansion in the production of fast-moving consumer goods.[54]
Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector, which was usually run by oligopolies of
old family firms and required political connections to prosper was faced with foreign
competition, including the threat of cheaper Chinese imports. It has since handled the
change by squeezing costs, revamping management, focusing on designing new
products and relying on low labour costs and technology.[55]
34 Indian companies have been listed in the Forbes Global 2000 ranking for 2008.[56]
The 10 leading companies are:
Market
Revenue Profits Assets
World Value
Company Logo Industry (billion (billion (billion
Rank (billion
$) $) $)
$)
Reliance Oil & Gas
193 26.07 2.79 30.67 89.29
Industries Operations
Oil and Natural Oil & Gas
198 18.90 4.11 33.79 54.11
Gas Corporation Operations
State Bank of
219 Banking 15.77 1.47 188.56 33.29
India
Indian Oil Oil & Gas
303 42.68 1.82 25.39 16.36
Corporation Operations
374 ICICI Bank Banking 9.84 0.64 91.07 29.85
411 NTPC Utilities 7.84 1.60 20.34 41.57
Steel Authority
647 Materials 7.88 1.45 8.05 26.37
of India Limited
738 Tata Steel Materials 5.83 0.97 11.48 14.63
Telecommunications
826 Bharti Airtel 4.26 0.94 6.61 39.16
Services
Reliance Telecommunications
846 3.13 0.65 13.08 29.63
Communications Services

[edit] Services

Infosys headquarters in Bangalore, one of the largest software companies in India.

India is fifteenth in services output. It provides employment to 23% of work force, and
it is growing fast, growth rate 7.5% in 1991–2000 up from 4.5% in 1951–80. It has the
largest share in the GDP, accounting for 55% in 2007 up from 15% in 1950.[4] Business
services (information technology, information technology enabled services, business
process outsourcing) are among the fastest growing sectors contributing to one third
of the total output of services in 2000. The growth in the IT sector is attributed to
increased specialisation, availability of a large pool of low cost, but highly skilled,
educated and fluent English-speaking workers. On the supply side and on the demand
side, increased demand from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports
or those looking to outsource their operations. India's IT industry, despite contributing
significantly to its balance of payments, accounted for only about 1% of the total GDP
or 1/50th of the total services.[57]

[edit] Banking and finance

Main article: Banking in India

Structure of the organised banking sector in India. Number of banks are in brackets.[58]
The Indian money market is classified into: the organised sector (comprising private,
public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known
as scheduled banks); and the unorganised sector (comprising individual or family
owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies
(NBFCs)). The unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional
banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like
ceremonies and short duration loans.[59]
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in
1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority
sectors like agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to
ensure that the banks fulfill their social and developmental goals. Since then, the
number of bank branches has increased from 10,120 in 1969 to 98,910 in 2003 and
the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the
same period. The total deposits increased 32.6 times between 1971 to 1991
compared to 7 times between 1951 to 1971. Despite an increase of rural branches,
from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 32,270 or 48%, only
32,270 out of 5 lakh (500,000) villages are covered by a scheduled bank.[60][61]
Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While
some of these relate to nationalised banks (like encouraging mergers, reducing
government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness), other
reforms have opened up the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign
players.[62][4]

[edit] Socio-economic characteristics

[edit] Poverty
Percentage of population living under the poverty line
Main article: Poverty in India
Large numbers of India's people live in abject poverty. Wealth distribution in India is
improving since the liberalization and with the end of the socialist rule termed as the
license raj.[63] While poverty in India has reduced significantly, official figures estimate
that 27.5%[64] of Indians still lived below the national poverty line in 2004-2005.[65] A
2007 report by the state-run National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised
Sector (NCEUS) found that 70% of Indians, or 800 million people, lived on less than 20
rupees per day[66] with most working in "informal labour sector with no job or social
security, living in abject poverty."[67]
Since the early 1950s, successive governments have implemented various schemes,
under planning, to alleviate poverty, that have met with partial success. All these
programmes have relied upon the strategies of the Food for work programme and
National Rural Employment Programme of the 1980s, which attempted to use the
unemployed to generate productive assets and build rural infrastructure.[31] In August
2005, the Indian parliament passed the Rural Employment Guarantee Bill, the largest
programme of this type in terms of cost and coverage, which promises 100 days of
minimum wage employment to every rural household in 200 of India's 600 districts.
The question of whether economic reforms have reduced poverty or not has fuelled
debates without generating any clear cut answers and has also put political pressure
on further economic reforms, especially those involving the downsizing of labour and
cutting agricultural subsidies.[68][69]

[edit] Corruption

Main article: Corruption in India

Corruption has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India. The economic
reforms of 1991 reduced the red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj that had
strangled private enterprise and was blamed for the corruption and inefficiencies. Yet,
a 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) India found that more than half of
those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get
a job done in a public office.[70]
The Right to Information Act (2005) and equivalent acts in the states, that require
government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive
action, computerisation of services and various central and state government acts
that established vigilance commissions have considerably reduced corruption or at
least have opened up avenues to redress grievances.[70] The 2007 report by
Transparency International ranks India at 72nd place and states that significant
improvements were made by India in reducing corruption.[71][72]

[edit] Occupations and unemployment

Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 57% of the total workforce in
1999–2000, down from 60% in 1993–94. While agriculture has faced stagnation in
growth, services have seen a steady growth. Of the total workforce, 8% is in the
organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the public sector. The NSSO survey
estimated that in 1999–2000, 106 million, nearly 10% of the population were
unemployed and the overall unemployment rate was 7.32%, with rural areas doing
marginally better (7.21%) than urban areas (7.65%).
Unemployment in India is characterised by chronic underemployment or disguised
unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and
unemployment, (Which in recent decades has sent millions of poor and unskilled
people into urban areas in search of livelihoods.) attempt to solve the problem, by
providing financial assistance for setting up businesses, skill honing, setting up public
sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decreased role of the public
sector after liberalisation has further underlined the need for focusing on better
education and has also put political pressure on further reforms.[73][31]

[edit] Regional imbalance

Main article: List of regions of India

One of the critical problems facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional
variations among India's different states and territories in terms of per capita income,
poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development.[74]
The five-year plans have attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging
industrial development in the interior regions, but industries still tend to concentrate
around urban areas and port cities[75] After liberalization, the more advanced states
are better placed to benefit from them, with infrastructure like well developed ports,
urbanisation and an educated and skilled workforce which attract manufacturing and
service sectors. The union and state governments of backward regions are trying to
reduce the disparities by offering tax holidays, cheap land, etc., and focusing more on
sectors like tourism, which although being geographically and historically determined,
can become a source of growth and is faster to develop than other sectors.[76][77]
See also: States of India by size of economy
See also: Standard of living in India#Regional imbalance

[edit] External trade Share of top five investing countries in FDI inflows. (2000–2007) [78]

and investment
Inflows
Rank Country Inflows (%)
[edit] Global trade (Million USD)
relations
[79]
India currently accounts for 0.67% 1 Mauritius 85,178 44.24%
of World trade as of 2002
according to the WTO.[80] Until the 2 United States 18,040 9.37%
liberalisation of 1991, India was
largely and intentionally isolated
from the world markets, to protect 3 United Kingdom 15,363 7.98%
its fledging economy and to
achieve self-reliance. Foreign
trade was subject to import tariffs, 4 Netherlands 11,177 5.81%
export taxes and quantitative
restrictions, while foreign direct
5 Singapore 9,742 5.06%
investment was restricted by
upper-limit equity participation,
restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals;
these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The
restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200M annually between 1985
and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial
borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians.[81]

Indian exports in 2006

India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years after independence, due to the
predominance of tea, jute and cotton manufactures, demand for which was generally
inelastic. Imports in the same period consisted predominantly of machinery,
equipment and raw materials, due to nascent industrialisation. Since liberalisation,
the value of India's international trade has become more broad-based and has risen
to Rs. 63,080,109 crores in 2003–04 from Rs.1,250 crores in 1950–51.[citation needed]
India's major trading partners are China, the US, the UAE, the UK, Japan and the EU.[82]
The exports during April 2007 were $12.31 billion up by 16% and import were $17.68
billion with an increase of 18.06% over the previous year.[83]
India is a founding-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since
1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organization. While participating actively in
its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the
developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of
such matters as labour and environment issues and other non-tariff barriers into the
WTO policies.[84]

[edit] Balance of payments

Since independence, India's balance of payments on its current account has been
negative. Since liberalisation in the 1990s (precipitated by a balance of payment
crisis), India's exports have been consistently rising, covering 80.3% of its imports in
2002–03, up from 66.2% in 1990–91. Although India is still a net importer, since 1996–
97, its overall balance of payments (i.e., including the capital account balance), has
been positive, largely on account of increased foreign direct investment and deposits
from non-resident Indians; until this time, the overall balance was only occasionally
positive on account of external assistance and commercial borrowings. As a result,
India's foreign currency reserves stood at $285 billion in 2008, which could be used in
infrastructural development of the country if used effectively.

India is a net importer: Per the CIA factbook in 2007, imports were $224bn and exports
$140bn.
India's reliance on external assistance and commercial borrowings has decreased
since 1991–92, and since 2002–03, it has gradually been repaying these debts.
Declining interest rates and reduced borrowings decreased India's debt service ratio
to 4.5% in 2007.[85] In India, External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs) are being
permitted by the Government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian
corporates. The Ministry of Finance monitors and regulates these borrowings (ECBs)
through ECB policy guidelines.[86]

[edit] Foreign direct investment in India

As the third-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India is a preferred destination
for foreign direct investments (FDI)[citation needed]; India has strengths in information
technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels,
pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. India has always held promise for global
investors[citation needed], but its rigid FDI policies were a significant hindrance in this
regard. However, as a result of a series of ambitious and positive economic reforms
aimed at deregulating the economy and stimulating foreign investment, India has
positioned itself as one of the front-runners of the rapidly growing Asia Pacific Region.
India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the
middle-class population at 300 million exceeds the population of both the US and the
EU, and represents a powerful consumer market.[87]
India's recently liberalised FDI policy (2005) allows up to a 100% FDI stake in
ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing
requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to
foreign technology and foreign direct investment FDI. The upward moving growth
curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and
liberalized FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow
100 per cent FDI in the construction business.[88] This automatic route has been
permitted in townships, housing, built-up infrastructure and construction development
projects including housing, commercial premises, hotels, resorts, hospitals,
educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level
infrastructure.
A number of changes were approved on the FDI policy to remove the caps in most
sectors. Restrictions will be relaxed in sectors as diverse as civil aviation, construction
development, industrial parks, petroleum and natural gas, commodity exchanges,
credit-information services and mining. But this still leaves an unfinished agenda of
permitting greater foreign investment in politically sensitive areas such as insurance
and retailing. FDI inflows into India reached a record US$19.5bn in fiscal year 2006/07
(April-March), according to the government's Secretariat for Industrial Assistance. This
was more than double the total of US$7.8bn in the previous fiscal year. Between April
2007 and September 2007, FDI inflows were US$8.2bn.[89]

[edit] See also

• Economic development in India
• List of Indian companies
• International investment position
• Bilateral Investment Treaty
• Energy policy
• List of Cooperative Banks in India

[edit] Notes
India Portal

1. ^ Economic Times India

2. ^ "India's GDP expanded at fastest pace in 18 years", MarketWatch, May 31, 2007.
3. ^ IMF - World Economic Outlook Database. CIA (2007-10-15). Retrieved on 2007-10-24.
4. ^ a b c d e f CIA - The World Factbook - India. CIA (2007-09-20). Retrieved on 2007-10-02.
5. ^ India climbs up the income ladder
6. ^ World Bank Country Classification Groups, (July 2006 data)
7. ^ Nehru, Jawaharlal (1946). Discovery of India. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303103-1.
8. ^ Kumar, Dharma (Ed.) (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India (Volume 2) c. 1757 - c. 1970.
Penguin Books, 519.
9. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M. (2005). "2", Indian Economy. S.Chand, 15–16. ISBN 81-219-0298-3.
10. ^ Sankaran, S (1994). "3", Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development. Margham Publications, 50.
ISBN.
11. ^ Kumar, Dharma (Ed.). "4", The Cambridge Economic History of India (Volume 2), 422.
12. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "2", Indian Economy, 16.
13. ^ "Economy of Mughal Empire", Bombay Times, Times of India, 2004-08-17.
14. ^ Kumar, Dharma (Ed.). "1", The Cambridge Economic History of India (Volume 2), 32–35.
15. ^ a b Williamson, John and Zagha, Roberto (2002). "From the Hindu Rate of Growth to the Hindu Rate of
Reform". Working Paper No. 144. Center for research on economic development and policy reform.
16. ^ Roy, Tirthankar (2000). "1", The Economic History of India. Oxford University Press, 1. ISBN 0-19-
565154-5.
17. ^ "Of Oxford, economics, empire, and freedom", The Hindu, October 2, 2005.
18. ^ Roy, Tirthankar (2000). "10", The Economic History of India. Oxford University Press, 304. ISBN 0-19-
565154-5.
19. ^ Roy, Tirthankar (2000). "preface", The Economic History of India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
565154-5.
20. ^ a b Kelegama, Saman and Parikh, Kirit (2000). "Political Economy of Growth and Reforms in South Asia".
Second Draft.
21. ^ Cameron, John and Ndhlovu, P Tidings (2001). "Cultural Influences on Economic Thought in India:
Resistance to diffusion of neo-classical economics and the principles of Hinduism".
22. ^ Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan. Retrieved on 2005-07-16.
23. ^ Ghosh, Arunabha (2004-06-01). "India's pathway trough economic crisis". Global Economic Governance
Programme GEG Working Paper 2004/06. Retrieved on 2007-10-02.
24. ^ Panagariya, Arvind (2004). "India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms".
25. ^ "That old Gandhi magic", The Economist, November 27, 1997.
26. ^ "S&P raises India's credit rating.
27. ^ "India's sovereign credit upgraded".
28. ^ Wilson, Dominic; Purushothaman, Roopa (2003-10-01). DreamingWith BRICs: The Path to 2050. Global
economics paper No. 99. Goldman Sachs. Retrieved on 2007-10-04.
29. ^ Grammaticas, Damian. "Indian economy 'to overtake UK'". BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-01-26.
30. ^ History of the Planning Commission. Retrieved on 2005-07-22.
31. ^ a b c d e f g Economic Survey 2004–2005. Retrieved on 2006-07-15.
32. ^ Public expenditure was classified as plan and non-plan expenditure in the 1987–1988 union budget. It is
now referred to as development and non-development expenditure, but the definition remains the same.
Development expenditure is a capital expenditure.
33. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "55", Indian Economy, 943.
34. ^ a b Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "55", Indian Economy, 943–945.
35. ^ Service tax and expenditure tax are not levied in Jammu and Kashmir; Intra-state sale happens when goods
or the title of goods move from one state to another.
36. ^ a b Bernardi, Luigi and Fraschini, Angela (2005). "Tax System And Tax Reforms In India". Working paper n.
51.
37. ^ Tax revenue was 88% of total union government revenue in 1950–51 and has come down to 73% in 2003–
04, as a result of increase in non-tax revenue. Tax revenues were 70% of total state government revenues in
2002 to 2003. Indirect taxes were 84% of the union governments total tax revenue and have come down to
62% in 2003–04, mostly due to cuts in import duties and rationalisation. The states share in union
government's tax revenue is 28.0% for the period 2000 to 2005 as per the recommendations of the eleventh
finance commission. In addition, states that do not levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco, are entitled to
1.5% of the proceeds.Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M. (2005). Indian Economy. S.Chand, 938, 942, 946.
ISBN 81-219-0298-3.
38. ^ "Indif_real_GDP_per_capitaa says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax", Daily Times, March 25, 2005.
39. ^ Union Budget & Economic Survey. Retrieved on 2006-07-29.
40. ^ Revenue surge boosts fiscal health.
41. ^ U.S. Dollar to Indian Rupee Exchange Rate - Yahoo! Finance India
42. ^ RBI
43. ^ Datt, Mihir Bhojani & Vivek Sundharam, K.P.M.. "7", Indian Economy, 90,97,98,100.
44. ^ Sankaran, S (1994). Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development. Margham Publications. ISBN.
45. ^ Infrastructure the missing link. Retrieved on 2005-08-14.
46. ^ Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favorable climate for foreign investment. Retrieved on 2005-08-
14.
47. ^ India's Economic Growth Unexpectedly Quickens to 9.2%
48. ^ Infrastructure Rankings.
49. ^ Regional stock exchanges—Bulldozed by the Big Two. Retrieved on 2005-08-10.
50. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "28", Indian Economy, 485–491.
51. ^ Multiple authors (2004). "Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2004".
52. ^ Sankaran, S. "28", Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development, 492–493.
53. ^ Data for Bangladesh is not available for 1950.
54. ^ "Economic structure", The Economist, October 6, 2003.
55. ^ "Indian manufacturers learn to compete", The Economist, 12 February 2004.
56. ^ Forbes Global 2000 (Ger-Ind). Retrieved on March, 2008.
57. ^ Gordon, Jim and Gupta, Poonam (2003). "Understanding India's Services Revolution". November 12, 2003.
58. ^ Old private banks are private banks existing prior to opening up of the banking sector.
59. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "50", Indian Economy, 847–850.
60. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "50", Indian Economy, 850–851.
61. ^ Ghosh, Jayati. Bank Nationalisation: The Record. Macroscan. Retrieved on 2005-08-05.
62. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "50", Indian Economy, 865–867.
63. ^ Income classes:India's income distribution widens
64. ^ This figure is extremely sensitive to the surveying methodology used. The Uniform Recall Period (URP)
gives 27.5%. The Mixed Recall Period (MRP) gives a figure of 21.8%
65. ^ Planning commission of India. Poverty estimates for 2004-2005 [1]
66. ^ NCEUS Report
67. ^ "Nearly 80 Percent of India Lives On Half Dollar A Day", Reuters, August 10, 2007.
68. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "22", Indian Economy, 367,369,370.
 69. ^ Jawahar gram samriddhi yojana. Retrieved on 2005-07-09.
70. ^ a b Transparency International India. India Corruption Study 2005. Centre for Media Studies. Retrieved on
2008-03-14.
71. ^ 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index reinforces link between poverty and corruption. Transparency
International. Retrieved on 2008-03-15.
72. ^ CPI Table. Transparency International. Retrieved on 2008-03-15.
73. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "24", Indian Economy, 403–405.
74. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "27", Indian Economy, 471–472.
75. ^ Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India", in Sathyamurthy, T.V. (ed.): Industry &
agriculture in India since independence. Oxford University Press, pp. 189–199. ISBN 0-19-564394-1.
76. ^ Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding Regional Economic
Growth in India". Working paper 88.
77. ^ Kurian, N.J.. Regional disparities in india. Retrieved on 2005-08-06.
78. ^ FDI in India Statistics. Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
79. ^ Much of India's FDI is routed through Mauritius, because both countries have an agreement to avoid double
taxation. India to sign free trade agreement with Mauritius. Retrieved on 2005-08-15.
80. ^ http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp195_e.htm India's Trade policy review by the wto
81. ^ Srinivasan, T.N. (2002). "Economic Reforms and Global Integration". 17 January 2002.
82. ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M.. "46", Indian Economy, 767,772–76.
83. ^ INDIA’S FOREIGN TRADE: APRIL-DECEMBER, 2007
84. ^ India & the World Trade Organization. Retrieved on 2005-07-09.
85. ^ India`s external debt rises to US$190.5bn
86. ^ External Commercial Borrowings
87. ^ Middle class in India has arrived
88. ^ The Hinduonline
89. ^ The Economist Freeing of Foreign Investment in India

[edit] References
Prose contains specific citations in source text which may be viewed in edit mode.
Books

• Nehru, Jawaharlal (1946). Discovery of India. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303103-1.

• Kumar, Dharma (Ed.) (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India (Volume 2)
c. 1757 - c. 1970. Penguin Books.
• Sankaran, S (1994). Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development. Margham
Publications. ISBN.
• Roy, Tirthankar (2000). The Economic History of India. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-565154-5.
• Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India", in Sathyamurthy, T.V.
(ed.): Industry & agriculture in India since independence. Oxford University Press,
pp. 189–199. ISBN 0-19-564394-1.

Papers
 • Williamson, John and Zagha, Roberto (2002). "From the Hindu Rate of Growth to the
Hindu Rate of Reform". Working Paper No. 144. Center for research on economic
development and policy reform.
• Centre for Media Studies (2005). "India Corruption Study 2005: To Improve
Governance Volume – I: Key Highlights". Transparency International India.
• Kelegama, Saman and Parikh, Kirit (2000). "Political Economy of Growth and
Reforms in South Asia". Second Draft.
• Cameron, John and Ndhlovu, P Tidings (2001). "Cultural Influences on Economic
Thought in India: Resistance to diffusion of neo-classical economics and the
principles of Hinduism".
• Panagariya, Arvind (2004). "India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms".
• Rodrik, Dani and Subramanian, Arvind (2004). "From “Hindu Growth” To
Productivity Surge: The Mystery Of The Indian Growth Transition".
• Bernardi, Luigi and Fraschini, Angela (2005). "Tax System And Tax Reforms In
India". Working paper n. 51.
• Gordon, Jim and Gupta, Poonam (2003). "Understanding India's Services
Revolution". November 12, 2003.
• Ghosh, Jayati. Bank Nationalisation: The Record. Macroscan. Retrieved on 2005-08-
05.
• Srinivasan, T.N. (2002). "Economic Reforms and Global Integration". 17 January
2002.
• Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam and Ramiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding
Regional Economic Growth in India". Working paper 88.

Government publications

• Jawahar gram samriddhi yojana. Retrieved on 2005-07-09.

• India & the World Trade Organization. Retrieved on 2005-07-09.
• Economic Survey 2004–2005. Retrieved on 2005-07-15.
• History of the Planning Commission. Retrieved on 2005-07-22.
• Multiple authors (2004). "Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2004".
• Kurian, N.J.. Regional disparities in india. Retrieved on 2005-08-06.

News

• "That old Gandhi magic", The Economist, November 27, 1997.

• "Indif_real_GDP_per_capitaa says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax", Daily Times,
March 25, 2005.
• "Economic structure", The Economist, October 6, 2003.
• "Indian manufacturers learn to compete", The Economist, 12 February 2004.
• "India’s next 50 years", The Economist, August 14, 1997.
• "The plot thickens", The Economist, May 31, 2001.
• "The voters' big surprise", The Economist, May 13, 2004.
• Regional stock exchanges -- Bulldozed by the Big Two. Retrieved on 2005-08-10.
 • Infrastructure the missing link. Retrieved on 2005-08-14.
• "Rural Employment Guarantee Bill passed by voice vote", Yahoo, August 23,
2005. [dead link]
• "Of Oxford, economics, empire, and freedom", The Hindu, October 2, 2005.
• "Indian GDP expected to be 902 billion dollars", People's Daily Online, January 12,
2007.
• "India, now a $1-trillion economy!", Rediff, April 26, 2007.

Articles

• Economic Development of India. Retrieved on MAy 17, 2007.

• Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan. Retrieved on 2005-07-16.
• Forex reserves up by $88mn. Retrieved on 2005-08-10.
• CIA - The World Factbook. Retrieved on 2005-08-02.
• Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favorable climate for foreign investment.
Retrieved on 2005-08-14.
• PPP GDP 2004. Retrieved on 2005-08-14.
• Total GDP 2004. Retrieved on 2005-08-14.
• Forbes Global 2000 (Ger-Ind). Retrieved on 2005-10-15.
• Forbes Global 2000 (Ind-Jap). Retrieved on 2005-10-15.
• John, Williamson (2006-05-11). The Rise of the Indian Economy. Retrieved on 2008-
03-18.

[edit] External links

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Reports and statistics

• India and the Knowledge Economy - a World Bank Institute report.

• Ernst & Young 2006 report on doing Business in India
• CIA - The World Factbook -- India
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