1.

FOUNDATIONAL DEBATES IN PHILOSOPHY (GREEK

PHILOSOPHY)

Plato’s theory of the form

• According to plato the world we live in is a poor imitation of the real world
MATERIAL WORLD THE WORLD OF THE FORMS

Transitory- moves in time Out of time and space

Relative Real and absolute
Changing Unchanging
Impermanent Permanent
Superficial What matters most
Sensory Beyond the senses - intelligible
Can be measured Immeasurable
Imperfect Perfect
Contradictory - subject to No contradiction - subject to opinion
opinion

• Plato argues that the only "true" knowledge comes from knowledge of the forms,
shown through the divided line:
• The higher category is intelligence, or episteme which contains:
• 1) Noesis, the knowledge only available through the "power of the dialectics", and a
world which "moves solely through forms to forms and finishes with forms"
• 2) Dianoia the world of mathematics and "geography and calculation" which can be
still defined as this even though it deals with objects because "the real objects of
their investigation being invisible except to the eye of reason”
•
• The lower category is the visible or physical realm, defined as doxa. This contains:
• 3) the world of pistis which is the "originals of the images" and sensible particulars
which we experience in everyday life i.e. a chair
• 4) eikasia which is the reflections and copies of the sensible particulars experienced
in pistis, defined as "first shadows, then reflections in water”

• Crucially, the divided line represents both mental states and the objects of
knowledge. Also, the simile of the divided line stands out amongst Plato's simile as it
is less colourful, without vivid imagery. There are lots of questions about it, such as
the significance of Plato's ratio.
• One criticism is that knowledge is a special kind of belief, with strong evidence to
support it. If I believe that there is a dog outside of y house, and then saw it, then I
have progressed from knowledge to belief.
• Therefore knowledge and belief are not completely difficult faculties.
• He could imply that the relationship of "shadows, then reflections in the water" to the
actual objects is mirrored in the relationship between Forms and numbers. This does
not seem to be evidenced, and Plato could respond saying that the shadow depends
on something else, just as the numbers depend on the Forms.
• The divided line emphasises Plato's devotion to rationalism.
Plato’s analogy of the cave

• Plato asks Glaucno to imagine a scenario in which men are held captive in a cave,
and they:
• "They can only look straight ahead of them and cannot turn their heads"
• "They would believe that the shadows of the objects we mentioned were the whole
truth"
• Once they leave the cave, they are "cured of their delusions"
• However, once the man sees light "he would be too dazzled to see properly the
objects of which he used to see the shadows"
• He assumes that the outside world was "empty nonsense"
• The light of the fire would "hurt his eyes"
• He sees the shadows as something "really clearer than the things being shown to
him"
• Plato summarises that "the process would be a painful one”
• Once his eyes readjust the man can "look directly at the sun itself and gaze at it
without using reflections in water or any other medium"
• There was "honour and glory to be won among the prisoners and prizes for keen-
sightedness”
• The relieved prisoner would prefer "anything else in the world than hold the opinions
and live the life that they do"
• When he re-enters the cave again he is "blinded by the darkness"
• When he tries to lead them outside "they would kill him if they could lay hands on
him"
• "the realm of sight corresponds to the prison and the light of the fire in the prison to
the power of the sun"
• "anyone else who is going to act rationally in either public or private life must have
sight of it"
• The man is confused about whether he has come from a clearer world and is
confused by the unaccustomed darkness, or whether it is dazzled by the stronger
light of the clearer world to which it has escaped from its previous ignorance."

Plato’s analogy of the sun

•
• The simile of the sun has four purposes.
• 1. The Form of the Good helps us see and understand the "truth" of the world we live
in, enabling you to: "see clearly, and obviously  have vision" whereas without it
people "see dimly and appear to be almost blind, as if they had no clear vision"
• 2. Both the Form of the Good and the sun create life and knowledge by starting
the "the process of generation, growth and nourishment".
• 3. The sun is transcendent from our world, just as the form of the good is. It is
"superior in dignity and power" and the sun is still "beyond it, superior to it in dignity
and power" because it caused the chain of existence.
• 4. Both the sun and the form of the good are visible in itself, separate from the cycle,
and can be understood as "it is also knowable" and is "of their being and reality"
whilst "it is also separate”.

Plato on the nature of the body and soul and their inter relationship
Plato explains this tripartite division by an allegory - a charioteer driving two
horses. The charioteer represents the rational (2) part of the soul. The ugly
black horse represents the appetitive (1) part of the soul which is kept in check
by the white noble horse which represents the spirited (3) part of the soul.
Plato’s Meno

• Premise 1: boy never taught geometry

• Premise 2: boy can answer geometry questions which demonstrates knowledge
• Premise 3: a priori knowledge of geometry
• Premise 4: boy did not get this from his lifetime
• Conclusion: must be a recollection from prior life (valid not sound)because he can
answer questions and understand without being taught
• Criticism 1: he is asked leading questions > reason not knowledge
• Criticism 2: how are we sure he picked it up from the realm of forms, could be in the
womb or 5 minutes before birth

Plato’s charioteer

Plato’s Tripartite Soul

Parts of the Soul Rational (2) Spirited (3) Appetitive (1)
White noble horse on Black ugly horse on
Chariot Part Charioteer
the Right the Left
Truth, Pleasure, Money,
Loves Wisdom and Honour and Victory Comfort, Physical
Analysing Satisfaction
Basic Instincts –
Desires Truth Self-Preservation Hunger, Thirst,
Warmth, Sex…etc.
The Virtue Wisdom Courage Temperance
Pride and Gluttony, Lust and
The Vice Anger and Envy
Sloth Greed
Body Symbol Head Heart Belly
Guardians(T
Auxiliaries/Soldiers(K
he Merchants/Workers(S
Class in Republic eep the workers in
Philosopher elf interested)
their place)
King)

• Plato explains this tripartite division by an allegory - a charioteer driving two

horses.
• The charioteer represents the rational (2) part of the soul.
• The ugly black horse represents the appetitive (1) part of the soul which is
kept in check by the white noble horse which represents the spirited (3) part
of the soul.