1 Theorems

Theorem 1 (Arguement Principle) Let D be a open domain and f meromorphic in D with poles
p1 , p2 , . . . pm and zeros z1 , . . . , zn counted according to multiplicity. If γ is a closed rectifiable curve in D
with γ 6= 0 then
n m
f 0 (z)
Z
1 X X
dz = n(γ; zk ) − n(γ; pk )
2πi γ f (z)
k=0 k=0

It is worth noting that this is also gives the winding number of the image of a curve.
Theorem 2 (Binomial Series) Let α be any non zero complex number. Define the binomial coefficients
as usual
 
α α(α − 1) · · · (α − n + 1)
=
n n!
Then
∞  
α
X α
(a + b) = an bα−n
n=0
n

Theorem 3 (Cauchy’s Theorem) 1. If f (z) is analytic in Ω then

Z
f (z)dz = 0
γ

for every cycle γ which is homologous to zero in Ω.

2. Let D be an open disc and let f be analytic on D. Let γ be a closed curve in D. For any point z0
not on γ
Z
1 f (z)
n(γ, z0 )f (z0 ) = dz
2πi z − z0
γ

Theorem 4 (Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem) Suppose z0 is an essential isolated singularity of f (z).

Then for every complex number w0 , there is a sequence zn → z0 such that f (zn ) → w0
Theorem 5 (Conformal Mapping Theorem) If f (z) is analytic at z0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 then f (z) is
conformal at z0 . (converse also holds)
Theorem 6 (Cauchy Hadamard forumla) For the series
X
ak z k

The radius of convergence R is given by

1
R= p
lim sup k
|ak |

1
Theorem 7 (Cauchy Riemann) Let f = u + iv be defined on a domain D in the complex plane, where
u and v are real-valued. Then f (z) is analytic on D if and only if u(x, y) and v(x, y) have continuous
first-order partial derivatives that satisfy the Cauchy Riemann equations

Theorem 8 (Exerior Domain Residue Theorem) Let D be an exterior domain with piecewise smooth
boundary. Suppose that f (z) is analytic on D ∪ ∂D, except for a finite number of isolated singularities
z1 , . . . , zm in D and let a−1 be the coefficent of the 1/z in the laurent expansion of f (z) which converges
for |z| > R. Then
Z m
X
f (z)dz = −2πa−1 + 2πi Res[f (z), zj ]
∂D j=1

Theorem 9 (Fractional Residue Theorem) If z0 is a simple pole of f (z), and C is an arc of the
circle {|z − z0 | = } of angle α, then
Z
lim f (z)dz = αiRes[f (z), z0 ]
→0 C

Theorem 10 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) If p(z) is a non-constant polynomial then there

is a complex number a with p(z) = 0

Theorem 11 (Green’s Theorem) Let p = p(x, y) and q = q(x, y) be continuous functions on the
closure of a bounded open set U whose boundary consists of a finite number of continuous curves oriented
so that U lies to the left of each one of these curves. Let C be the boundary of U . Then
Z ZZ  
∂q ∂p
pdx + qdy = − dydx
∂x ∂y
C U

Theorem 12 (Harnak’s Inequality) for a positive harmonic function u(z)e on a disk |z| < R
ρ−r ρ+r
u(0) ≤ u(z) ≤ u(0)
ρ+r ρ−r

Theorem 13 (Harmonic Classification Theorem) Any function harmonic in an annulus r < |z| <
R can be written
∞
X
f (z) = a0 + b0 log |z| + (cn z n + dn z̄ n )
n=−∞

Theorem 14 (Hurwitz’s Theorem) Suppose {fk (z)} is a sequence of analytic functions on a domain
D that converges normally on D to f (z), and suppose that f (z) has a zero of order N at z0 . Then
there exists ρ > 0 such that for k large, fk (z) has exactly N zeros in the disk {|z − z0 | < ρ} counting
multiplicity, and these zeros converge to z0 as k → ∞.

Theorem 15 (Implicit Function Theorem) Let F (z, w) be a continous function of z and w that
depends analytically on z for each fixed w, and let F1 (z, w) denote the derivative of F (z, w) with respect
to z. Suppose F (z0 , w0 ) = 0 and F0 (z0 , w0 ) 6= 0. Choose ρ such that F (z, w0 ) 6= 0 for 0 < ρ ≤ ρ. Then

2
 • there exists δ > 0 such that if |w − w0 | < δ, there is a unique z = g(w) satisfying |z − z0 | ≤ ρ and
F (z, w) = 0.
1
R ζF1 (ζ,w)
• g(w) = 2πi |ζ−z0 |=ρ F (ζ,w)
dζ.

• Suppose further that F (z) is analytic in w for each fixed z, and let F2 (z, w) denote the derivative
of F (z, w) with respect to w. Show that g(w) is analytic and

g 0 (w) = −F2 (g(w)), w)/F1 (g(w), w)

Theorem 16 (Jordan’s Lemma) If ΓR is the semicircular contour z(θ) = Reiθ , for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, in the
upper half-plane, then
Z
 iz 
e  |dz| ≤ π
ΓR

Theorem 17 (Liouville’s Theorem) Let f (z) be an analytic function on the complex plane. If f (z)
is bounded, then f (z) is constant.

Theorem 18 (Maximum Principle) If f (z) is analytic, non-constant in a region Ω, then |f (z)| has
no maximum on Ω.
If f (z) is defined an continuous on a closed bounded set E, and analytic on the interior of E, then
the maximum of |f (z)| on E is assumed on the boundary of E.

Theorem 19 (Mean Value Theorem) Let u be a harmonic function on an open set U . Let z0 ∈ U ,
and let r > 0 be a number such that the closed disc of radius r centered at z0 is contained in U . Then

Z2π
1
u(z0 ) = u(z0 + reiθ )dθ
2π
0

Theorem 20 (Mittag-Leffler Theorem) Let D be a domain in the complex plane. Let {zk } be a
sequence of distinct points in D with no accumulation point in D, and let Pk (z) be a polynomial in
1/(z − zk ). Then there is a meromorphic function f (z) on D whose poles are the points zk such that
f (z) − Pk (z) is analytic at zk .

Theorem 21 (ML-estimate) Suppose γ is a piecewise smooth curve. If h(z) is a continuous function

on γ, then
Z  Z
 
 h(z)dz  ≤ |h(z)| |dz|
 
γ γ

Further, if γ has length L, and |h(z)| ≤ M on γ then

Z 
 
 h(z)dz  ≤ M L
 
γ

3
Theorem 22 (Monodromy Theorem) Let U be a connected open set. Let f be analytic at a point z0
of U , and let γ and η be two paths from z0 to w ∈ U . Further assume:
• γ is homotopic to η in U .
• f can be continued analytically along any path in U .

Let fγ and fη be the analytic continuations of f along γ and η respectively. Then fγ and fη are equal
in some neighborhood of w.

Theorem 23 (Morera’s Theorem) Let f (z) be a continuous function on a domain D. If

Z
f (z)dz = 0
∂R

For every closed rectangle R contained in D with sides parallel to the coordinate exes, then f (z) is analytic
on D.

Theorem 24 (Picard’s Big Theorem) Suppose f (z) is meromorphic on a punctured neighborhood

{0 < |z − z0 | < δ} of z0 . If f (z) omits three values at z0 then f (z) extends to be meromorphic at z0 .

Theorem 25 (Picard’s Little Theorem) A non constant entire function assumes every value in the
complex plane, with at most one exception.

Theorem 26 (Pick’s Lemma) If f (z) is analytic and satisfies |f (z)| < 1 for |z| < 1 then
2
1 − |f (z)|
|f 0 (z)| ≤ 2
1 − |z|
If f (z) is a conformal self-map of D, then equality holds, otherwise there is strict inequality for all
|z| < 1.

Theorem 27 (Poisson’s Forumla) Let h(eiθ ) be a continuous function on the unit circle. Then the
Poisson integral h̃(z) defined by
Zπ
iθ dϕ
h̃(z = re ) = h(eiϕ )Pr (θ − ϕ)
2π
−π

x is a harmonic function on the open unit disk that has boundary values h(eiθ ).

Theorem 28 (Prime Number Theorem) Let π(x) be the number of primes ≤ x.

x
π(x) ≈
log x

Theorem 29 (Open Mapping Theorem) Let D be a region and suppose that f is a non-constant
analytic function on G. Then for any open set U in G f (U ) is open.

4
Theorem 30 (Reflection Principle) Let D+ be the part in the upper half plane of a region D and let
σ be the part of D on the real-axis. Suppose v(x) is continuous in D+ ∪ σ, harmonic in D+ , and 0 on σ.
Then v has a harmonic extension to D which satisfies the symmetry relation v(z̄) = −v(z). Likewise if
f (z) is analytic on D+ then f (z) has a analytic extension which satisfies f (z) = f¯(z̄)
Theorem 31 (Riemann Mapping Theorem) Given any simply connected region D which is not the
whole plane, and a point z0 ∈ D, there exists a unique analytic function f (z) in D, normalized by the
conditions f (z0 ) = 0, f 0 (z0 ) > 0, such that f (z) defines a injective mapping of D to the disk |w| < 1
Theorem 32 (Residue Theorem) Let U be an open set, and γ a closed chain in U such that γ is null-
homologous in U . Let f be analytic on U except at a finite number of points z1 , . . . , zn . Let mi = W (γ, zi ).
Then
Z n
X
f = 2πi mk · Reszk f
γ k=1

Theorem 33 (Rouche’s Theorem) Let γ be a closed path homologous to 0 in U and assume that γ
has an interior. Let f, g be analytic on U with |f (z) − g(z)| < |f (z)| for z on γ. Then f (z) and g(z)
have the same number of zeros in the interior of γ.
Theorem 34 (Runge’s Theorem) Let K be a compact subset of the complex plane. If f (z) is analytic
on an open set containing K, then f (z) can be approximated uniformly on K be rational functions with
no poles on K.
Theorem 35 (Schwarz Lemma) Let f (z) be analytic for |z| < 1. Suppose |f (z)| ≤ 1 for all |z| ≤ 1
and f (0) = 0. Then

|f (z)| ≤ |z| |z| < 1

Further, if equality holds at some point z0 6= 0, then f (z) = λz for some constant λ of unit modulus.
Theorem 36 (Schwarz-Christoffel Forumla) The functions z = F (w) which map |w| < 1 confor-
mally onto polygons with angles αk π(k = 1, . . . , n) are of the form
Zw Y
n
F (w) = C (w − wk )−βk dw + C 0
0 k=1

Where βk = 1 − αk , the wk points are on the unit circle, and C, C 0 are complex constants.
Theorem 37 (Uniqueness Principle) If f (z) and g(z) are analytic on a domain D and if f (z) = g(z)
for all z in a set that has a non-isolated point, then f (z) = g(z) for all z ∈ D.
Theorem
P 38 (Weierstrass M-test) Let (Mk ) be a P sequence of nonnegative real numbers such that
Mk < ∞. If |gk (z)| ≤ Mk for all x in a set S, then gk converges uniformly on S.
Theorem 39 (Weierstrass Product Theorem) Let D be a domain in the complex plane. let {zk }
be a sequence of distinct points of D with no accumulation point in D, and let {mk } be a sequence of
integers. Then there is a meromorphic function f (z) on D whose only zeros and poles are at the points
zk such that the order of f (z) at zk is nk .

5
2 Definitions
Analytic: A function f (z) is analytic on the open set U if f (z) is (complex) differentiable at each point
of U and the complex derivative f 0 (z) is continuous on U .
Bernoulli Number: The Bernoulli Numbers are a sequence of signed rational numbers given by the
identiety
x X Bn xn
= n = 0∞
ex −1 n!
Vk
Closed: ω ∈ M is closed if dω = 0
Conformal Mapping: A function is conformal if it preserves angles.
Cauchy Riemann Equations: Let f = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be a complex function of a complex variable.

∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x

If f (z) is a complex function of a complex variable, the Cauchy Riemann equation can be better
written as
∂f
=0
∂ z̄
Cross Ratio: The Cross Ratio (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is the image of z1 under the linear transformation which
caries z2 , z3 , z4 to 1, 0, ∞.

(z1 − z3 )(z2 − z4 )
(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) =
(z2 − z3 )(z1 − z4 )
Conformally Equivalent: We say that two domains are conformally equivalent if there is a conformal
map of one onto the other.
Elliptic Function: Let L be a lattice. An elliptic function f (with respect to L) is a meromorphic
function on C which is L-periodic.

f (z + ω) = f (z)
for all z ∈ C and ω ∈ L. Vk
Exact: A smooth differential form ω ∈ M is exact if there exists a smooth (k − 1)-form η on M such
that dη = ω.
Exterior Domain: A Exterior Domain is a domain D in the complex plane that includes all z such
that |z| ≥ R for some R.
Fractional Linear Transformation: A mapping of the form
az + b
S(z) =
cz + d
Harmonic: Let u(x, y) be a C 2 function. u is harmonic if it satisfies the equation:

6
 ∂2u ∂2u
+ 2 =0
∂x2 ∂y
Holomorphic: A function f defined on an open set U ⊆ C is said to be differentiable if it is (complex)
differentiable at every point z ∈ U .
Hyperbolic Geometry/Metric: p
dx2 + dy 2
ds =
y
Laurent Series: A series
∞
X
f (z) = an z n
n=−∞

Möbius Transformation: A mapping of the form

az + b
S(z) =
cz + d
where ad − bc 6= 0
Meromorphic: A function f on a domain D is meromorphic if f (z) is analytic on D except at isolated
singularities, each of which is a pole.
Poisson Integral: The Poisson Integral h̃(z) of h(eiθ ) is a function on the open unit disk, defined by
Zπ
dϕ
h̃(z) = h(eiϕ )Pr (θ − ϕ)
2π
−π

Where z = reiθ .
Poisson Kernel: The Poisson Kernel is defined by:
∞
X
Pr (θ) = r|r| eikθ
k=−∞

Pole: An isolated singularity of f (z) for which there exists some N > 0 such that a−N 6= 0 but ak = 0
for k < −N . The integer N is the order of the pole.
Residue: Let f (z) have a Laurent expansion at a point z0 .
∞
X
f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k
k=−∞

We call a−1 the residue of f at z0 .

Riemann Map: Let D be a domain and D be the unit disk. A Riemann Map is a conformal map
ϕ:D→D
singularities: Let f (z) be a function with Laurent Series
∞
X
f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k
k=−∞

7
 • Isolated Singularity: A point z0 is an isolated singularity of f (z) if f (z) is analytic in some
punctured disc {0 < |z − z0 | < r} centered at z0 .
• Removable Singularity: The isolated singularity at z0 is a removable singularity if ak = 0 for
k < 0. i.e. has the form:

∞
X
f (z) = ak (z − z0 )k
k=0

• Essential Singularities: A isolated singularity for which ak 6= 0 for infinitely many k < 0. (A
singularity which is neither removable, nor a pole.

Winding Number: If γ is a closed path we define the winding number at a point α to be

Z
1 1
W (γ, α) = dz
2πi z−α
γ

3 Special Functions
Bessel Function: Z
1
Jn (z) = ζ −n−1 ez/2(ζ−1/ζ) dζ
2πi γ

Where γ is the unit circle centered at 0 and oriented in the counterclockwise direction.
The function can also be defined as a solution to the differential equation

n2
 
00 1 0
w + w + 1− 2 w =0
z z
The Bessel function as the power series
∞
X (−1)k z n+2k
Jn (z) =
k!(n + k)!2n+2k
k=0

Elliptic Modular Function:

e3 − e2
λτ =
e1 − e2
Where e1 , e2 , e3 are the roots of the equation

4w3 − g2 w − g3
Exponential Function: If z = x + iy
∞
X zn
ez = = ex cos y + iex sin y
n!
b=0

Gamma Function:

8
 ∞
e−γz Y  z −1 z/n
Γ(z) = 1+ e
z n=1 n
Also often given as

Z1  z−1
1
Γ(z) = log( ) dt
t
0
Z∞
= tz−1 e−t dt
0

Logarithm Function:
log z = log |z| + i arg z
Probablity Integral:
Z∞ √
2 π
e−t dt =
2
0

Product Forms of Trig functions:

Y z2

sin πz = 1− 2
n
n6=0

Weierstrass ℘ function:  
1 X 1 1
℘(z) = 2
+ − 2
z (z − ω)2 ω
ω6=0

Where ω = n1 ω1 + n2 ω2
 2
d℘
= 4℘3 − g2 ℘ − g3
dz
Weierstrass ζ function:  
1 X 1 1 z
ζ(z) = + + 2+ 2
z z−w w ω
ω6=0

Riemann ζ Function:
∞
X 1
ζ(s) = s
n=1
n