AZTEC AND M AYA

R E V I V A L
J u n e 2 0 - S e p t e m b e r 1 6 , 2 0 0 8

G A L L E R Y G U I D E
 AZTEC AND M AYA
R E V I V A L
Mexic-Arte Museum gratefully acknowledges the generous loans of artifacts and

objects from The University of Texas at Austin College of Fine Arts Department, The

Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection, the Harry Ransom Center, and pri-

vate collectors including the overwhelming support of Lance and Erika Aaron, Susan

Frost, Robert Hollingsworth, Rogelio Agrasánchez, Lolis García-Baab, Marissa Valdez,

Nancy Jarman, Logan Wagner, Antonio Wehnes, and Sandie Huston.

This exhibition was made possible by the generous support of the Austin Arts Com-

mission under the auspices of the City of Austin, The University of Texas at Austin

College of Fine Arts, the Texas Commission on the Arts, and the Memnosyne Founda-

tion. Mexic-Arte Museum would like to recognize and especially acknowledge the

work of Claudia Zapata, M.A. Art History Candidate and Research Assistant spon-

sored by the College of Fine Arts at The University of Texas at Austin. Claudia’s re-

search and curatorial assistance provided essential academic information for the

formation of the exhibition. Mexic-Arte Museum is grateful for support from its

dedicated Board of Directors and talented staff for production and presentation of

the exhibition including Jesus Alaniz III, New Media Designer; Angela Hicks, Store

Manager; Alexandra M. Landeros, Membership and Public Relations Director; Sylvia

Orozco, Executive Director; Angel Quesada, Production Manager; Lacey Richter, Edu-

cation Program Coordinator; Frank Rodriguez, Development Director; and José L.

Rodríguez, Production Assistant, and all our volunteers.

 INTRODUCTION
In M exico, ar tists, architec ts, and ar tisans use the ter ms
Neo-A ztec, Indigenism, and Neo-pre-Hispanic to identify
M esoamer ic an influences on the ar ts. M exic-Ar te M use-
um has selec ted ar t, photo graphs, b o oks, and ephemera
to intro duce one of M exico’s imp or tant cultural expres -
sions: the reemergence of pre-Columbian designs in the
fine and decorative ar ts. Although M aya R evival is pr i -
mar ily a designation asso ciated with an architec tural
st yle develop ed in the United States, M exic-Ar te wishes
to expand the meaning of this ter m to illustrate M exic an
examples of the reemergence of pre-Hispanic for ms.

Under the reign of President Por fir io Díaz, M exico b egan

laying the cultural foundation that would eventually for m
the countr y ’s visual paradigm. From the latter half of the
19th centur y, M exico expanded its gover nmental supp or t
for the exc avation and preser vation of many of its pre-
Hi spanic archaeolo gic al sites. As a result, M exico passed
var ious laws protec ting its patr imony, commissioned na -
tional monuments, showc ased its past in the 1910 Cen -
tennial Parade, and par ticipated in var ious inter national
wor ld ’s fairs. M exico also established the National M use -
um of Anthrop olo gy, allowing for do cumentation, preser -
vation, and display of some of its imp or tant archaeolo gi -
c al ar tifac ts, including the A ztec Calendar Stone.

M exico combined this awareness of past indigenous civi -

lizations with Europ ean influence to construc t a visual fu -
sion that epitomized the countr y ’s histor ic al back ground
while simultaneously c aptur ing its cur rent cultural ex-
pression. Ar tists develop ed a new ar t st yle by appropr i -
ating the icono graphy of many pre-Columbian ances-
tral groups, including but not limited to the A ztec and
M aya cultures. Continuing in the ear ly t wentieth centur y,
as gover nment fur ther embraced its indigenous ro ots,
many ar tists, designers, and ar tisans integrated var ious
pre-Columbian visual patter ns to pay ho mage to this new
M exic an national identit y.
Though many locate the Re-
vival period of Mexico and
Mexican art in the early 20th
century, it actually started
earlier. The seeds for the Re-
vival period were planted in
the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, due to a series of
archaeological excavations
that happened in Mexico at
that time. As Mexico’s past
was realized through dis-
coveries of pre-Columbian
art, it became apparent that
these pieces were precious
to the culture and heritage
of Mexico.

The first President of Mexico,

Benito Juárez, declared that
the archaeological findings
of the pyramids were the na-
tional patrimony of Mexico.
Later, President Porfirio Díaz,
upon realizing the impor-
tance of the pre-Columbian
art pieces, acted to restore
the first Museum of Mexico
for its treasures. Addition-
ally, Porfirio Díaz chose to showcase the deep and ancient roots of Mexican
culture through the revival of indigenous iconography.

President Díaz commissioned artists to travel to World’s Fairs - the cultural and
international gatherings in which countries would represent their customs, in-
dustries, and art. It was at the 1900 World’s Fair in Paris that Díaz debuted an
intricately-designed piano featuring Zapotec glyphs and style that won a gold-
medal prize, as seen in the gallery. It was not so much the intent of President
Díaz to positively represent the indigenous people of Mexico, as they were
still considered inferior by the elites, but to use them as a way to highlight the
grandeur of Mexico and its cultural roots. This led to the use of indigenous im-
agery and iconography in the 20th century.
 H O W TO U S E T H I S G A L L E RY GUIDE
The pur p ose of this G aller y G uide is to share our k nowledge of a few
signific ant images. M uch of the ar t from pre-Columbian times, includ-
ing that of the A ztecs (M exic as), M aya, and other indigenous groups,
was compr ised of symb ols and designs that or iginated from complex
asp ec ts of culture lik e customs, traditions, r ituals, and language. Even
though they may app ear decorative at first glance, the symb ols asso ci -
ated with these indigenous groups represent more than patter ns - they
represent a way of life. Such images have b een revived in mo der n times
for use in the fine and decorative ar ts.

A Z T E C S A N D M AYA

M a ny p eople wonder which indigenous group was the first to inhabit

M esoamer ic a (an area of distinc tive cultures that ex tends from Nor th-
central M exico to Pacific Costa R ic a). The answer to this question is not
simple. Indigenous groups, such as the var ious tr ib es of the A ztecs (also
refer red to as M exic as), Zap otecs, M ix tecs, and the M aya were prevailing
simultaneously, though the O lmecs are b elieved to b e the first group
to inhabi t M esoamer ic a, ar r iving around 1400 B.C.E. in easter n M exico
throughout the region of Veracruz. The A ztecs eventually inhabited the
area near the O lmecs, in what is to day M exico Cit y and Teotihuac an. The
Zap otecs and M ix tecs made up the area of Oaxac a, along the souther n
coastal tip of M exico, and still do to day. The M aya continue to inhabit
the Yuc atan area, in addition to Chiapas, and Q uintana R o o, near G uate -
mala. B ot h the A ztecs and M aya had advanced civilizations and wor k ing
k nowledge of the stars, sun, and mo on. R itual sacr ifice played a signifi-
c ant role within indigenous civilizations, and it was for the numerous
go ds, whose sacr ifices they b elieved had given them life, that these
offer ings were made.
 H U E H U E T E OTL
Huehueteotl-Old God of Fire, basalt sculpture, Aztec c. 1200-1500 A.D., Central Mexico, from

O L D G O D O F FIRE
(Pronounced way-way-te-o-tl)

Followers of the A ztec religion b elieved

that Huehueteotl presided over the do -
mestic hear th fire of the household. A
hear th is the flo or of a fireplace, usually
made of stone or br ick, of ten ex tending
a shor t distance into a ro om. B eing a do -
mestic go d, Huehueteotl ’s image is usually
The University of Texas at Austin Collection

found in residential quar ters rather than

temples.

For the A ztecs, fire held great signific ance.

I t was a symb ol of change and renewal. D ur -
ing the r itual of New Fire, all fires through -
out the land were ex tinguished and the
entire A ztec p opulation was plunged into
dar k ness. Pr iests would watch the move-
ment of the stars and lo ok for the signal to tear out a sacr ificial
vic tim’s hear t; then they would star t a fire on the b o dy and tak e it
around to all homes in the area. This r itual, which replic ated the way
in which A ztecs b elieved the go ds first created fire, p ostp oned the
end of the wor ld.

T H E P R I M A RY
Cocijo Effigy vessel, Ceramic, c. A.D. 400 - 800, Zapotec, Prov-

S TA N D A R D S EQUENCE
enance unknown,, H. 19 cm, from The University of Texas at

This M aya vessel has a hiero glyphic blo ck

that is par t of a sequence frequently used
in ceramics c alled the Pr imar y Standard
S equence (PSS). The PSS displays infor ma -
tion regarding the dedic ation, shap e, and
contents of the vessel. For example, on this
vessel the intial glyph signs may translate
Austin Collection

to u ja-y(i) meaning “ thin walled vessel ce -

ramic vessel ” and yu-k ’i-b(i) meaning “ his/
her/its dr ink ing vessel. ”
 POLITICAL HISTORY TIMELINE
1335 - 1519 The Aztecs establish Tenochtitlán, and 1911-1913 Mexico elects Francisco I. Madero as
the Aztec empire reaches its peak. president.
1519 Hernán Cortés marches on Tenochtitlán 1917 Mexico elects Venustiano Carranza as first
(Mexico City). constitutional president
1521 The Spanish, led by Cortés, overthrow 1920 Mexico elects Alvaro Obregón as president.
Tenochtitlán and capture the last Aztec ruler, 1921 President Obregón appoints José Vasconcelos
Cuauhtémoc. as Minister of Public Education.
1810 Father Miguel Hidalgo declares Mexican 1922 Under the Ministry of Public Education,
independence on September 16th. Vasconcelos initiates the Mexican mural movement
1821 Spain recognizes Mexico’s independence. in public buildings.
1824 Guadalupe Victoria becomes the first president 1924 Mexico elects Plutarco Elías Calles as president.
of Mexico. 1928 Mexico reelects Alvaro Obregón for a second
1859 Mexico elects Benito Juárez as president. presidential term.
1861 - 1867 French intervention in Mexico. 1928 Emilio Portes Gil inaugurated as provisional
1862 On May 5th, Mexicans defeat the French in president.
Puebla. 1929 Mexico elects Pascual Ortiz Rubio as president.
1864 Archduke Maximilian of Austria and his wife, 1932 Ortiz Rubio resigns and General Abelardo
Carlota, arrive in Mexico. The Chapultepec Castle is Rodriguez assumes presidency.
rebuilt and serves as their official residence. 1933 Mexico elects General Lázaro Cárdenas as
1867 Benito Juárez elected president of Mexico for president.
a second term. Maximilian is captured and shot, and 1940 Mexico elects Manuel Avila Camacho as
French forces withdraw from Mexico. president.
1871 Porfirio Díaz revolts against Benito Juárez.
1872 Benito Juárez dies.
1876-1911 El Porfiriato
1876-1880 Porfirio Díaz serves first term as
president of Mexico.
1880-1884 Manuel González serves as president of
Mexico.
1884 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a second
presidential term. Mexico inaugurates the first
railroad uniting itself with the U.S.
1884-1910 Porfirio Díaz elected continuously;
this period is referred to as the Porfiriato. Mexico is
open to foreign investment with industry and rail
transportation expansion.
1888 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a third
presidential term.
1892 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a fourth
presidential term.
1896 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a fifth
presidential term.
1900 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a sixth
presidential term.
1904 Mexico extends Porfirio Díaz’ presidential term
another two years.
1906 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for a seventh
presidential term.
1910 Mexico reelects Porfirio Díaz for an eighth
presidential term.
1910-1920 Period of the Mexican Revolution.
1911 Porfirio Díaz resigns and flees on May 25th.
 ARCHAEOLOGY TIMELINE
1790 Workmen in Mexico City unearth the Aztec
Sunstone and Coatlicue.
1790 The first Museum of Natural History of the Royal
and Pontific University of Mexico is inaugurated.
1824 Archaeologists excavate the courtyard of the
Great Temple at Tenochtitlán in Mexico City.
1825 President Guadalupe Victoria, with historian
Lucas Alamán acting as advisor, founds the Mexican
National Museum in Mexico City.
1841 John Lloyd Stephens writes and Frederick
Catherwood illustrates Incidents of Travel in Central
America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. This book generates
international interest on Mayan ruins.
1848 First scientific expedition visits Tikal.
1858 Désiré Charnay makes the first photographs of
the Maya ruins of Palenque.
1865 The National Museum moves to the building
located in 13 Moneda Street, by orders of Maximilian,
Emperor of Mexico.
1868 On August 28th, Mexican President Benito
Juárez makes an official decree prohibiting the pillage
of antiquities by individuals, and he recommends their
conservation in the National Museum.
1880-1910 This period acts as the most important
time for Mexican archaeological patrimony. Discovery,
rescue, and conservation of many archaeological sites
occur, as well as exhibition of the most important pre-
Columbian objects in the National Museum.
1882 The Archaeology and History galleries of the
National Museum open, and printing begins on the
museum catalog.
1884-1910 Díaz promotes pre-Columbian culture as
part of a cultural nationalism, including the increase
in budget for excavation of archaeological sites and
support for the development of collections.
1885 The Mexican government creates the
Department of General Inspection of Archaeological
Monuments.
1885-1910 Leopoldo Batres explores diverse
archaeological sites including Mitla, Xochicalco, La
Quemada, and Teotihuacán. Leopoldo Batres acts as
official archaeologist for Díaz and dedicates himself
to reconstruct, with license, the most impressive
monumental sites. Batres begins the practice of
restoration of archaeological monuments in Mexico
and on the continent, a practice by all means novel.
1887 On September 16th, the National Museum
inaugurates the Gallery of Monoliths.
1895 The XI Congress of the Americanists takes place
in Mexico City. The Americanists, founded in France,
act as a group who contributes to the progress of
ethnographic, linguistic, and historical studies relative
to the Americas. Leopoldo Batres, General Inspector of
Archaeological Monuments, reports that there are 25
sites with regional inspectors or custodians, including
Mitla, Xochicalco, Palenque, El Tepozteco, Zempoala,
Monte Albán, Papantla, Labna, La Quemada, Chichén
Itzá, Sayil, Texcoco, and Teotihuacán.
1897 The Mexican government passes legislation on
May 11th declaring all the archaeological monuments
property of the nation. This law for the protection of
archaeological and historical sites represents the most
important action of Díaz’ regime for the care of the
national patrimony.
The National Museum reports conserving almost
15,000 objects, divided in large lots, in addition to
the creation of a new section called the Collection of
Indigenous Historic Documents.
In the National Museum, historian Jesus Galindo y Villa
organizes the study and classification of the pieces.
Archaeological archives are distributed in the Gallery
of the Monolith, in the entrance, and in five other
galleries under the classifications: astronomy and
chronology, mythology, objects of religious cult, urns,
ball game, commemorative monuments, ethnography,
architecture, and sculpture and diverse pieces.
1905 The Mexican government initiates
archaeological excavations at the site of Teotihuacán
led by the archaeologist Leopoldo Batres. The Pyramid
of the Sun is excavated and restored.
1910 The expansion of the collections leads writer
and historian Justo Sierra to divide the heritage of
the National Museum. Thus, in 1910 Díaz founds
the National Museum of Archaeology, History and
Ethnography.
1920 The National Museum of Archaeology, History
and Ethnography houses more than 52,000 pieces
and receives more than 200,000 visitors.
1924 Twenty year project at Chichén Itzá by the
Carnegie Institution and Harvard University begins
under direction of Sylvanus G. Morley.
1939 Mexico founds the Instituto Nacional de
Antropología e Historia (INAH), and later the Escuela
Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH), at the
Instituto Politécnico. A 1939 law defines the institute’s
concept and functions giving the Instituto a great deal
of power over sites and archaeological properties. This
also establishes federal authority, prohibiting private
ownership of archaeological objects.
Matthew Stirling begins excavations at the Olmec site
of La Venta.
1940 On December 13th, under Presidential decree,
the history collection at the Museum of Archaeology,
History and Ethnography moves to the Castillo de
Chapultepec, and the museum changes its name to
the current title: National Museum of Anthropology.
 R E V I VA L T I M E L I N E
1867 Leon Mehedin creates one of the first examples
of a Neo-pre-Hispanic design with a maquette of
the Quetzalcoatl Temple in Xochicalco. The French
government and the French Scientific Commission
sponsor this creation for the Exposition in Paris.
1877 Under Porfirio Díaz, the Ministry of
Development, led by Vicente Riva Palacio, initiates a
competition for a Cuauhtémoc monument with the
themes of truth, beauty, and utility. The chosen artists
are Francisco M. Jimenez, (engineer), Miguel Noreña,
Gabriel Guerra, Epitacio Calvo, and Luis Paredes
(statue reliefs and sculpture).
1883 Mexico names Porfirio Díaz as General
Commissioner of the Mexican Delegation to the New
Orleans World Fair. He visits New York, Chicago, St.
Louis, Washington, and Boston.
1887 President Porfirio Díaz inaugurates the
Cuauhtémoc Monument on Avenida Reforma in
Mexico City.
1889 Mexico participates in the World Fair of Paris
with the Aztec Palace Pavilion. The Paris 1889 and
1900 exhibitions are the most expensive exhibitions
staged by Porfirian Mexico. The total cost of Mexico’s
presence at Paris 1889 constitutes 11 percent
of the expenditures of the Ministry of Economic
Development for the year 1889; it was the highest
sum ever paid by Mexico in a world’s fair. Inside
Mexico’s pavilion, the exhibition showcases objects
with Maya and Toltec decorative elements.
1899 In Yucatán, an arch with Maya elements in
the Puuc style is built to welcome President Díaz
to Mérida. Another arch was erected with the same
objective in Oaxaca.
1900 Mexico participates in the Paris Universal
Exhibition. Díaz’ Zapotec Piano wins a gold medal.
Porfirio Díaz’ government supports the creation
and presentation of the Atzimba Opera composed
by Ricardo Castro honoring famous personages of
ancient Mexico.
1904 The construction of the Bellas Artes (Palace of
Fine Arts) starts during the Porfiriato. Italian designer
Gianetti Florenzo designs the palace incorporating
elements inspired by pre-Columbian art, such as the
Eagle Warrior.
1904-1913 Pre-Columbian influences begin to
appear in the work of architects Frank Lloyd Wright,
Walter Burley Griffin, and Francis Barry Byrne, noted
for their Prairie School architecture.
1908 Mayan Revival Style begins in the United States
with the Pan-American Union’s announcement of
an international competition for the design of its
headquarters in Washington D.C. The jury chooses
a design by architects Albert Kelsey and Paul Cret
that includes Maya, Aztec, and Zapotec symbols and
architectural traditions.
1910 The September Centennial of Mexican
Independence begins. Opulent public ceremonies
take place in celebration of the 100 years of Mexico’s
independence from Spain, including a parade with
representation of past indigenous groups of Mexico.
1914 Gerardo Murillo (1875-1964), who called himself
Doctor Atl (the Aztec word for water) as a gesture of
native pride, founds a ceramic decoration school in
Tonalá with his brothers Luis and Cirilo. A few years
later, they establish a production cooperative. Doctor
Atl presents Antonio Peñafiel’s book, Monuments of
Ancient Mexican Art, commemorating the centennial
of Mexican Independence, which contains drawings
and motifs from pre-Hispanic cultures that inspire
the potters of Tonalá and Tlaquepaque to create new
designs.
1915 Leonard Seed builds the Aztec Theater in Eagle
Pass, Texas; it is the first documented theater in the
Mayan Revival Style.
1921 Minister of Education José Vasconcelos takes
Diego Rivera to Chichén Itzá where he sees the murals
in the interior chamber of the Temple of the Tigers,
greatly influencing Rivera’s later mural work.
Roberto Montenegro and Adolfo Best Maugard
organize the first exhibit of Mexican popular and
contemporary indigenous art.
1922 President Alvaro Obregón sends a Mexican
exhibition and delegation headed by the Minister of
Education, José Vasconcelos, and by the influential
General Manuel Pérez Treviño to Brazil’s World Fair.
This constitutes the first Mexican presence at an
international exposition since the departure of Porfirio
Díaz.
1926 San Antonio builds its own Aztec Theater.
1926-1920 Jean Charlot works with Sylvanus
Griswold Morley, of the Carnegie Institute in
Washington, in Chichén Itzá registering through
illustration the pre-Columbian reliefs and painted
surfaces upon discovery.
1929 Manuel Amabilis makes a conscious effort
to synthesize pre-Hispanic styles with modern
construction techniques and uses of space for the
Seville World Fair. The entire facade, surrounding
fences, and a fountain in the outside gardens, is
replete with sculpture in Maya and Toltec styles.
1930s-1940s Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian
Institution conducts the first detailed scientific
excavations of various Olmec sites in the 1930s
and 1940s. Stirling, along with art historian Miguel
Covarrubias, becomes convinced that the Olmec
predates all known Mesoamerican civilizations.
1931 William Spratling initiates the jewelry workshop,
Taller de las Delicias, based on pre-Columbian designs.
M E S O A M E R I C A N G E O G R A P H Y, P E R I O D I Z AT I O N , A N D D AT E S
Periods & Central Gulf Oaxaca Maya Northwest
Dates Mexico Coast Area Area Area
1521 Spanish Conquest 1519 - 1542

P O S TC L A S S I C
Aztec To t o n a c Mixtec

Late
Te n o c h t i t l á n Huastec

To l t e c

Ea r ly
Tula Chichén Itzá

900
Classic Zapotec Classic

Late
CLASSIC
Veracruz Mitla Maya
Xochicalco
Te o t i h u a c á n E l Ta j i n Monte Albán Tikal

Ea r ly
Colima
Nayarit
200

A.D.
PRECLASSIC
Izapa

Late
B.C.
Ear ly
Tlatilco Olmec
San Lorenzo
1500
 SYMBOLS
M any pre- Co l u m b i a n d e s i g n s i n c l u d e s h a p e s a n d p atter ns found in nature that
resemble f l owe r s, s e e d s, m a i ze, b i rd s, a n i m a l s, a n d human for ms. Customar ily,
designs of te n d e p i c t s i g n i f i c a nt g o d s a n d d e i t i e s t h at to ok on multiple app ear -
ances. One c a n i d e nt i f y t h e s e d e i t i e s w i t h i n t h e d e corative and utilitar ian ar ts,
pre-Colum b i a n a n d R ev iva l s t y l e, a s t h ey a p p e a r i n t he exhibition. Var ious go ds
and mytho l o g i c a l s to r i e s, a l o n g w i t h re p re s e nt at i onal drawings and images
found in th e g a l l e r y, re fl e c t l e g e n d s a n d h i s to r i c a l accounts that offer insight
into the r ic h c u l t u re o f M ex i co.

THE L E G E N D O F T H E E AG L E A N D THE SERPENT

M ost comm o n l y s e e n o n t h e M ex i c a n f l a g, t h e p i c ture of the eagle p erched
up on a c ac t u s w i t h a s e r p e nt i n i t s b e a k h a s g re at s i gnific ance to the histor y of
M exico. Hu i t z i l o p o c ht l i ( h we e t - z i l - p o a c h - l e e ) , t h e go d of the sun, ordered the
A ztecs to b u i l d t h e i r c i t y o n t h e s p o t w h e re h e h a d h ur led the hear t that he tore
from the c h e s t o f h i s d e fe ate d e n e my a n d n e p h e w, Copil. H e told them that
an eagle d evo u r i n g a s e r p e nt wo u l d m a r k t h e s p o t. They c ame up on the pre -
dic ted ima g e o n a n i s l a n d i n t h e m i d d l e o f L a k e Texco co, and built Teno chtitlán,
now k nown a s M ex i co Ci t y. Th e A z te c s g re w c ro p s o n the lak e using chinampas
(floating m at s ) .

Histor ians co nt i n u e to d e b ate w h e t h e r t h e s y m b o l is prop er ly represented to -

day. S ome a rg u e t h at t h e re wa s n eve r a s e r p e nt n ear the eagle. O thers claim
that what i s a c t u a l l y h a n g i n g f ro m t h e m o u t h o f the eagle c annot b e deci -
phered fro m t h e A z te c co d i ce s ( b o o k s t h at we re w r i tten by pre-Columbian and
Colonial-e ra A z te c s ) . Fi n a l l y, a fe w h i s to r i a n s q u e s tion whether the bird was
in fac t an e a g l e a n d n o t a ca ra ca ra , o r a f a l co n . Arg uments aside, the image is
most comm o n l y re p re s ente d a s i t a p p e a r s o n t h e M exic an flag.
Luis Ortiz Monasterio (Mexican, 1906-1990), (Eagle

Pre - Co l u m b i a n
(without base) 48 cm, from the Lance and Erika
with Serpent), Bronze with wood base, 1961, H.

Ima g e : Ea g l e a n d
S er p e nt
Aaron Collection

R ev i va l St y l e
I m a g e : Ea g l e a n d
S e r p e nt
CUAUH T É M O C Pre-Columbian Image: Eagle

Ancient Mexico, Dover Publica-

THE FAL L I N G E AG L E

Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs of

tions, Inc., New York, 1953

Known as the last true emperor of the Aztecs,
Cuauhtémoc (kwow-TE-moc) surrendered to
the Spanish (led by Hernán Cor tés), and was
tor tured to reveal the location of hidden Az-
tec gold, which probably did not exist. He
withstood the agonizing tor ture of having his

Miguel Noreña (Mexican, 1843-1894), Cuauhtémoc,

Bronze (with dark olive green patina), c. 1886, H. 82
feet held against fire. Cor tés eventually had

cm, from the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection

Cuauhtémoc executed for conspiring against
him, but whether there actually was a con-
spiracy or not is debatable. Cuauhtémoc’s im-
age, found within the galler y as a maquette,
can be seen in a large sculpture on a historic
avenue in Mexico City, the Paseo de la Re-
forma. His image can also be seen in Rober to
Montenegro’s large and color ful painting in Revival Style Image:
the galler y, drawing focus to the mighty ea- Cuauhtémoc
gle falling from the sky.

QUETZ A LCOAT L , T H E P LU M E D S E R PENT

Q uetzalcoat l ( k ay t - s a h l - k o - t l ) , co m b i n at i o n o f a b i rd and a ser p ent, was a p ow-
er ful go d i n a n c i e nt M e s o a m e r i c a . Q u e t z a l co at l represented b oth ear th and
sk y, and ex i s te d a s a s e r p e nt i n o n e re a l m a n d a b i rd in another. The represen -
tation of b o t h s e r p e nt a n d b i rd h a s l o n g b e e n s e e n in the indigenous groups
of M esoam e r i c a , h o l d i n g p owe r, fe r t i l i t y, s p i r i t u a l i t y, and rebir th in addition to
signifying t h e co n n e c to r o r p o r t a l to t h e s p i r i t wo r l ds. D ur ing the late p ostclas-
sic p er io d o f Ce nt ra l M ex i co, Q u e t z a l co at l o f te n to o k the for m of the wind and
was c alled Eh e c at l - Q u e t z a l co at l . I n t h i s co ntex t, t h e go d was thought to b e the
wind that b r i n g s ra i n c l o u d s. Th e i nva d i n g Sp a n i s h conquistadors may have
b een b elieve d by t h e A z te c s to b e e i t h e r s e r va nt s o f Q uetzalcoatl or the deit y
itself. This wa s p ro b a b l y d u e to a co m b i n at i o n o f t h eir horses (A ztecs had never
b efore see n h o r s e s ) , t h e i r s t ra n g e a p p e a ra n ce s, a n d word of their cruelt y and
militar y m i g ht t h at p re ce d e d t h e m .
Armchair, Wood, c. 1925-1935,

D. 56 cm, from the Lance and

Publications, Inc., New York,

Mexico, H. 111 cm W. 52 cm
Jorge Enciso, Design Motifs

various materials, Made in

of Ancient Mexico, Dover

Erika Aaron Collection

1953

Pre-Columbian Image: Serpent Revival Style Image: Serpent

REM O J A D A S
VER AC RU Z , M E X I CO

The R emojadas st yle comes from Vera -

Veracruz, Mexico, H. 32.5 cm, from the private collection

Standing Figure, Ceramic, c. 250-450 A.D., Remojadas,
cruz and is named af ter the archeolo gi -
c al site where a large numb er of hollow
clay figur ines were unear thed. Popu -
lar within this st yle are the S onrientes,
which p or tray lively human figures with
smiling faces, filed teeth, and black as-

of Logan Wagner
phalt paint. Their pur p ose is still dis -
puted to day. I t is thought by some that
their faces p or tray a hallucino genic
state of spir itual r itual. O thers think Pre - Co l u m b i a n I m a g e :
S o n r i e nte ( s m i l i n g f a ce )
that they are simply asso ciated with
festiv it y and joy. The immense numb er
of them discovered implies that they
had in imp or tant place in pre-Colum -
bian culture.

The smiling war r ior face is also seen in Detail from Zapotec Piano, Wood, 1899, from

the or nate and ador ning pieces c ar ved

the Lance and Erika Aaron Collection

within the upp er level of the Zap otec-

st yle piano. Another noticeable motif
within the remojada figure is the round
disk ador ning the ear lob e. R ound disks
were of ten c ar ved from jade and stone.
The round, jade disk c an also b e seen in
the film, showc ased in the galler y, c ap - R ev i va l St y l e I m a g e :
S o n r i e nte ( s m i l i n g f a ce )
tur ing fo otage of archaeolo gic al digs
in M exico by National G eo graphic.
TLALOC, CHAC, AND COCIJO: GODS OF RAIN AND FERTILITY
Because the assurance of good crops was so important to the indigenous groups, spe-
cial ceremonies and offerings were given in honor of the deity of rain. It was believed
that through offerings, dance, and rituals, the heavens could be pleased and would, in
turn, shower crops and civilizations with rain. Tlaloc, the Aztec god of rain and lightning,
can be seen intricately carved on the table furniture piece from the Lance and Erika
Aaron collection within the gallery. Another god of rain and lightning, known to the
Zapotecs as Cocijo, can be seen in the Zapotec-style piano. Lastly, the Mayan god of rain
and lightning Chac is one of the oldest and longest worshipped gods in the Americas.

Detail from Zapotec Piano, Wood,

Pre- Co l u m b i a n
The University of Texas at Austin

1899, from the Lance and Erika

Zapotec c. 400–800 A.D. from

Ima g e : Co c i j o
Cocijo Effigy Vessel, Ceramic,

Aaron Collection
R ev i va l St y l e
Collection

Image: Tlaloc

THE DEATH OF THE MOON AND

THE BIRTH OF THE SUN COYOLXAUHQUI
According to A z te c l e g e n d, t h e g o d d e s s Co at l i q u e (Qwaht-lee-que), was mi -
raculously i m p re g n ate d w h e n to u c h e d by a b a l l o f feathers. Embar rassed by
her mothe r ’s f re q u e nt p re g n a n c i e s Coyo l x a u h q u i ( Co-yo-shal-k ee), go ddess of
the mo on, a n d h e r fo u r h u n d re d b ro t h e r s d e c i d e d to murder her. R ight af ter
Coyolxauh q u i h a d k i l l e d Co at l i q u e, i t i s s a i d t h at Huitzilop o chtli, go d of the
sun, spran g f ro m Co at l i q u e’s wo m b f u l l y a r m e d, b e headed Coyolxauhqui, and
pushed he r d ow n t h e s te p s o f t h e te m p l e. I t i s b e l i eved her head, ador ned with
shining b e l l s, b e c a m e t h e m o o n . Coyo l x a u h q u i ’s d i sfigured b o dy c an b e seen
in a round s to n e at t h e M u s e o d e Te m p l o M ayo r i n M exico Cit y. D ur ing A ztec
sacr ifices to t h e g o d H u i t z i l o p o c ht l i , t h e t h row i n g of the sacr ificial vic tims’
b o dies dow n t h e te m p l e s te p s wa s a re e n a c t m e nt of Coyolxuahqui ’s humiliat -
ing demise.

Pre-Co l u m b i a n
guirre (Mexican, 1867-1941), Un-

52 x 42 cm, from the Lance and

Wooden Frame of Leandro Iza-

titled, 1900, Overall, with frame

Imag e : Coyo l x a u h q u i
Erika Aaron Collection

R ev i va l St y l e I m a g e :
Coyo l x a u h q u i
SELLO S
S ellos (seals or stamps) were predominately made of clay, though a few
have b een identified that are c ar ved from stone, b one, and even cop -
p er. These small stamps c ame in a var iet y of shap es: flat, c ylindr ic al, and
rounded lik e a rolling pin. Unidentifiable in exac t use, most researchers
think the stamps were used as a decorative to ol for the b o dy, as well as
on bar k pap er, cloth, and p otter y. S ome, including the ar tist and record -
er of pre-Columbian stamps, J orge Enciso *, b elieve that they may have
b een used in the stamping of delic ac y fo o ds for the go ds. R esearchers
agree fur ther study is necessar y to b etter understand the stamps and
their signific ance.

*D id You K now :
J orge Enciso, an ar tist from Mexico, do cumented many of the seals during
the earl y t wentieth centur y re vival p erio d by dra wing and printing them
onto pap er. His b o ok, D esign M otifs of Ancient M exico , which categorizes
the stamps into flowers, animals, and geometrical patterns, can b e found
inside the plexi-case within the galler y. S ee if you can find some examples
of the geometrical shap es, like those of the stamps, on the p otter y.
 MAYA N N U M B E R S A N D T H E G O LDEN R ATIO
The M aya c i v i l i z at i o n h ad a dva n ce d m at h e m at i c a l k nowledge, which led to
many acco m p l i s h m e nt s t h at i n c l u d e, b u t a re n o t l i m ited to, the building of
their ancie nt c i t i e s, t h e e m p l oy m e nt o f t h o u s a n d s o f construc tion wor k ers,
commerce ove r a va s t g e o g ra p h i c a l a re a , c a l c u l at i n g an accurate c alendar,
and using g e o m e t r y to c re ate a rc h i te c t u re a n d i n ar t. Unfor tunately, the
Spanish de s t roye d m a ny M aya n a r t i f a c t s t h at wo u l d have help ed us b etter
understand h ow t h ey ma n a g e d s u c h g re at a c co m p l ishments. H owever, we
c an still d raw k n ow l e d g e f ro m a fe w s u r v i v i n g M ayan b o oks such as the
Pop ol Vuh a n d t h e B o o k o f t h e Ch i l a m B a l a m o f Ch u mayel. We c an also lear n
ab out the t ra d i t i o n s o f t h e m i l l i o n s o f M aya w h o a re still alive to day.

Th e M aya n n u m e ral system is fascinat-

i n g n o t o n l y b e c a u s e it c an c alculate such
l a rg e q u a nt i t i e s, b u t b ec ause one c an see
h ow t h ey d eve l o p e d it through studying
n at u re. M aya s we re k een obser vers of their
s u r ro u n d i n g s, a n d t hese obser vations p er-
m e ate n e a r l y eve r y asp ec t of their culture,
i n c l u d i n g t h e i r n u m b ers.

Un l i k e Ara b i c Nu m e rals, which mak e up a

b a s e te n s ys te m , M ayas used a system that
is base t we nt y. Th at m e a n s t h at t h e p l a ce va l u e s of M ayan numb ers in -
cre ased by m u l t i p l e s o f t we nt y. I n s te a d o f u s i n g o nes, tens, hundreds and
thousands a s p l a ce va l u e s, t h ey u s e d o n e s, t we nt ies, four-hundreds and
eight-thou s a n d s. Th ey a l s o h a d a s y m b o l fo r ze ro. (A concept lik ely dis -
covered by t h e O l m e c s m u c h e a r l i e r. ) Th e i r n u m b e r s are made up of three
symb ols. A d o t re p re s e nt s o n e, a b a r re p re s e nt s f i ve, and a shell or closed
hand repre s e nt s ze ro.

M ayan num b e r s we re w r i t te n f ro m b o t to m to to p. S o the numb er nine, for

example, wo u l d b e w r i t te n a s a l i n e w i t h fo u r d o t s ab ove it. This is lik ely
from their o b s e r vat i o n o f h ow p l a nt s g row u pwa rd s. The dot, to the M ayas,
was a b ean , s m a l l ro c k , o r s e e d. Th e b a r re p re s e nte d an op en hand. To day, in
cur rent M aya n m a r k e t s, p u rc h a s e s a re m a d e i n te r ms of “ hands. ” A p erson
would buy a “ h a n d ” o f f ru i t s o r ve g e t a b l e s.

We of ten t h i n k o f ze ro a s re p re s e nt i n g e m p t i n e s s. The M ayas b elieved that

zero repres e nte d co m p l e t i o n , w h i c h wo u l d ex p l a i n why a closed hand is of -
ten seen a s i t s s y m b o l . Th e n u m b e r t we nt y wa s a l s o i mp or tant to the M ayas.
Twent y rep re s e nte d a w h o l e p e r s o n , co u nt i n g f i n g ers and to es. I t mak es
sense then t h at t h e M aya s d eve l o p e d t h i s b a s e t we nt y system through ob-
ser ving nat u re a n d t h e h u m a n b o dy.
M any argu e t h at t h e M aya s m ay h ave h a d k n ow l e d ge of the golden ratio (also
k nown as t h e g o l d e n s e c t i o n , t h e g o l d e n m e a n , a n d the divine prop or tion), a
prop or tion a l rat i o a p p rox i m ate l y e q u a l i n g 1 . 6 1 8 . I n equations, the G reek letter
Phi represe nt s i t . Th e g o l d e n rat i o h a s c a p t i vate d i ntellec tuals for thousands of
years b ec a u s e o f i t s a p p e a ra n ce a n d a p p l i c at i o n s i n nature, science, and ar t.

Co nt ra r y to w h at many b elieve, the ter ms

“g o l d e n rat i o” and “golden sec tion” are
f a i r l y re ce nt . I t i s true that the ter m “divine
p ro p o r t i o n” h a s b een used since the R enais-
s a n ce, b u t re fe r r ing to Phi as the golden ra-
t i o o n l y d ate s b ack to the ear ly 19th cen-
t u r y. Th e te r m “golden mean” was used in
c l a s s i c a l t i m e s to denote something that is
b a l a n ce d. I t i s l i k ely that p eople have con -
f u s e d o u r co n ce pt of the golden ratio with
t h e c l a s s i c a l co ncept of the golden mean,
which has l e d to m a ny b e l i ev i n g t h e te r m i s m u c h o lder that it ac tually is.

The ratio o f a + b to a i s t h e s a m e a s a i s to b, w h i c h is equal to Phi. The ratio

is only a+b i s 1 . 6 1 8 t i m e s a , w h i c h i s 1 . 6 1 8 t i m e s b. This prop or tion is thought
to b e aest h e t i c a l l y b e a u t i f u l . Th i s rat i o c a n b e u s e d to mak e rec tangles, c alled
golden rec t a n g l e s, w h i c h i n t u r n c a n b e u s e d to draw golden spirals. These
golden sha p e s a p p e a r i n m a ny a s p e c t s. G re e k co l umns have golden prop or-
tions, as d o Egy p t i a n py ra m i d s, f a m o u s p a i nt i n g s, seashells, human DNA, and
many of n at u re’s c l aws a n d h o r n s. Th e s e rat i o s a pp ear to o frequently to b e
ign ored.

Examples o f t h e M aya’s u s e o f t h e g o l d e n rat i o i n a rchitec ture c an b e found in

the pyram i d a l ru i n s o f Ch i c h é n I t z á i n t h e Yu c at a n Peninsula. The app earance
of the gold e n rat i o i n M aya n a rc h i te c t u re h a s l e d to much debate over whether
the M ayas we re awa re o f t h e co n ce p t o f Ph i . M at hematicians and histor ians
also b elieve t h at t h e g o l d e n rat i o m ay h ave p l aye d an imp or tant role in the
developme nt o f t h e M aya n c a l e n d a r. Th i s i s s u e i s still b eing researched and
discussed to d ay.
 CREATIN G YOUR OWN
GOLDEN RECTANGLE
An Exercise in Maya Design

M ate ri a l s Yo u Wi l l Need:
- a cord or string (you may use yarn as well)
- a pencil
- a large sheet of paper or poster board (24” x 24”)
- scissors
- a straight-edge

DIRECTIONS:
Use the step-by-step diagrams as a visual guide to help
you along the way.
1. Use the tip of your pinky, which is roughly equivalent to
an inch, to measure your string (remember the Mayas did
not have specialty measuring tape).
2. Taking the tip of your pinky, start from one end of the
string, counting 20 units to the other end. Cut your string
here. It should be roughly 20 inches.
3. Double your string over, making two equal parts, but do
not cut.
4. Your string should now measure about 10”. Using this
measurement, create a square on your paper, marking the
four corners of the square and connecting them with your
pencil. Use a straight edge to sketch the connecting lines.
5. Next, find the midpoint of the bottom square side. You
may do this by simply doubling over your 10” string once
again to make 5”. Hold the 5” cord from one end of the bot-
tom side of the square to the middle and mark this point
(Point M).
6. Now, unfolding your cord completely, hold one end of
the string at Point M, pulling it taut to the top right corner
point (Point P1) of the square. Put your pencil at that corner
and wrap the string around it.
7. Holding the string with your index finger at Point M,
swing the remainder of the cord down and to the right,
marking the curve with your pencil until it is outside of the
bottom right corner of the square. Use your straight edge
to extend the line from the bottom of the square to the
curve.
8. Using your straight edge, extend the lines from the top
of the square to the right, and from the point that you
made in step 7 upward until the lines meet. You have now
completed a Golden Rectangle!
 The Official Me xican
and Me xican A merican
Fine Art M useum of Te xa s

419 Congress Ave.

Austin, T X 78701

P.O. B ox 2273
Austin, T X 78768

512.480.9373
www.mexic-ar temuseum.org

This exhibition was made possible Education Program Sp onsors

through the generosity of

Allstate Foundation
The University of Texas
at Austin Eloise and John Wine and Food
College of Fine Arts
Paul DeJoria Foundation of Texas