Exploring the Universe with the

Hubble
Space
Telescope

Cone Nebula In Monoceros

(Anglo.Australian Observatory)

NI_A
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration

126 ORIGINAL
CONTAINS
;ale by The Superintendent of Documents=

trnment Ptin[ing Otf_ce, Washington, {_C 20402 COLORILLUSTRATION,_

v,

:.,--._
_._e
 Contents

Preface 6

First Light 8
Observation Strategy 16

Using the Hubble Space Telescope 30

First Days 33
Day-to-Day Operations 36
Servicing in Space 42

Opportunities for Discovery 45

The Hubble Space Telescope: Engineering Challenge 47

In Focus 48
Still Light 51
Development of the Hubble Space Telescope 55

Guided Tour of the Hubble Space Telescope 57

Optical Telescope Assembly 58
Focal Plane Scientific Instruments 58
Wide Field/Planetary Camera 60
Faint Object Camera 61
Faint Object Spectrograph 62
Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph 63
High Speed Photometer 64
Fine Guidance Sensors 65
Second Generation Technology 65
Support Systems 66
Hubble Space Telescope Chronology 68

Acknowledgements 71

,,_ _" pIRL"-_F..DIN_PAGE BLANK NOT FILMEO

 rom our the
ut into home on the Earth,
distances we look
and strive to
imagine the sort of world into which we
are born. Today we have reached far out
into space. Our immediate neighborhood
we know rather intimately. But with
increasing distance our knowledge fades,
and fades rapidly, until at the last dim
horizon we search among ghostly errors
of observations for landmarks that are
scarcely more substantial.
The search will continue. The urge is
older than history. It is not satisfied and
it will not be suppressed.

Edwin R Hubble
Astronomer

/'_ _lll_:Jtlt01¢_._ at/_l| PI_I_.£DING PAGE BLANK NOT FILMF.._

 that we can barely ponder hundred billion galaxies,
e are stargazers. it. We think that the uni- so there must be some
child pointing everyone searches the verse originated some 15 twenty thousand billion
heavens. What is it that billion years ago, but who, billion stars in the uni-
with delight to the first
star at twilight, a rooftop we seek? in an average life of only verse; the mind balks at
amateur with telescope Astronomy has cap- 70-odd years, can conceive such incredible numbers.
tured our imagination as of such eternity? We esti- We who measure distance
scanning the night sky, an
perhaps no other science, mate that our galaxy con- in miles and kilometers
astronomer dwarfed by
the mirror in a silent for it embraces such tains about two hundred struggle with the concept
observatory on some dark, incomprehensible size billion stars and that it is of a single light year,
remote mountain peak-- and distance and time only one of more than a almost six trillion miles,

ORIGINAL PAGE
6 COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
auchlesscosmicdis- learn something. Starlight Today, we are on the the mystery and uncer-
ancescountedin millions is information. In the verge of exciting discover- tainty that limit our
Lndbillionsoflight years. stars and galaxies, we ies as a new observatory knowledge. As we repeat
_stronomystretchesour gain clues to the origin is prepared for use. The the age-old act of star-
aindsandinvitesus into and history of the uni- Hubble Space Telescope, gazing, the wonder and
he realmofthe verse and we begin to an orbital observatory beauty of the universe
will be revealed anew,
maginary. understand the exquisite designed to probe the uni-
Whenwe looktothe patterns of the cosmos. verse with extraordinary astonishing us again as it
_eavens, we arenot only All that we know about precision and clarity, much surprised Galileo when he
the universe, we know farther than we have ever first used a telescope
Lwed by the immensity of
ime and space; we also from observing. seen, will dispel much of almost 400 years ago. t_

ORIGINAl_ PAGE Cluster of Galaxies in Hercules i_it Pea_

_at_o,ar
OOse,_at_,_j7

COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 to
follow the trail of
We are with
light going an
extremely sensi-
tive new observatory--the
Hubble Space Telescope. The
largest and most sophisticated
astronomical telescope ever
placed in space, it can view
more celestial objects, much far-
ther away and in much sharper
detail, than any other telescope.
This remarkable observatory
will show us the early universe
and almost everything that has
appeared since. For the first
time, we will be able to see the
most distant features of the cos-
mos as clearly as we can now
see the nearer stars and galax-
ies. As we use the Hubble
Space Telescope to intercept
and interpret the messages
ried in light, the prospects for
discovery are exciting.
Astronomy is not really the
study of stars; it is the study of
starlight. We come to know the
universe by capturing starlight
as it passes by on its voyage
through the cosmos, bringing
it into focus and examining it.
Where has starlight been,
and what can it tell us about
the hot "filler" between stars
within a galaxy. During this
passage, which may last a hun-
dred thousand years or longer,
the light may be modified by
atoms in the gas and lose some
of its energy. It then exits the
galaxy and enters a vast, rather
empty territory between galax-
ies. In a million years or so it
may pass near an object with a
strong gravitational field and be
bent from its course, or it may
wander into a dense cloud of
dust left over from a star's for-
mation and be absorbed, never
car-
to be seen.
While light is in transit,
cosmic history marches on.
For eons, our own part of the
universe does not yet exist.
The Milky Way galaxy takes
shape about three billion years
after the light begins its voyage.
About two billion years later,
the Earth condenses out of the
gaseous nebula surrounding our
ing the stars. The light almost
passes us before we become
clever enough to recognize its
significance.
Light that ultimately arrives
at Earth and enters a telescope
to be collected and magnified
and guided into the eye, a cam-
era, or other detector bears the Although the speed of light
marks of both its origin and its is the fastest possible way to
voyage. Its original energy and cover distance, the distances
path may be altered by condi- in the universe are so great that
tions in the space environment, it takes even light a very long
but light has a message and a time to reach us--millions and
signature. Thus, light tells us billions of years. A light year,
about conditions at its source the distance light travels in one
(What is the star composed of? year, is about 6 trillion miles.
How hot is it?) and along its The light we receive today from
way (What makes up the gas the most distant object actually
between stars in galaxies? How was emitted long, long ago
strong is the embedded magnet- when the universe was very

the universe? Imagine a beam young sun. It is another billion ic field?). Light also brings us young.
years before signs of life appear news of changes in the cosmos: Thus, detecting light from
of light, emitted from an early
on our planet, and several the birth and spectacular death distant objects is looking back
galaxy, perhaps 10 billion years
billion more before human of stars, galaxies in collision, in time, seeing the universe as
ago. Upon departing from the
civilization arises and becomes and the demise of stars being it was when the light left the
stars that produced it, the light
capable of thoughtfully observ- devoured by their neighbors. objects, not as it is now.
flows through interstellar gas,

10
_ome 12 to 20 billion years ago, astronomers think a "primeval atom"
;xploded with a big bang sending the entire universe flying out at incredible
;peeds. Eventually matter cooled and condensed into galaxies and stars.
•lanets formed around at least one star. Eons after life began to develop on
-arth, humans appeared. If all events in the history of the universe until now
vere squeezed into 24 hours, Earth wouldn't form until late afternoon.
_umans would have existed for only two seconds.

(Jairne (?uintero, artist; © National Geographic Society)

tl
Astronomy through the Ages

To study the universe, its

history and its contents, we use
whatever we can to catch and
analyze light. The most common
tool for astronomy is the eye.
When we look up at the sky, our
eyes receive light, form an
image, and send a signal to the
brain for processing. Virtually
everyone can use this "instru-
ment"; for millennia, it was the
only one available.
Unfortunately, the eye is lim-
ited in sensitivity and can per-
ceive only the brighter celestial
objects. The patient observa-
tions of early astronomers
yielded an atlas of the universe
visible to the unaided eye. They
charted the motions of the plan-
ets, recorded the positions of
many stars, and witnessed a telescopes. The larger the mir-
few spectacular explosions of ror, the more light is collected
dying stars. However, they had and focused into the image.
no inkling of the universe we One result is brighter images;
can observe today. objects that were previously
About 400 years ago, Galileo below the threshold of detection
wedded technology and astron- are now "seen." Another result
omy by using a telescope, a first detailed look at some of the patches, suddenly showed a ter- of using larger mirrors is
piece of equipment to enhance objects in the sky and multiplied rain of mountains and valleys. enhanced fineness of detail
human vision. His simple the number of visible stars. The Four of Jupiter's moons were (resolution) that can he seen in
arrangement of two magnifying moon, previously seen as a mot- revealed, and stars "so numer- the image; images are sharper,
lenses in a tube enabled the tled disk of light and darker ous as to be almost beyond containing more detailed
belief." information.
Technology made a world of For collecting light and form-
Amateur difference in our ability to form ing sharper images, bigger is
astronomers images. The history of astrono- better. Thus, observatories vie
and home-made my since Galileo's time is a his- for pre-eminence on the basis
telescopes
tory of technological advances of mirror size, graduating from
[Dennis dl Cl©co)
leading to discoveries. Progress mirrors the size of coins and
in astronomy depends on dinner plates to disks as large
improved telescopes and detec- as backyard satellite dishes.
tors to supplement the eye. Improvements in mirror grind-
Over the past four centuries, ing, polishing, and reflective
larger and larger mirrors have coatings also have made a
been constructed for reflecting difference.

Galileo, credited with first use

of the telescope in 1609
OP,_,I,4b, L PAGE
tYerkes Observatory) COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
stronomer In observing capsule
r the 200-inch Hale telescope
_lorna_ Obscrvatory, Cahforn_a Institute of Tcchnolo_'_

In the past century, and espe- The Multiple Mirror Telescope at Mt. Hopkins, Arizona--
[ally during the last 50 years, an innovative design for a large light-collecting surface
dvances in detector technology [MMT Observatory)

ave influenced progress in

stronomy even more than mir-
)r size. Putting a camera, rather C_iC m!_,T PAGE
1an an eye, at the viewing end C
OL.,,R , HO I,..,_.:,txAPH
_, " E) " '_ '/'" "_-

f a telescope makes it possible

j record more light and pre-
erve the image for analysis.
]creasingly sensitive photo-
raphic films and longer expo-
ures are bringing very faint
elestial objects into the range
f detectability. New electronic
ystems capable of recording
_dividual photons are now dis-
lacing film as the detectors of
hoice for imaging faint (distant)
stronomical objects.

lstronomer Annie Cannon, early

_.Oth.century p_oneer In spectral
lnalysis (Harvard College Obse,_alnfy,I

lO0-inch Hooker telescope

at Mount Wilson
(California Institute of Technology)

13
 Advances in mirror and the universe clearly, because we and dimmed. From the ground, stars and galaxies in as much
detector technology yield dra- are looking up through a hazy we can distinguish objects well detail as possible, we must lift
matic improvements in obtain- shroud of gases around our only to a distance of some two our telescopes into orbit beyond
ing information about objects in planet. As light from celestial billion light years, although the the turbulent, obscuring atmo-
the sky, up to a point. Then objects is bent, scattered, and universe probably extends ten sphere. If it were practical, most
astronomers face a barrier that absorbed by passage through times farther. telescopes would be located in
is not affected by bigger, more our turbulent atmosphere, Placing telescopes on high space, where viewing condi-
sensitive telescopes: the atmo- images are distorted, blurred, mountain peaks above part tions are most favorable.
sphere. Despite centuries of of our atmosphere improves
observing, we have not yet seen viewing, but the best place for
a telescope is in space. To
observe the farthest, faintest
Severalofthe 11 telescopesof the

in Arizona
 l

The Hubble Space Telescope

during assembly and testing
(Lockheed Missi_es and Space Company)

Astronomers have dreamed warranty for a long operational occurred in fairly small steps;
f placing a large visible-light life. Space telescopes are expen- mirror sizes have doubled or
_lescope into space, but only sive; to get the most science tripled, and improvements in
_cently has the technology from our investment, we must sensitivity and resolution have
een developed to make this be able to use them for many been measured up to 50 times
ossible. The Space Shuttle years. better. With a telescope ]n
; powerful enough to carry into The Hubble Space Telescope space, we leap to new capabili-
rbit a large telescope compara- is the realization of that dream: ties at least 10 times better
,]e to some of the best tele- a virtually perfect mirror, superi- than optical telescopes on the
copes on the ground or detectors, and an orbit above ground. The Hubble Space _
'urthermore, the Shuttle can the atmosphere.
This is the Telescope is the best optical ._
ake a maintenance crew to an instrument that will reveal what telescope in the world, a pre-
rbital observatory for repairs lies beyond our present power cious international resource for
nd servicing. For the first time to see. Until now, advances in satisfying out human need to
the space age, we have a telescope capability have knowthe ¢6smos ' ' :: _ - - -_' " • *_
t .......
 Observation Strategy
For generations, humans have
looked at the same sky, asked
the same questions, and pressed
against the same physical barri-
ers to observation. How large
and how old is the universe, and
how do we measure it? What
are the objects we see there?
How do galaxies form and
evolve? What is the life cycle of
stars? Do other planets exist? Is
there life elsewhere in the uni-
verse? At first, our attempts to
explain the cosmos took the
form of myths and folklore,
which have now given way
to scientific theories and
observations.
Of all the observatories
that exist in the world, only the
Hubble Space Telescope can
answer some of the most per-
plexing astronomical questions.
The Hubble Space Telescope
can detect objects 12 to I4 bil-
lion light years distant as clearly
as a much larger telescope on
In longertimeexposures,morelight is collectedandresulting
imageshavemoredetail, Theseimagesof two galaxiesin
AndromedaresultedfromobservationslastingI minute,
5 minutes,30 minutes, and45 minutes_yespectively. TheHubb/e
Space Telescopewill be able to obtaindetailedimagesoffaint
objectswith shorterexposuresthanobservatorieson theground.
(Kill Peak Nationa! Obset_'ator_;
16
the ground can detect objects
a mere 1 to 2 billion light years
away. Images will be at least
10 times sharper in clarity than
any others, and light emitted
very early in the life of the uni-
verse, 30 to 50 times fainter
than our current threshold, will
be easily detected.
The observing strategy takes
advantage of these unique abili-
ties to see objects farther away
and with greater clarity than
any other telescope. The high-
est priority investigations are
those that cannot be performed
from the ground; we do not
know exactly what these
exploratory observations will
reveal. Some are focused where
our knowledge is quite limited,
at objects beyond 10 billion
light years, toward the "edge"
of the observable universe.
Research requiring extraordi-
narily precise position measure-
ments, now possible for the first
time, is scheduled early in the
TheseImagesof M101 galaxy in Ursa
Major,one10 times sharperthan the
other,simulatethe improvementin detail
expectedin Imagesfromthe Hubble
SpaceTelescope._c.,_o,.,a
Inst_[_le
ofTechnorogyP
 _lescope's mission. Another
igh priority is examination of
he ultraviolet radiation from
elestial objects, radiation that
annot be observed from the
round.
The "eye" of the Hubble
pace Telescope will be turned
pon both familiar and exotic
bjects, neighboring areas in
pace and the farthest territo-
ies. Producing images at a rate
,f about 20 a day, we should
Lave more than 7,000 images a
'ear and, over its planned
5-year operation, more than
00,000 pictures as enthralling
Lsthose from the planetary
_xplorers. The information in
hese images is the source
naterial for discoveries.
Observation is exploration.
_ecause we cannot yet venture
nto the far reaches of time and
',pace, we have to explore by
:ollecting radiation. With the
tubble Space Telescope, we
_ave the opportunity to see and
;now more about the universe.
['his observatory, perhaps more
hun any other, appeals to our
magination with the promise
_f new knowledge, beautiful
mages, and answers to the
nost intriguing questions.

the HubbleSpaceTelescopemay
_nswerquestionsaboutall classesof
_stronomicalobjects,fromneighboring
_lanetsandstarsto themostdistant
_,alaxlesandquasars.
_cto_ COS[aRZO, #., and Br_arr Su_tr_an a_tFsIsI
 Edwin P. Hubble
1889-1953
their distance by the way their light varies. Careful observations of
s a child, Edwin Powell Hubble wandered the Kentucky the Cepheids enabled him to measure the distance to Andromeda,
countryside where he grew up, observing the habits of birds
and animals. As an adult, he scrutinized the stars and galaxies. far too many light-years away to be in our galaxy. He classified the
Although Hubble was always interested in science, he did not galaxies, grouping them by sizes and shapes, and established that
settle on the profession of astronomy Immediately. In 1910, he many other nebulae were also galaxies even more distant than
received an undergraduate degree from the University of Chicago, Andromeda. Hubble measured the depths of space out to 500 mil-
where he also lettered in lion light years, distances farther
basketball and almost became than any previous surveys.
As he continued to study
a professional boxer. Instead,
he studied law under a Rhodes galaxies, he concluded that they
scholarship at Oxford, passed were moving away from Earth at
the bar, and practiced law velocities proportional to their
briefly and halfheartedly. He distances. This supported the
reported that he "chucked the concept that the universe origi-
law for astronomy, and I knew hated in a cosmic explosion, and
that even if I were second-rate all the matter in the universe was

or third-rate, it was astronomy expanding from the site of an ini-

that mattered."
Hubble completed graduate
studies at the Yerkes
Observatory of the University
of Chicago, where he began his
examination of spiral nebulae.
He earned his doctorate in
1917 and was invited to join
the Mount Wilson Observatory
in Pasadena, California, but
Hubble did not yet undertake
the studies that made him
famous. Answering the call to
World War I, he enlisted in the
infantry, telegraphing observa-
tory personnel, "Regret cannot
accept your invitation. Am off
to the war."
Two years later he finally
tial Big Bang. The galactic survey
resulted in Hubble's law: the
more distant the galaxy from
Earth, the faster it moves away.
Of course, if all the galaxies
originated from one explosion,
residents of other galaxies would
see the same thing: a universe of
fleeing galaxies with more distant
ones moving more rapidly.
Hubble found that the ratio of
the velocity of receding galaxies
to their distance from Earth is
constant (the Hubble constant),
a significant astrophysical number
still not calculated with certainty
today. Unfortunately, as the
.... _ distances to objects Increase,
astronomers are overwhelmed
tN,e_s 8ohr Library, American Insfitute of Phys Csl

with uncertainties: distances are hard to measure. Current

began working with the tool that would enable him to make great
discoveries--the lO0-inch reflector at Mount Wilson, at the time
the largest telescope in the world. Except for four years of service
in World War II, Hubble was devoted to astronomy until his death
in 1953.
Hubble's patient, painstaking observations revealed a much
larger universe than anyone had imagined. He was enchanted by
dim, foggy patches called "nebulae," the Greek word for cloud.
One called Andromeda was the most spectacular nebula observed
during the early decades of the century, but telescopes
estimates of the Hubble constant, and thus the rate of expansion
of the universe, differ by a factor of two. More powerful telescopes
are needed to make more precise measurements and determine
whether the universe will expand forever or halt and perhaps
reverse.
The Hubble Space Telescope will build on Hubble's research,
measuring distances with greater accuracy than ever before
possible. It is fitting that this premier space observatory is named
were not for the American astronomer whose work revolutionized modern

powerful enough to see if it harbored any stars like the vast stellar
populations of the Milky Way. Since the 18th century, scientists
had argued whether these areas were "island universes," sepa-
rate galaxies, or simply nebulae in our galaxy. Was the Milky Way
the only galaxy? Was it the center of the universe?
In 1924, Hubble ended the debate when he reported stars in
the outskirts of Andromeda and found Cepheids, stars that reveal
astronomy. Hubble's research proved that larger, more powerful
telescopes are needed to see more of the universe. He assisted
in the design of the 200-inch Hale telescope at Mount Palomar
near San Diego and made the first observations with it. When
asked what he expected to find with the new telescope, he said,
"We hope to find something we hadn't expected." With the Hubble
Space Telescope, this quest continues.

ORIGINAL PAGE Edwin P. Hubble at the 4B-inSchmldt

telescope at Palomar Observatory
BLACK ANI') WHITE PHOTOG_API -J _ie_sBoh,Li_rary,
A.,_ic_.l,_s._.reorPh_si_

18
 tance scale beyond the Milky
Way has never been precisely
determined; current estimates
are so uncertain that galaxies
may be twice as far away as we
think, or only half as far.
Distance is crucial to almost
every problem in astronomy,
especially issues in cosmology
about the origin and age of the
universe. Astronomers need to
know how far away the varieus
bright and dim objects are and
how far apart they are A pre-
cise measurement of distance is
also the basis for establishing
an accurate value of the Hubble
Better "readmaps"areneededfor How do we measure purposes just how far away the constant, a measure of the age
accuratedistancemeasurements the universe? and rate of expansion of the
nearest celestial body was
togalaxiesmuchfartheraway than When the United States decided located. universe.
theseneighboring
galaxies.
to send men to the moon, scien- Although the distances to A high-priority project is to
tists and engineers lacked an some stars and galaxies are use the Hubble Space Telescope
essential bit of information: the published as so many light to refine the distance scale of
exact distance to the destina- years, these measurements in the universe and to calculate a
tion. At that time, no one knew the celestial atlas are, in reali- more accurate value of the
precisely enough for navigation ty, estimates. The actual dis- Hubble constant With its ability

TheHubbleSpaceTelescopewill resolve
someofthe detailthat is usuallylost
overvastdistances.,_o_p_schat_e_
a_s_j

Cepheidvariables
are common
referencepoints
forastronomical
measurements.
Thedifference
in brightnessof
theseCepheldsin
theAndromeda
galaxy(between
thedashedlines)
is evident.
(Palomar Obser_3Tor}_
Cahforma Ins;_tote o!

2O
 Moreaccuratemeasurementsof
distancesto objectsin the Virgocluster
ofgalaxies,60 millionilghtyearsfrom
ourgalaxy,willgivescientistsbetter
"yardsticks"forcalculatingprecise
distancestoobjectsmuchfartheraway.
{Kltt Peak Nat,onal O_se: _ator_/_l

:o measure very small angular However, partial obscuration did not have a ruler or measur-
_hifts in the positions of stars, of the light by intervening dust ing tape, we might use a piece
_he telescope will survey the and gas complicates the issue. of string for successive mea-
:listance to a special class of We can now make accurate dis- surements until we could say
stars known as Cepheid Lance measurements only to that the room was so many
variables. nearby Cepheids -- a few tens lengths of string wide by so
Cepheids are stars that of millions of light years away. many lengths of string long;
brighten and dim on a regular If we can measure the distance that unit of measure could be
schedule; they are used as to galaxies out to the Virgo used as a "yardstick" for gaug-
"standard candles" because cluster, about 60 million light ing the distances to other
[heir intensities correlate with years away, then we can use objects. The Cepheid project
their periods of variation. These this longer yardstick to deter- will take several years to com-
sources of known intensity pro- mine more accurate distances plete, since measurements must
vide a "yardstick" with which to to other objects farther away. be repeated and compared at
measure distance. The apparent By analogy, if at home we regular intervals to refine the
faintness o[ a Cepheid trans- needed to measure a room but distance calculations.
lates directly into its distance.

21
 determine exactly what they much radiation as an entire ability. Are quasars powered by
What are quasars,
are. With the Hubble Space galaxy. Interestingly, a quasar black holes or by something yet
active galaxies, and
other exotic objects? Telescope, however, the nature may be hardly noticeable in visi- to be discovered? The quasar
of these enigmas should be ble light, but it blazes forth in problem challenges our current
Among the most mystifying
revealed. higher-energy radiation (ultravi- understanding of the laws of
celestial bodies are quasars,
Quasars are especially puz- olet and X-rays). The brightness physics.
active galaxies, neutron stars,
zling. The most distant observ- of some quasars varies from The most distant quasars, as
and other compact objects that
able objects, they should be month to month, even from one far away as 15 billion light
appear unusually luminous for
very faint; however, a quasar hour to the next. There is no years, are thought to be at the
their size. Because these objects
explanation for the source of limits of the observable uni-
are relatively small and very far the size of a solar system can
produce hundreds of times as this immense energy or its vari- verse. Because looking far out
away, we have not been able to
ntospaceislooking backin
:ime,weseequasars todayas
:heyappearedbillions
ofyears
_go;theymaynotevenexist
_ow.Quasarsmaybeexplo-
;ions that precipitate galaxies,
:he violent first step in an evolu-
:ionary process that gradually
:esults in a normal galaxy like
)ur own.
In some galaxies, the central
region emits extraordinarily
intense and variable radiation.
It is thought that quasars or
black holes hidden in these
active galaxies may be the
power source. High-resolution
studies of the centers of galaxies
by the Hubble Space Telescope
should reveal this mysterious
phenomenon.

Observations in differentradiationbandsrevealdifferentfeatures, as shownIn these

twoimagesof theM101 galaxy,oneIn visiblelight (left) andthe otherIn ultraviolet
(right). Onlythehigher.temperature objectsandareasappearin ultravioletImages,
whilethecooleronesdisappear, i_t_peak
_a_io_ar
obse,,ato_,
_,,s,_e_
_sA God_._S_ceP,_gh,*
Ce._e;,
_a_.,oP_!

Quasar3C 273 in virgoIsa mysterious

objectthatmay radiate100 timesmore
lightthan thebrightestordinarygalaxy.
(K_ft Pea_ NaI_onal Obsef _,alor)')

Somequasarsandotherobjects
emitperplexingjets ofradiation.
(Adolph 5chatler, artJst_

Theexistenceofblackholes,whichmay
devourmatter fromnearbystars,is theorized
but notyet confirmed.
rOon DJ_on art_sl)

23
How do galaxies during the early stages of their
form and evolve? formation and adding new
There are an estimated 100 galaxies to the list of
billion galaxies in the universe, those available for study. In
and we know only one reason- addition, they will get a more
ably well: our own Milky Way. detailed look at some puzzling
As recently as the 1920's, when phenomena, such as active
Edwin P. Hubble corrected the galaxies that produce extraordi-
record, no one knew with cer- nary energy compared to typical
tainty that other galaxies existed. galaxies. It is thought that the
Since then, galaxies have been nuclei of such galaxies may har-
identified, labeled, and placed bor quasars or black holes,
in a classification scheme based which are net yet well under-
on their structure or other fea- stood. With the improved reso-
tures, but only a fraction of the lution of this telescope,
Celestialmerger:galaxiesmay collideandinteract,exchangingmatter andresulting
total population of galaxies has astronomers will be able to peer in theformationof newstars._e,_a_
s_.,_, a_r_)
been sampled. into the crowded centers of
Galaxies are intrinsically galaxies to find what lies hid-
interesting evidence of the ori- den there.
gin of the universe, for it is
thought that they were the first
objects to form after the cosmic
"Big Bang." They seem to be
the basic building blocks that
give structure to the universe.
Curiously, there is little evi-
dence that new galaxies are
forming today.
Astronomers are eager to
see the farthest (youngest)
galaxies out toward 15 billion
light years, for these should
reveal the conditions under
which the universe began to
take shape. To understand how
the universe evolved,
astronomers need to study as
many galaxies of as many types
and ages as possible. Today,
only the 20 nearest galaxies
have been studied in any detail;
these are contemporaries of the
Milky Way, similar in form and
content. A more thorough cen-
sus is required.
With the very sensitive
Hubble Space Telescope,
astronomers will be collecting
information about galaxies

SpiralgalaxyM83 in Hydra
_,Cerro To_olo #lter American Observafory)

24
The Hubble Space Telescope will be used to
observe a variety of galaxies of different types,
distances, and ages:

Small Magellanic Cloud

(Ro)at Obser_lor_)

Whirlpool Galaxy In Canes Venatlcl

IPalonlar Obse_v_{or_ Cabforn_J f_sIJfule of T_chnolo_!

Cluster of galaxies In
Coma Berenlces
{Kill Pe_ Nat_or_at Obser_'_Ior) _

25
What is the broad stellar survey will help us
life cycle of stars? understand the processes that
Stars are forming in our galaxy govern it. Detection of proto-
and elsewhere today. Although stars (clouds of matter that are
the Milky Way is more than condensing into stars) and stars
10 billion years old, we see stars that form earlier in the history
that are thousands of times of a galaxy may give insight into
younger. Occasionally, we also the formation and early history
see stars in the death process, of our solar system.
exploding as supernovas and Many faint stars will appear
disappearing or shrinking into as bright sources to the highly
white dwarfs. sensitive instruments in the
The rationale for observing Hubble Space Telescope. The
stars is much the same as that standard deep sky atlas, the
for observing galaxies; scien- Palomar Observatory Sky
tists need to study many stars Survey, includes stars as faint
of many different ages and as 21st magnitude. While the
types to understand how they Hubble Space Telescope will not
form, exist, and die. Stellar pop- be used for a full-sky survey, it
ulation studies are an important will be able to detect stars to
item on the agenda of the at least the 28th magnitude and
Hubble Space Telescope. easily record 24th magnitude
Thousands of stars will be mea- stars, which are the faintest
sured and categorized to obtain routinely observable from
a large statistical sample. ground observatories. It will
Studying other stars tells us also be able to record faint star-
more about the nearest star, our light much more quickly than
sun, which formed relatively long overnight exposures from
late in the galaxy's life. Although the ground. Hubble Space
the Hubble Space Telescope Telescope exposures will range
cannot look at the sun, the from tenths of a second to about
an hour.

Nebulaeareoftencalledstellarnurseries,becausenewstarsformIn these
glowingcloudsofdustandgas.
Nebuta i_ Sag,_ar _s, Kitt Peak Nationat Observator_
(rrjF_d

NorseheadNebulain Orlonis an opaquecloudof dust

that absorbslightfromstarsbeyondit. _Roya_
Ob_e,_a_l
ThePleiadesare a clusterof about
3,000 starsin Taurus;theHubbleSpace
Telescopewill be able toresolvestarsin
moredistantandverydenseclusters.
[Hanse_ Planetarium)

26
 Supernova remnants,
hallow shells of gas,
may linger for
centuries as glowing
evidence of the
death of a star.
lSu_mova real_an_ i_ Ve!a,
RoyalObservatory,_

A supernova Is a stellar explosion that temporarily may outshine all

other stars in its galaxy. An interesting target of observation is the
supernova discovered in 1987 in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud.
_Eur_an Sout_m Observatory}

27
Do other planetary comparable to photos from the
systems exist? Voyager spacecraft. Whereas
Given the tremendous number the exploratory Voyagers had
of stars in the universe, it is only a fleeting glance at Jupiter,
unlikely that our solar system is Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune,
the only collection of planetary the Hubble telescope can study
bodies. Theoretically, the forma- them whenever we desire,
tion of planets about a star repeatedly and in finer detail
could be a normal process. The than observations from the
search for other planetary sys- ground. Thus, the telescope
tems is pertinent to understand- complements the discovery mis-
ing the evolution of the universe, sions by providing for longer-
and it is an exciting scientific term study. For example, while
adventure. Voyager first showed us evi-
The Hubble Space Telescope dence of volcanoes on Jupiter's
is not likely to observe planets moon Io, the Hubble Space
around another star directly, for Telescope will tel1 us how often
they would be extremely faint, they erupt and what chemicals
obscured by the star's bright they emit. One of the cameras
light. However, it may be possi- in the Hubble observatory can
ble to find secondary evidence photograph the entire Earth-
of a planet from wobbles in the facing hemisphere of any planet
star's motion that indicate the in our solar system (except
gravitational pull of an orbiting Mercury, which is too close to
body. Similarly, fluctuations in a the sun) in a single exposure;
young star's light output might it is possible that our first "close
suggest a rotating, dusty disk up" look at Pluto will be among
where a new planetary system the images received when
could be forming. If companions observatory operations begin.
are suspected around a candi- Comets are important targets A close-upview ofJupiterandits moonsIo (left) and Europa(right)
date star, it is possible to create of observation, because they are comparablein detail to expectedHubbleSpace TelescopeImages. This
within the telescope an artificial thought to be debris from the Imagewas obtainedat a distanceof 20 m/Ilionkm (12.4 mi/llon mi) by
eclipse of the star's light so a formation of the solar system, the Voyagerspacecraft._'_ASA)
smaller, dimmer body may be frozen and essentially unchanged
detected. Highly precise posi- for four billion years. Comets
tion measurements with the may tell us what chemicals, in
Hubble Space Telescope could what abundance, were present
then reveal whether or not the when our solar system formed.
newly visible body were orbit- The Hubble Space Telescope is
ing the central star. useful for cometary science,
Another exciting use of the because it can examine a comet
Hubble Space Telescope is to at many points along its trajec-
focus on the planets and moons tory through the solar system.
in our own solar system, giving Thus, astronomers need not wait
us a front row view of these for the next close approach to
fascinating worlds almost Earth to collect comet data. _i.*_

Oneof thebest imagesof Jupiter

TheHubbleSpaceTelescopewill enable froma telescopeonthe ground
studiesof theplanetsin finer detail _Pa_onJar Obser _ator y, Ca ilortl a nst tote o Technology

thanis possiblefromtheground.

The Hubble Space Telescope

will give us a front row view of
the fascinating worlds of our
solar system.

28
 Voyager image
of Neptune from
82 million km
(51.5 million mi)
similar in detail to a
Hubble Space
Telescope image

Pluto, never yet

seen in detail
!Pa omar Observator _
C,]_ffornia Instit_l_' Of )ec_rlo_o_!

A Voyager image
of Saturn from
13 million km
(8 million mi),
comparable in
resolution to
Hubble Space
Telescope imagery
;N4SAI
Uranus and Neptune observed from Earth
IL c:.,
Obse re,orv_

A typical
ground-based
image of Saturn
_PaJomar Obser vato,"
CaJa_ornaa_nstJtute o;
technology,
 O!:!,3[_.!AL PAG_L
0 _TL_I_I_: >ii'3TOCRAPH

The Hubble Space Telescope

is an observatory unlike
any astronomical observatory
on Earth.

Light entering the telescope familiar dome shape of observa-

strikes the primary mirror, is tory buildings, because it needs
reflected forward to the sec- no protection against weather.
ondary mirror where it is It has peculiar features like
reflected again, returning down solar panels, to generate electri- Control room in the Space
the telescope and through a cal power, and communications Telescope Operations Control
antennas, to receive and trans- Center at NASA's Goddard Space
hole in the primary mirror to the
mit information. The telescope Flight Center In Maryland
focal plane, where the image
fNAS4)
forms. There, detectors record is remotely controlled by opera-
images or analyze the incoming tors hundreds of miles below
ultraviolet, visible, or infrared it and, at times, half a world
light. These focal plane instru- away. It operates around the
ments are crucial to the obser- clock, day and night, seven days
vatory; without them, the a week, year after year, unaf-
advantage of the perfect mirror fected by clouds and weather. The Hubble Space Telescope
VisibiliW is always perfect. will be delivered to orbit
and vantage point above the
More subtly, the Hubble by the Space Shuttle.
atmosphere would be wasted.
Initial checkout will occur
The detected light is converted Space Telescope represents a
while the telescope Is
into electronic signals and revolutionary shift in the way
attached to the Shuttle; then
transmitted by relay satellite to most astronomers do their work.
it will be released foryears
ground stations. There the data During the deployment, opera- of operation In space.
are processed by computers and tional, and servicing phases of (Gordon Rane,K artist, Lockheed)

reconstructed as images for its mission, the telescope is

astronomers to study. handled differently than is cus-
The Hubble Space Telescope tomary for a ground-based
is an observatory unlike any telescope. With the Hubble
astronomical observatory on Space Telescope, astronomical
Earth. Some of the differences research reaches maturity in the
are obvious. It doesn't have the space age.

Science Primary Mirror

Instruments Main
Baffle
Central Secondary
Baffle Mirror

Light

Aperture
Secondary
Mirror Baffle

Path of light through the telescope to the detectors

32
Observing with the
Hubble Space Telescope

In the nearby media center, telescope is dormant; its activa- command and data flow. By instruments are checked, and
journalists keep vigil, their tion in orbit is a methodical the second day in orbit, the tele- calibration tests are run. About
editors and producers saving procedure that lasts about three scope is ready to be released. two weeks into the mission,
front pages and prime time for days for initial deployment and For the next several hours, checkout of the cameras and
on-the-scene reports. Across the several months for full check- the ground control teams put other scientific instruments in
country at NASA centers and out. This verification sequence _he telescope through its paces, the focal plane begins.
aerospace firms, thousands of carefully brings the telescope gradually bringing it up to full Checkout is a time for
people involved in the project to full operational status. power, turning on its "house- patience. A full six months
know that today is the red letter About 24 hours after launch, keeping" systems for pointing have been allocated for meticu-
day, the culmination of years of the telescope is unplugged and attitude control, loading the lous verification that all systems
effort. Around the world, from the Shuttle power supply computer memories, and testing and instruments are functioning
astronomers await word that and begins operating on its own the telemetry. These activities properly. This period will be
the new observatory is battery power. It is then lifted verify that everything is work- punctuated by some actual
deployed, promising new vistas from the bay by the robot arm ing properly as the telescope observations, but the observa-
for the most ancient science. and held outside the Shuttle adjusts to the space environment. tory's schedule will not be
Actually, ground controllers during preparations for release. The third and fourth days are turned over to the scientists
have been "talking" to the The solar arrays must be dedicated to testing the tele- until the checkout is complete.
telescope since four hours after deployed promptly to activate scope's ability to move and point Two NASA centers share
launch, waking the various the telescope's internal power accurately, to acquire guide stars responsibility during this trial
systems and readying them to system, and the antennas must and targets. Then the alignments period. The Marshall Space
be turned on. For launch, the be unstowed for two-way of the mirrors and scientific Flight Center in Huntsville,

Astronautsworkingin the aPtflightdeckof the

SpaceShuttl6deploytheHubbleSpaceTelescope.

COL,..'._ PHOTOGRAPH
Space Telescope in Orbit

First Days a dome. Instead, opening night Shuttle. Two other crew mem- on video screens and adjust
Slowly and gently, the telescope activities proceed in a brisk, bers stand by, prepared to go to their headsets, listening quietly
is lifted from its cradle in the businesslike fashion. Only five work outside the cabin if some to terse status reports. "Solar
payload bay of the Space Shuttle. people are present. problem arises. arrays deployed...power-up
Attached to the spidery remote Inside the Shuttle, an astro- Meanwhile, scores of person- sequence initiated..." The two
manipulator arm, the 43-foot naut intently watches through nel at ground control centers solar arrays gradually unfurl,
telescope clears the bay door a window and operates the monitor every electronic signal and then the two antennas fold
and is held overboard for a mechanical arm to position the and issue commands as the out. The Shuttle eases away to
methodical checkout before telescope for the first stages of telescope is being prepared to a respectful distance, where it
release. There is no ribbon-cut- its deployment. The commander operate in space. The mood is hovers until the initial checkout
ting ceremony, no cornerstone is on duty to oversee activity, vibrant; scientists, engineers, is complete.
to set in place, no speech under while the pilot maneuvers the managers, and VIPs concentrate
Alabama, NASA's leadcenter
fordevelopment oftheHubble
SpaceTelescope, willconduct
thegeneral spacecraft systems
checkout. TheGoddard Space
FlightCenter inGreenbelt,
Maryland, isresponsible for
verifyingtheperformance ofthe
scientific
instruments. ActiVation
andcheckout willbeconducted
Prom theSpace Telescope
Operations Control Center at
Goddard. Engineering teams in
theHuntsville Operations
Support Center andatsitesof
thevarious contractors respon-
sibleforconstructing the
telescope willsupport these
activities.
Afterthegeneral sys-
temscheckout, operationaland
managerial controlofthe
Hubble Space Telescope will
passfromMarshall toGoddard,
whichwillthenbethefocal
pointofday-to-day operations HubbleSpaceTelescopein orbit
suchastelescope pointing, Itockheed)

instrument commanding, and

dataflow.
AsinallSpace Shuttle I
missions, theKennedy Space The first several months in orbit
Center atCape Canaveral,
Florida,andtheJohnson Space are reserved for checkout and
Center inHouston, Texas, serve
ascontrol centers forthelaunch verification of the telescope
andmanned spaceflight phases
oftheHubble Space Telescope's before science operations begin.
deployment andsubsequent
servicingmissions.

15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00

TIME MET [),'HR Or_ 0113:00
0000 14:00
010100 O10200 0103:00 O1 04:00 01 05:00 O1 06:00 01 0700

& k]90E
ORBIT# Ot6 RI I03E
• ri (_17 ,
i lagE_
• I 1018 ,' ,4E
• 019 I iv ', 02d
I I I
]
LIGHT/SHAOOW i i I
4--

i I I 1 I I I :
SAA I I ; 1
! I 1 ! ........ ! I , ! I

_1 NSTDN '11,4 -- 1 HST ON RMS (-V1 TO SUN)- J - 4- ..... J---- t_ HST: INERTIAL -VI TO SUN (SAN SON POINTCON]IROL)
HSTA]q-ITUDE i-- i_,_)-Tid_---- ' -- lI
( i l I I ( i I I ( I f
I
ORBITER _ ORBITE_ PI_c_TIAL
"_ ii I1_"
.-- ORBITEI_
PLUM,FREEORIFT _URING
SDM DEPL(_Y - _41 J' I '
OI_BITPR INERTIAL ' '
_ i)'41 '
i '
ORE_ITER: SEPARATION' - '
F.......

r ! CREW FILM I ,_..' R_S POSITION I • RMS POSITION I I {

Ct_EW ' £MS ' ' .,# CRE_ MONITOR _41LM I
SAROTATE i P'_II HSf#(]R'_EL-EA,S# ,HSTFORI_ELEAS[ _ I 1
.... _ I J , I I
, i I I q, _ l J I l I ' I J

Segmentofthe deployment
mission tlmeline
1_4S_)

35
Observing with the
Hubble Space Telescope

Day-to-Day Operations
Several months after launch,
when all checkout and verifica-
tion exercises are completed,
NASA officially hands over
science planning responsibility
for the Hubble Space Telescope
to the Space Telescope Science
Institute in Baltimore, Maryland.
The Institute is responsible
the scientific use of the observa-
some of the basic differences Telescope will host a changing uled date and takes up resi-
in the ways astronomers use program of investigations and dence there, hopes for several
observatories on the ground and guest observers while it is in nights of good visibility, and, if
in space. service. What is it like to be an the weather isn't cloudy, pro-
The Hubble Space Telescope astronomer using the Hubble ceeds to observe whatever
is not the first telescope in space; Space Telescope? targets are critical to his or her
a number of smaller instruments To work in some of the best research. Usually no one else is
have flown since the 1960's. observatories on Earth, an scheduled to use the facility at
However, it is the first large or- astronomer may fly halfway the same time, so the astron-
for bital observatory to be accessible around the world and then trav- omer works without interruption.
to the worldwide astronomical el many miles overland to reach The observatory staff assist in

tory, which will continue to be community and the first such a remote mountaintop for a few configuring the equipment,
operated by the Goddard Space telescope to be considered "per- nights of observation. Normally, pointing the telescope, and sup-
Flight Center. This dual control manent." Like Mount Palomar or he or she books time at the porting the guest observer's
of the telescope's operation is a other world-class observatories observatory several months in plan. The astronomer and obser-
new arrangement that reflects on the ground, the Space advance, arrives on the sched- vatory technicians may sit side
bysideinthecontrol room,
choosingtargets andadjusting
theinstruments through
the
nightinresponse toobserving
conditions.
Thetelescopeis
essentially
anextensionofthe
observer'ssenses,responding
immediately totheastronomer's
desiretolingeronaparticular In observatories
on theground,
targetorlookelsewhere.
When astronomersworkin a controlrooma
astronomers gotobedatdawn, fewstepsaway fromthe telescope;
theirworkhasonlybegun. The however,theHubbleSpaceTelescopeIs
harvestofdatafromonenight's a remotelycontrolledobservatory.
observationsmaytakemonths, {Ha(e O_ser_aror_;

evenyears, toanalyzeand
understand.
Mountaintopobservatories
at MaunaKea
[Canada-FranceHa_,'aii Telescop_ CorpotaI_on)
GaseousNebula in Serpens
(Hale Observatories) To use the Hubble Space
Telescope, an astronomer need
Right: A console Is available for not leave home. This orbital
astronomers who wish to be
observatory is almost totally
present when their programmed
observations occur. Some direct preprogrammed, and its opera-
tion involves complex command
commanding is possible to
control instrument settings procedures that are the busi-
and final positioning of the ness of engineers in the Space
astronomical target in the field Telescope Operations Control
of view. Center. The astronomer inter-
(NASA) acts with the Space Telescope
Science Institute, not directly
with the observatory or its
control center. The Institute is
responsible for science planning
and scheduling and for science
data processing and archiving.

38
 Like an observer at a ground During the interim, the Thus, observations of stars and
observatory, the Hubble Space observation plan is refined, and galaxies located in the same
Telescope guest observer must all activities necessary to part of the sky are generally
request observing time well in accomplish it are specified. The scheduled together. If an
advance. However, because of Science Institute then begins to astronomer wants to observe
the complexities of scheduling compile a master calendar, objects in different parts of the
an orbital telescope, the lead usually six months at a time, to sky, these observations proba-
time between request and schedule the selected observa- bly will not occur successively
observation is much longer, and tions. in one orbit nor even in one day
the astronomer must describe Because observation time in or week. An astronomer's plan
the observing plan in much space is costly, the governing may be split up and scattered
greater detail. Proposals for philosophy in scheduling the throughout the six-month period
observations are submitted to Hubble Space Telescope is effi- to improve overall scheduling
the Institute, evaluated by peer ciency. The aim is to maximize effidency,
v.
review, and selected as much as the time on target and minimize
a year or two before the actual the time spent reorienting the
observation occurs. telescope from target to target.

_'_ _ f_-_ _ _ _,__

39
Observing with the
Hubble Space Telescope

Likewise, if an astronomer's includes turning the telescope a detailed operations schedule. been set up to allow it, but
program requires a long obser- to acquire a new target or avoid Each event is translated into a spontaneous control is not pos-
vation, perhaps three hours on a the sun or moon, switching series of commands to be sent sible. For some investigations,
target, the observation may be communications antennas and to the onboard computers. the observer may make fine
interrupted as the view from the data transmission modes, Computer loads are transmitted adjustments to the telescope's
orbiting telescope is blocked by receiving command loads and ("uplinked") several times a day pointing, using a light pen and
the Earth or as some other downlinking data, calibrating, to keep the telescope operating cursor to center within an aper-
activity takes precedence. and similar activities. efficiently. ture a small target in a wider
AIthough the telescope operates When the Science Institute Normally, two of the scientific field. Whether or not the guest
around the clock, not all the completes its master observing instruments will be used simul- observer is present at the
time is spent in observing. Each plan, the schedule is forwarded taneously to observe adjacent Institute, a staff astronomer and
orbit lasts about 90 minutes, to Goddard's Space Telescope target regions of the sky. For console operator are on duty
with time allocated both for Operations Control Center, example, while a spectrograph at all times to monitor the
housekeeping functions and for where the science and house- is focused on a chosen star or observations. This is where real
observations. "Housekeeping" keeping plans are merged into nebula, one of the cameras will
be photographing a sky region
offset slightly from the main
viewing target. During observa-
tions, at least two of the three
Fine Guidance Sensors will be
operating, each tracking a sepa-
rate guide star to keep the tele-
scope pointed steadily at the
right target.
If an astronomer desires to
be present during his or her
observation, there is a console
at the Science Institute and
another in the Control Center,
where monitors display images
or other data as the observation
occurs. Some limited real-time
commanding for target acquisi-
tion or filter changing is
performed at these stations,
if the observation program has

M81 galaxyin UrsaMajor

_KJItPea_ Nafiona_ Observak_ry)

Thefieldsof viewofthe Rne Guidance

Sensorsformthree "pickles,"here
superimposed onthe HorseheadNebula
in Orlon.Toacquirean objectfor obser-
vation,the telescopemustfirst locate
appropriateguidestarswithtwo of the
three FineGuidanceSensors.Candidate
guidestarsareshownas yellowcrosses.
Theguide star catalogincludesalmost
19 millionobjects.
(Sp_ceTelescope Scier_cel_sfJtu[eJ

GiantellipticalgalaxyM87 in Virgo
_Kdf Pea_ NatJo#af Observa_ot,

4O
 excitement is felt as monitoring status, and receiving data for delivery to the Institute. research centers. The Hubble
astronomers have a first look at downlinked data. This is the The Science Institute is respon- Space Telescope will be operated
what the telescope sees. The nerve center. Behind the scenes sible [or data processing; it in this tradition, as a resource
initial images and data are soon at the Goddard and Marshall calibrates, edits, distributes, for astronomers worldwide.
processed and refined by Space Flight Centers and at and maintains data for the Some observing time is allocat-
sophisticated computer pro- the industry sites where the scientific community. The guest ed for amateur astronomers, as
grams on the ground. telescope and its parts were observer may analyze the data well. Data will be maintained in
In a much larger room at the developed, support teams stay with software provided by the the Institute's archives and,
Space Telescope Operations on call to respond to any opera- Institute or with his or her own when the primary investigators'
Control Center, 30 miles away, tional problems that may occur. programs, and the data may be research is completed, made
consoles are manned around the Engineering and scientific analyzed at the Institute or at available to all astronomers, not
clock as operators stay m data from the observatory, as the observer's home institution. only those whose observations
constant contact with the obser- well as uplinked operational Eventually, observers around are accepted but also those who
vatory, sending up commands, commands, are transmitted the world will be networked are waiting.
through the Tracking and Data to the Institute, enabling them The perplexing problems
Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) to have keyboard access to the in astronomy today cannot be
and its companion ground data archives there. resolved by a single instrument,
station at White Sands, New Competition is keen for a lone observer, or even one
Mexico. Up to 24 hours of observatory privileges on the observatory. The new break-
commands can be stored in the ground and in space, there being throughs in theory and under-
onboard computers. Data can far more astronomers than large standing are likely to come as a
be broadcast from the telescope telescopes. The line to use the result of complementary investi-
to ground stations immediately Hubble Space Telescope is gations, involving several differ-
or stored on tape and down- already long, and for every one ent instruments, observers, and
linked later. observer whose proposal is observatories on the ground and
The observer on the ground accepted there may be ten oth- in space. The Hubble Space
can examine "raw" images and ers waiting. Telescope program is organized
other data within a few minutes Most modern observatories to encourage collaboration and
for quick-look analysis, Within are cooperatively used as discovery,
GJobulax
staycJustex
)nPegasus,NIJ5
24 hours, Goddard formats the national and international
(KJtl Pea_ _Vat_onalObser_ato_))

M33 galaxyin Triangutum

!Kitl Peak ,_,_r_on_l Obser_3[or_j

Data fromthe HubbleSpaceTelescopewill be relayedbysatelliteandgroundstationsto the GoddardSpace

Right Centerforprocessingandthento theSpaceTelescopeScienceInstitute In Baltimore,wherethe
archiveswillbe maintained.1_4s_

4I
Servicing in Space Like an observatory on Earth,
Two astronauts are absorbed in the Hubble Space Telescope
a task they have rehearsed for can be repaired. As equipment
months: servicing the Hubble wears out or becomes obsolete,
Space Telescope. Like members it will be replaced. Already
of a surgical team, each antici- another observatory, the Solar
pates the action of the other and Maximum mission, has been
offers the proper tool or equip- successfully repaired in space to
ment as it is needed. They work extend its operation for several
quickly and with the confidence more years. The ability to ser-
that comes from practice. vice observatories in orbit is an
The Hubble Space Telescope important new way to extend
rises like a tower from its repair their useful lifetimes. Servicing
platform in the Shuttle. The in space protects our substan-
observatory is temporarily tial investment in technology to
closed down, its solar arrays answer the highest priority
and antennas retracted and the questions in modern astronomy.
aperture door closed. The imme- Routine service calls at the
diate purpose of this servicing Hubble Space Telescope are
mission is to replace several scheduled at approximately
batteries and sensor units that three-year intervals to replace
are reaching the end of their batteries and other limited-life
limited lifetimes. items. These items, called
Orbital Replacement Units,
include components in the guid-
ance and control systems and in
the command and data handling
system, a computer, solar arrays,
and the scientific instruments.
Altogether. some 70 items in the
Hubble Space Telescope can be
replaced in orbit. The particular
set of replaceable items varies

Astronauts test servicing procedures with flight hardware

on the ground to be certain that tools, fasteners, and other

equipment fit and operate properly for servicing in orbit.

More than 80 tools, including common screwdrivers and

wrenches, are available.

(Lockheed)

Like an observatory on Earth,

the Hubble Space Telescope
can be repaired. As equipment
wears out or becomes obsolete,
it will be replaced.

42
from mission to mission, altitude for redeployment. Once not be solved, the Hubble Space
depending on the condition of again, the robot arm is used to Telescope may be brought home.
the observatory. lift and guide the telescope out If all occurs according to plan,
A repair mission begins with of the payload bay. The solar the telescope will remain in orbit,
detailed planning and training arrays and antennas are extend- doing its work until the next
on the ground, followed by a ed again, the power is turned scheduled servicing mission.
rendezvous in space. The back on, and the telescope is The Hubble Space Telescope
Shuttle crew maneuvers to the released to resume operations. is the first observatory designed
telescope, captures it using the If any problems arise during for extensive maintenance and
robot arm, brings the telescope the redeployment, the Shuttle refurbishment in orbit. A long-
aboard, and attaches it to a crew can retrieve the telescope lived mission is scientifically nec-
maintenance platform in the and manually override a faulty essary for both discovery and
payload bay. There the tele- mechanism. If the problem can- detailed follow-up study.
scope remains for several days
while astronauts inspect it and
exchange equipment.
The replacement units are
readily accessible behind doors
in the telescope shroud.
Ranging in size from a shoebex
to a telephone booth, most of
the items can be removed or
installed with the aid of wrench-
es and screwdrivers. Other crew
aids include portable lights and
foot restraints, small platforms
that give the astronaut a stable
foot-hold for the business of dis-
connecting electrical cables, dis-
engaging latches and bolts, and
replacing various pieces of
equipment.
While attached to the main-
tenance platform, the repaired
telescope undergoes status
monitoring and checkout exer-
cises, controlled by commands
from the ground. If an orbit
Many parts of the Hubble Space Telescope,such Large units, such as the Fine Guidance Sensors and
boost is necessary, the crew as the batteries, are designed to be removed and scientific instruments, also can be removed for
takes the Shuttle to a higher replaced. (Lockheed) servicing or replacement, iLockheed)

Servicingproceduresare rehearsed
underwatertosimulatethe weightless
environmentofspace.

43
4
Opportunities
for Discovery
instruments may be removed next generation? We can hardly
Curiosity and technology: these are the prerequisites for
and replaced with new guess today, but they will be
modern astronomy and astrophysics. We question the cos- state-of-the-art detectors to guided by the Hubble Space
mos, but most of the answers lie beyond the range of our extend our range of observation Telescope, which will surely
again. Just as the 40-year-old introduce us to objects and phe-
observational tools. Many discoveriesawait the develop-
telescopes at Mount Palomar nomena that we have not yet
ment of new technology for more precise measurements. remain premier observatories imagined. The really intriguing
through periodic upgrading questions are the ones we don't
just the past 40 years, with new technology, so the even know to ask.
the pace of discovery has performance of the Hubble There is no doubt that our
dramatically accelerated Space Telescope will keep pace knowledge of the universe is
as astronomers have with technological advances. going to change, perhaps as
taken advantage of rapid The Hubble Space Telescope dramatically as it did when
developments in technology. is a key element in a broad cam- Galileo's telescopes confirmed
As a result, we now know that paign to observe the universe Copernican theory that the
the universe contains not only across the electromagnetic Earth was not, after all, the cen-
the familiar planets, stars, and spectrum. This observatory will ter of the cosmos and that the
galaxies observed for centuries not be used in isolation but Milky Way contained far more
but also a rich variety of objects will be complemented by other stars than anyone had ever sus-
discovered quite recently. telescopes sensitive to different pected. The repercussions of
Quasars, pulsars, radio galaxies, wavelength bands. All matter these discoveries were felt
X-ray stars and galaxies, infra- radiates energy at different throughout western civilization,
red stars and galaxies, and wavelengths, depending on the not only in science but also in
gamma ray bursts have been temperature of the matter. A art and literature, philosophy
identified in our lifetimes with telescope is, in a way, a remote and theology. We may enter the
technology that was not previ- thermometer detecting radiation 21st century with radically
ously available. Some antici- within a specified wavelength altered perceptions of the
pated objects, such as black (temperature) range. Because universe, its origin, extent, con-
holes, have not been observed the spectrum from radio waves tents, fate, and our place in it.
directly; their discovery to gamma rays is so broad, no We are intrepid explorers,
requires techniques not yet in single telescope can detect all observing the distant stars and
use today. Other objects not yet types of radiation or all objects. galaxies because our technology
imagined await revelation by Thus, NASA's strategy for will not yet take us there. Until
new instruments. astrophysics research is to we can roam freely through the
The Hubble Space Telescope launch a family of telescopes, universe, we continue to
is an instrument for discovery the "Great Observatories," each explore it by capturing its light.
and prolonged study. Despite tuned to a different channel of Through the Hubble Space
decades, even centuries, of the spectrum. The Hubble Space Telescope, many of those specks
curiosity, only now has the Telescope is the flagship, to be of light will become discernible
technology become available to followed by the Gamma Ray objects--stars, galaxies, quasars,
build such a sensitive observa- Observatory, and later the maybe planets and exotic things
tory and put it above the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics that we have never seen before.
atmosphere. Advances in mir- Facility and the Space Infrared This book is but a prelude;
TheHubbleSpaceTelescope
ror, detector, materials, and Telescope Facility. These large the next edition will present the
Is the first in a new familyof
space transportation technolo- observatories in space will oper- universe newly revealed by the
Great Observatories destgned
gies together make the Hubble ate for the next few decades. Hubble Space Telescope. We
to explorethe universeacross
the electromagnetic spectrum. Space Telescope possible in our Together, they will give us a stargazers are eager to see!
_N_SN lifetime. We will witness the comprehensive look at the uni-
new astronomy. verse in all its guises.
In the past 15 to 20 years What we now know, though
while the Hubble Space exciting, is probably less inter-
Telescope was being designed esting than what we are about
and developed, progress in to learn. Where is technology
technology has marched on. leading astronomy? What new
Already, new detectors are questions may be asked in the
becoming available, and the
program includes development
of "second generation" scien-
tific instruments. After 5 to 6
years in orbit with its present
instrument complement, the
RosetteNebutain Monoceros observatory may be refurbished
(Califorma
Inslitute
ofTechnoto_) in space. Some of the scientific

45
Engineering Challenge
Theprimary mirrorIs coated with
a layer of reflective aluminum
[2.5 millionths of an inch), protected
by a 1-millionth.inchlayerof magn_
slum fluoride. It is the smoothest,
most uniformlycoated large mirror
ever made. (Perkfn EImer Corp.)
48
In Focus
Telescopes collect light from a
distant stellar source and con-
centrate the light onto a spot,
preferably as small a spot as
possible. As light travels away
from its source, it spreads out in
an expanding sphere, just as a
balloon covers a larger and larg-
er area as it is inflated. A tele-
scope can be thought of as a spot. For a single star, the spot
"light bucket"; the primary mir- is smaller than the period at the
ror or lens is the collecting sur- end of this sentence. The tele-
face. The larger the mirror or scope also forms images of plan-
lens, the more expensive and ets, galaxies, nebulae, and other
difficult it is to make. extended sources that cover a
The aim of mirror design is to larger area of the focal plane.
reflect all the collected light The larger the mirror that col-
through the optical system and lects light, the sharper the
concentrate it onto a very small image of the distant object that
 Secondary
Mirror Baffle

Secondary
Main Mirror
Baffle 3m

Central
Baffle

Primary Mirror
Aperture
istrurnents
Science
lmage Forms

ere

13m (43 Ft.)

4rn (14 Ft.)

Theprimary mirror surface must

be virtually perfect. In these com-
puterized maps of the mirror, the
ideal surface is white. Meticulous
Layout of the Optical TelescopeAssembly polishingsmoothedaway high
(blue) and low (red) variations In
is the light source, if the mirror for a large mirror. The mirror tion as the telescope repeatedly the surface. (NASA)
is very smooth. The mirror foreseen for the Hubhle Space passes from dayside heat to the _ _--_-_*_._
..... _ .,_ _ _
should be very smooth because Telescope was beyond the state frigid orbital mght and back into
any surface ripples or bumps of the art. sunlight. It had to be mounted ._-_._l_Lf__ -."%
degrade the image in the focal Besides being large and rigidly enough to protect it
plane. The more bits of light extremely smooth, the mirror from damage during launch _'_ f ..f" - _
(photons) that arrive at one had to be lightweight. The vibrations but not so #_ _ "t__ _
spot, the brighter the image. weight-to-orbit capability of the rigidly to warp or deform [ W _ _ '- :\m!"_
The smaller the spot of concen- Space Shuttle or any other launch it. The telescope built on J___ "t _][
trated light, the sharper the vehicle is limited, so every Earthhadto bedesigned|. | ;!
image and the fainter the source pound is critical. The 200-inch tO operate in the much ! _ :_
__" _ :1
that car be detected mirror at Mount Palomar weighs different environment of
An optically perfect mirror 14.5 tons; the 94.5-inch Hubble space. This combination
concentrates light to the small- Space Telescope primary mirror of requirements for optical _1_.'_ "._. ..... _,_'_! I
est spot possible, limited only had to weigh less than 1 ton. quality, light weight, ther
by the wave nature of light Engineers cleverly eliminated stability, and rigid mounti
itself and not by engineering about 75% of the glass that could have been an engineer's "__ .._'*"
imperfection. Early in the plan- would have been required in a mghtmare. Instead, ]t proved to
ning, NASA and the scientific solid mirror of this size by be the stimulus for creative
community determined that the designing the Hubble mirror as solutions.
Space Telescope should be a honeycomb structure. If it had Another requirement compli-
diffraction limited; that is, the been fabricated as a solid, the cated the fabrication. The
deviation from perfection would Hubble mirror would have scientific community wanted a
be imposed by light, not by weighed about 3 tons. versatile large space telescope
hardware. At the time, the tech- The Hubble mirror also had that operated not only with visi-
nology did not exist to achieve to be thermally stable, invulner- ble light but also with ultravio-
this degree of optical perfection able to expansion and contrac- let. Because each portion of the
spectrum demands a different
type of mirror coating, the
design of the Hubble Space
Telescope required engineering
trade-offs and compromises. For
The requirements for optical example, aluminum is the best

quality, light weight, thermal

stability, and rigid mounting were
a stimulus for creative solutions.

49
Engineering Challenge

the solution was an aluminum

Development layer with a magnesium

overcoating
fluoride
to protect the mirror
of the Hubble surface and optimize perfor-
mance in the ultraviolet range.
Space Telescope A slight overcoat of magnesium
fluoride, much thinner than this
is a story of sheet of paper, protects against
oxidation and increases ultravio-
innovative let reflectivity to about 75%, but
it decreases visible reflectivity
engineering to 85%. Though decreased from

and technology. ideal, performance in the visible

range is still quite satisfactory.
The coating process was par-
ticularly demanding because
coating for visible light astrono- both coatings had to be
my, reflecting up to 99.5% of the extremely uniform for proper
light, but it alone reflects almost reflection, and they had to be
no ultraviolet radiation. applied in a high vacuum within
a matter of seconds to avoid
Aluminum oxidizes rapidly and
must be protected by an over- oxidation. Furthermore, the
coating in order to reflect thinness of the magnesium fluo-
A special computer-controlled machine
was designed for the grinding and ultraviolet. Furthermore, the ride overcoat had to be precisely
polishing process. Flnal polishing was controlled to achieve the desired
overcoating must be just the
done by hand,
right thickness to be transpar- ultraviolet reflectivity. A special
(Per_in.Elme[ Corp,) chamber and equipment were
ent to both ultraviolet and visi-
prepared for the extremely deli-
ble light.
Given the different scientific cate coating process, and tech-
objectives for the observatory, nicians rehearsed the 10-second
procedure for a year.
Development of the Hubble
Space Telescope optical system
advanced the state of the art in
several disciplines. The mirror
The Inner and optical system of the Hubble
honeycomb Space Telescope are the best
structure was that exist at their size. The 2.4
visible before the
mirror was meter (94.5 inch) primary mirror
coated. is an efficient reflecting surface
(Perkin.EtmerCorp. for visible light and is less effec-
tive but acceptable for ultravio-
let. Jt Js polished so smooth that
the surface varies less than a
millionth of an inch. The optical
path is optimal for concentrating
light from a single star at the
focal plane.
Achieving this optical quality
required new techniques of
mirror fabrication, grinding and
polishing, cleaning and coating,
as well as highly precise analy-
sis techniques to verify the
uniformity and quality. To meet
the weight, thermal, and mount-
ing specifications, new materi-
als and designs had to be
devised, tested, and used. Each
element is a story of innovative
engineering and technology.

5O
 While it awaited launch, the
Hubble Space Telescope was
kept meticulously clean. The
mirror is extremely sensitive to
contamination. Like a sunscreen
that blocks ultraviolet rays, a
coating of oil a few molecules
thick on the magnesium fluoride -m

would destroy its ultraviolet

reflectivity. Grains of dust on
the mirror would scatter light,
producing a background haze
that would limit the telescope's
ability to detect faint objects.
Components were "baked out"
in a vacuum to get rid of vapors
that would "outgas" and con-
taminate the optics in orbit.
Extraordinary precautions
were taken to keep the tele-
scope clean during assembly
and checkout before flight. The
chamber where it was kept was
thousands of times cleaner than
a typical laboratory. Tempera-
ture, humidity, and air flow
were precisely controlled, and
the air was thoroughly filtered.
Technicians abided by a strict
dress code and cleansing proto-
col to avoid bringing any
contamination into the area.
All materials, tools, cameras,
even checklists used during the
preflight assembly and testing m
m
had to be cleaner than clean.
Designing, developing, and
[]
assembling the optical system
was a challenge faced on the
ground, where people and
machines could he used to solve
the engineering problems as
they arose. The telescope
operates in space, however, far
beyond the immediate reach of
helping hands. The pointing con-
trol system was another compli-
cated engineering assignment.

.: m

e Hubble Space Telescope was assembled

d tested in a protected environment. Here
9 optical telescope and focal plane structure
.. visible before the outer shell was installed.
":kheed)

51
Engineering Challenge

Still Light A telescope must be able to lock

Everyone who has tried photog- onto a target of observation and
raphy knows the difficulty of hold the image still within the The Hubble Space Telescope is
holding a camera still and the field of view, even as the instru-
disappointment of blurred ment itself moves ever so the most precisely pointed machine
images if the camera moves. smoothly to track the object.
The problem of jitter is magni- Finding the astronomical ever devised for astronomy.
fied in telescopes, which require target, locking onto it, and hold-
long exposures, sometimes ing the image still is not an easy
hours, on the same object to task on the ground, but the
produce images bright enough difficulty is compounded in an between complex computer pro- of multiple-zero decimals. The
to detect. As the Earth turns, orbital telescope. On Earth, we grams and control mechanisms. telescope must be able to main-
the star or galaxy being use the bedrock of a mountain- The Hubble Space Telescope tain lock on a target for 24 hours
observed seems to move across top to steady a telescope, but is the most precisely pointed without deviating more than
the sky, so telescopes on the what steadies a telescope in machine ever devised for 7/1000ths [0.007) of an arc second
ground have to move slightly space? The Hubble Space astronomy. Its requirements for (2 millionths of a degree), about
during an exposure to compen- Telescope is stabilized by a pointing stability and pointing the width of a hair seen at a dis-
sate for the Earth's rotation. highly sophisticated dialogue accuracy are expressed in terms tance of a mile. Like the optical
system,thepointingcontrol computer to generate torque, into each of two fine guidance
system stretched
thestateof the force that produces rotation, sensors. One sensor begins to
thearttoachievethisdegree of and point the telescope to a seek the first guide star, search-
accuracy. given position with an accuracy ing in a spiral pattern until the
Thepointingcontrolsystem of 0.01 arc second or less. The proper star is found. Upon find-
comprisesseveraldifferent
ele- signal for these wheels is ing a star in the correct bright-
mentsallworking together
to derived from a variety of ness range, it stops and the Focal plane and Fine Guidance
maneuver thetelescope,guide sources--a coarse sun sensor, other sensor searches for anoth- Sensor fields of view ("pickles")
ittowardobservationtargets, fixed head star trackers, gyro- er guide star. When the second superimposedon the Andromeda
Galaxy, M31
andholdit steady.
Maneuvers, scopes, and interferometric star star is found, the relative posi-
orslews,aregoverned byreac- trackers--all processed by the tions provide the final confirma-
(Space TelescoPe Science Institute)

tionwheels,whichgenerate flight computer. Four magnetic tion of position. If the position

control torques that turn the torquer bars on the exterior of is not confirmed, the search
telescope, and rate gyros, which the telescope, also controlled by resumes. The acquisition cycle
give the computer information computer, react against Earth's typically takes about 20 minutes;
about the telescope's orienta- magnetic field to limit reaction in some cases, alternate meth-
tion or attitude. The telescope wheel speed. ods may be used to reduce the
can be maneuvered a quarter- Target acquisition is gov- acquisition time.
turn (90 degrees) with the erned primarily by the fine guid- Once the guide stars are
required accuracy and stability ance sensors, which search for acquired, their light passes to
in about 18 minutes, moving guide stars that will bring the a prism interferometer that pro-
slightly slower than the minute target of observation into the vides a tracking signal. The basic
hand of a clock. The rate gyros instruments' field of view. Three stability reference is the set of
report 40 times per second, and fine guidance sensors have a rate gyros with positions that
they are sensitive enough to horseshoe-shaped field of view are updated every second by
detect position changes as small at the perimeter of the focal the fine guidance sensor signal.
as .00025 arc second (7 hundred- plane. The master "reference The telescope locks onto the
millionths of a degree). Thus, book" for telescope pointing guide stars that _3ring the
they are also crucial in fine is the guide star catalog, a com- selected target into the field of
pointing during target acquisi- pendium of almost 19 million view of the selected instrument.
tions and observations. recognizable objects whose Each instrument has a method
During routine operations, positions are known to about of automatically centering the
three types of position indicators 1 arc second (3 ten-thousandths science object in its aperture or
provid_ the information needed of a degree). The telescope uses sending down a real-time signal
to point the telescope: the guide stars rather than the which will allow the observer to
fixed head star trackers which actual observation targets make a final decision on the
are independent of the main for pointing. For any selected exact pointing. In addition, the
telescope optics and cA3 locate target of observation, the fine Wide Field/Planetary Camera
bright stars to a precision of guidance sensors seek out can be used to make a quick
about 1 arc minute (1/60th guide stars that will bring the image from which the position
degree); the rate gyroscopes target precisely into the center of the science target with
that provide precise angular of the selected detector's field respect to the guide stars can
measurements for short4erm of view. Each observation target be determined, either in real
stability; and the fine guidance is keyed to multiple guide stars, time or later in the observing
sensors which derive their depending on the telescope's sequence. When the telescope
signals from stars imaged near orientation, where it is in its locks on a target, the resulting
the edge of the telescope's field orbit, and which detector is stability enables high-resolution
of view. The pointing control being used. (fine detail) visible and near-
system uses four of six rate To acquire a target, two of ultraviolet images.
gyros and two fine guidance the three fine guidance sensors Three elements have to be
sensors to provide roll, pitch, must lock onto guide stars. The held completely stable, with no
and yaw information and keep process of a typical target jitter or disturbance whatsoever:
the observatory locked on a acquisition begins with a slew the focal plane and both the pri-
celestial object. of the telescope to a predeter- mary and secondary mirrors.
Telescope motions are con- mined position. The fixed head The biggest challenge for engi-
trolled by varying the speed of star trackers are used to deter- neers and designers of the
spinning reaction wheels. The mine the rough position of the pointing and control system
reaction wheels receive telescope. Then the coordinates was to identify and control all
commands from an onhoard of a candidate guide star are fed line-of-sight disturbances that

(NASA)

53
Engineering Challenge

might compromise the tele- The most demanding

scope's stringent requirements achievement in the pointin
for pointing accuracy and stabil- and control system was de
ity. Some sources of error are in and fabrication of the Fine
the equipment and can be con- Guidance Sensors, brand n
trolled; for example, noise or systems capable of making,
vibrations from onboard elec- extremely precise measure')
tronics or thermal flexing can to a milliarcsecond. Making
introduce random errors into the glass prisms for the interfe I
attitude and pointing signals. eters was an especially del _,
If the telescope jerks during a and difficult effort. The tw_
maneuver, the solar arrays will halves of each prism are hE
respond with a low-frequency together without glue, bolt
wave that takes a long time to or fasteners. They had to b
disappear. Gyroscopes "drift" smooth, so fiat, and so clea
and need frequent correction. they bonded by sheer mole
Over a longer time, a major attraction. When held in th
temperature change brought polisher's hand, the glass c
about by telescope maneuvers be deformed merely by hod
may cause a long-term change heat. The prisms were alto(
in structural dimensions, which impossible to make to the
can have a significant degrading required perfection, and it 1
effect on precise observations. repeated trials before the s
Therefore, all parts sensitive to prisms for flight (two per s(
temperature changes had to be were produced. The Fine
made thermally stable; the truss Guidance Sensors will defil
structure, focal plane, and sec- state of the art for the fores
ondary mirror support were thus able future.
made of graphite-epoxy, a mate- The onboard computer i_
Oneof the two delicate wings of the brain for pointing and stabJ
rial that barely deforms as the
solar array (NASA) the telescope. The compute
temperature changes. Many
elements also have thermostats contains the information rec
and heaters to maintain active to operate the telescope fox
thermal control. several days without conta,
Other sources of error are from the ground, although ;
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
environmental and must be com- really a series of command_
OF POOR QUALITY pensated for, if not controlled. sent to the telescope every
For example, the telescope is 24 hours. These instruction
affected by a slight aerodynamic enable it to carry out a seql
force and gravitational torque as of observations automatica
it moves around Earth. Torques The computer executes cot.
that act on the spacecraft must mands to individual compo
be nullified by the momentum in the various spacecraft su
management system to hold the systems at the proper time
telescope steady. accomplish the intended as
To attain the specified point- nomical mission. Developm
ing stability and accuracy, sever- and verification of the softy
al technological advances were code to perform all require(
requiredl particularly in the functions were noteworthy
development of vibration-free achievements. _
equipment. The bearings in the
reaction wheels, for example,
had to be the best ever manu-
factured for perfect balance,
and isolators were added in the
reaction wheel assemblies to
dampen any vibration. Likewise,
Fine GuidanceSensorprism the onboard tape recorders had
(NASA)
to operate very smoothly and
quietly.

54
 Development of The Hubble Space Telescope
rhe idea for the Hubble Space Telescope telescope, (2.54 meters; 100 inches or was responsible for designing, developing,
1as been around for quite some time. This more), and others dissenting on the basis and fabricating the Optical Telescope
)bservatory may be the most deliberately that the smaller orbiting observatory Assembly. NASA also engaged contractors
_nd thoroughly planned astronomy pro- would be temporarily satisfactory. Finally to build the scientific instruments.
,_ram of the century. in 1965, a science board reviewed engi- NASA selected a group of scientists to
The Hubble Space Telescope concept neering studies and recommended that participate in the design and early opera-
ras its origins in the writings of Hermann NASA develop a larger space telescope. tional phase of the project. Their charter
:)berth In the 1920's and Lyman Spitzer in the autumn of 1971, NASA began in was to define the observing plan for the
n the 1940's. These scientists suggest- earnest to do feasibility studies of the telescope, establish scientific priorities,
._d that astronomy could benefit greatly new telescope, then defined as a 3-m and organize operations to obtain the best
'tom a telescope that viewed the universe (lO-ft) aperture telescope called the results from this new research facility.
!rom above Earth's obscuring atmo- Large Space Telescope. The study results During the two decades of telescope
sphere. were favorable, and preliminary design design and development activity, the scien-
In the early 1960's, after NASA's for- was initiated in 1972. During this phase, tific community has been formulating and
_ation in 1958, interest increased in the mirror size was reduced to 2.4 m refining this observing plan through a well-
3stronomy as a scientific discipline to be (8 ft). The design study was continued organized process of study groups, propos-
pursued from space, and momentum grew until 1977, when Congress gave the als, and peer review. The program
for development of a large orbiting tele- approval to build and operate the obser- continues to mature as new Information
scope. In 1962, NASA asked the Space vatory. By this time, the European Space from other astronomy missions influences
Science Board of the National Academy Agency (ESA) had become a partner in the Inquiries and objectives to be pursued
af Sciences to study and recommend the project, agreeing to provide the Faint with the Hubble Space Telescope.
future astronomy payloads. At this time, Object Camera, the solar arrays, and staff In late 1983, as the telescope neared
NASA was already studying a concept for support for telescope operations. completion, it was renamed in honor of the
an Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, a NASA selected two prime contractors American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble.
0.75-m (30-in) telescope for ultraviolet to work on the Hubble Space Telescope Launch was tentatively scheduled and
observations. Two studies were made, project. Lockheed Missiles and Space postponed several times into the late
one at the State University of Iowa and Company in Sunnyvale, California, was 1980's with telescope development prob-
the other later at Woods Hole, responsible for designing, developing, and lems and delays in the Shuttle program.
Massachusetts. The decision of the two fabricating the support systems and During the long and eager wait for launch,
work sessions was split, with some mem- assembling and testing all the major time was well spent in additional ground
bers of the group proposing a much larger telescope components in the observatory. tests, crew and operations team training,
Perkin-Elmer Corporation in Danbury, and science planning.
Connecticut, A "constellation" of NASA centers, EuropeanSpace
Agency affiliates, universities,research laboratories,
Industrial contractors, and their vendors In the
United States and Europeparticipated
in the development of the
Hubble Space
Telescope.
 \

t
I
f

.J
P

4b

!
 Guided Tour
of the Hubble
Space Telescope

he Hubble Space Telescope is just over 13 meters

(43 feet) long and 4 meters (14 feet) in diameter,
about the size of a bus or tanker truck. Upright,
it is a five-story tower; carried inside the Space
Shuttle for the trip to orbit, it fills the payload bay.
The Hubble Space Telescope is made up of three major
elements: the Optical Telescope Assembly, the focal
plane scientific instruments, and the Support Systems
Module, which is divided into four sections, stacked
together like canisters:
Aperture Door and Light Shield: protecting the scientific
instruments from light of the sun, Earth, and moon and
also from contamination

Forward Shell: enclosing the Optical Telescope

Assembly mirrors

Equipment Section: girdling the telescope to supply

power, communications, pointing and control, and other
necessary resources
Aft Shroud: covering the five focal plane instruments and
the three fine guidance sensors.

Solar energy arrays and communications antennas are

attached to the exterior shell. Doors allow astronauts to
remove instruments and components from the equipment
bays. Handrails and sockets for portable foot restraints
attached to the external surface aid the astronauts in
performing maintenance and repair tasks.
Space Telescope Vital Statistics
Length: 13.1 m (43.5 ft)
Diameter: 4.27m (14,0 ft)
Weight: 11,000 kg (25,500 Ib)
Focal Ratio: f/24
PrimaryMirror
Diameter: 2.4 m (94.5 in}
Weight: 826 kg (1,825 Ib)
ReflectingSurface: Ultra-lowexpansionglass covered by
aluminum with magnesium-fluoridecoating
SecondaryMirror
Diameter: 0.3 m (12 in)
Weight: 12.3 kg (27.4 Ib)
Reflecting Surface: Ultra.low expansionglass covered by
aluminum with magnesium-fluoridecoating
Systems
Optical TelescopeAssembly
Support Systems Module
Focal Plane Science Instruments
ORIGINAL PAGE IS WideField/Planetary Camera
Faint Object Camera
OF POOR QUALITY
Faint Object Spectrograph
Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph
High Speed Photometer
Fine GuidanceSensors (for astrometry)
Data Rate." Upto 1 mbps

57
Guided Tour

at an estimated distance of on a routine basis; unlike

60 million light years. The cam- Voyager images, which were
era's field of view will contain snapshots frozen in time, the
dozens or even hundreds of series of new images will reveal
galaxies located at distances changes occurring over time,
of billions of light years. In this such as volcanic activity and
mode, the image clarity will atmospheric circulation.
be about 10 times sharper than The Wide Field/Planetary
typical photographs made at Camera has 50 filters to sort
Earth-bound observatories. radiation into different spectral
In the planetary mode, this bands. A star of the 16th magni-
camera can photograph in a tude (about 10,000 times fainter
single exposure the entire face than the faintest stars visible
of any planet in our solar sys- to the naked eye) can be photo-
tem, except Mercury, which is graphed in just one-tenth of a
too close to the sun. Images of second. In longer exposures of
the outer planets Uranus and 50 minutes or more, the camera
Neptune will be much better can record stars of the 28th and
than those produced by ground- 29th magnitude, about 40 times
based optical systems. Pictures fainter than the dimmest objects
of closer planets, such as Jupiter, routinely photographed with
Wide FieldPlanetary Camera Installation ttockhe_dj will resemble images from the large ground-based telescopes.
Voyager spacecraft that (From the ground, 24th magni-
approached the planet. Unlike tude can be detected in

Wide Field/Planetary Camera mode for the farther reaches of images from ground-based tele- overnight exposures; on rare
The Wide Field/Planetary the universe. scopes, which can be made only occasions, detection of 26th
Camera will observe Iarger sky In the wide field mode, the at night when skies are clear, magnitude is possible.)
areas and produce more data camera can make images of these images will be possible
than the other instruments. This swaths of the universe for
visible light camera operates in mapping distant galaxies and
two modes: the planetary mode quasars. In four exposures, for
for exploring our own nearby example, it can photograph a
solar system and the wide field giant galaxy in the Virgo cluster

The Wide FieldPlanetary Camera

will observe larger sky areas and

produce more data than the other

instruments.

This simulated Wide FieldPlanetary

Camera Image of a random starfleld
shows stars as faint as 31st magnitude
in a lO-minute exposure.
(Space Telescope Science Ins|itute)

60
 Faint Object Camera embedded in the gaseous fila- i
This instrument, built by the ments of nebulae in a matter of
European Space Agency, obtains months.
images of very faint objects, The uniquely high resolution
collecting information on objects of the Faint Object Camera will
at the greatest possible dis- enable us to distinguish fine
tances. It will detect stars as details around the nuclei of
[aint as the 28th magnitude and active and distant galaxies, to
will easily pick out stars of the search for black holes in nearby
24th magnitude, the limit of galaxies, and to study the sur-
most large ground-based obser- roundings of such very distant
vatories. Many stars now con- objects as quasars. Sensitive
sidered dim will be readily seen. images with high resolution in
An electronic image intensi- the ultraviolet will show regions
fier, capable of recording the in distant galaxies where hot
arrival of individual photons, young stars are currently form-
enhances feeble starlight and ing after collisions between
creates an image in the camera galaxies. Some of the remark-
Faint Object Camera Instaflation iLoc_heed)
that is more than 100,000 times able jets coming from the nuclei
brighter than the image focused of galaxies, observed by radio
by the telescope mirror. Brighter telescopes, will be imaged for
wavelengths can be blocked by the first time in visible and
filters so that weaker ones can ultraviolet wavelengths.
be recorded.
This camera is more sensi-
tive in blue and ultraviolet light Veil Nebula ILJs Nav,_/Observatory)

than the Wide Field/Planetary

Camera, which is more sensitive
to green and longer wave-
lengths. This instrument has
"harper resolution, but the
"ide Field/Planetary Camera
_.rs larger areas. Astron-
s can judge the merits of
/
amera and choose to use
that best suits their

at Object Camera will

'e stars in binary
1re invisible from
ause their light
'la observations
odious

cIround;
_ent wil] be
al stars

Faint Object Camera, built by

the European Space Agency, will
collect information on very faint
objects at a greater distance than
ever before possible.

61
 Hubble Space Telescope Chronology
1918 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker Telescope began operations at Mt. Wilson Observatory
in Pasadena, California

1923 Hermann Oberth published Die Rakete zu den Planetr_umen,

speculating on telescopes in orbit

1946 Lyman Spitzer wrote an advanced study,

Astronomical Advantages of an Extraterrestrial Observatory

1948 5.: m (200 in) Hale Telescope dedicated at Mount Palomar

1958 NASA established; U.S. civilian space program initiated

1962 National Academy of Sciences published A Review of Space Research; Iowa

study group recommended a Large Space Telescope as a national goal

1966 National Academy of Sciences published Space Research Directions for the
Future; Woods Hole study group also recommended a Large Space Telescope

'968 1st Orbiting Astronomical Observatory launched for ultraviolet studies of stars

969 National Academy of Sciences published Scientific Uses

of the Large Space Telescope

_O's Growing support and endorsement in the scientific community; growing

acceptance of space astronomy as worthwhile endeavor; confidence Increasing
_as a_e with early scientific results and technology developments

Feasibility Studies (Phase A) for 3-m Large Space Telescope

s_.___s Large Space Telescope Steering Committee established
_s _.9.
2nd Orbiting Astronomical Observatory

Preliminary Design (Phase B)

(1975: reduced to 2.4 m; European Space Agency Involvement)

Development by prime contractors

vternational Ultraviolet Explorer First space telescope with "real-time" control

tronauts began training with telescope mockup in Neutral Buoyancy Simulator

for completed

_ce Instruments delivered for testing at NASA;

e Telescope Science Institute dedicated;
ss c°vered.bYoatinl_ , Telescope renamed Hubble Space Telescope;

Telescope Assembly delivered for assemblyintegration

semblY "elescope Operations Control Center dedicated

odule
instrumentS.
_n of spacecraft completed
_etar Y came_°

'oposals issued for observations

'pme_rtraograP
h 5nectrOgfaPb
ayed after Challenger accident; ground tests continued

ent of opportunity for amateur observing time

ch
Acknowledgements

•thor and Editor: Valerie Neal, Essex Corporation, Huntsville, Alabama

_1 Assistants: Tracy McMahan and Charlotte Shea
- Assistant: Margaret Shirley
-,: O'Brien Graphic Design, Huntsville, Alabama

., HST Program Office

r, HST Program Office
aome, HST Program Office
elch, HST Program Office
Redmond, Public Affairs Office
ard Golden, Publications Office

Marshall Space Flight Center

Jean Olivier, HST Project Office
Frank Six, HST Project Office
Charles Jones, Information and Electronic Systems Laboratory
Gerald Nurre, Structures and Dynamics Laboratory
David Drachlis, Public Affairs Office

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

David Leckrone, Laboratory for Astronomy and Solar Physics
Jan Ruff, Public Affairs Office

Space Telescope Science Institute

Andrew Chaisson, Public Affairs Office
Ray Villard, Public Affairs Office

Principal Investigators
James Westphal, California Institute of Technology
Robert Bless, University of Wisconsin
John Brandt, NASA Goddard Space Right Center
Richard Harms, Applied Research Corporation
Duccio Macchetto, European Space Agency (ESA), Space Telescope Science Institute
Rodger Thompson, University of Arizona
Bruce Woedgate, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
John Trauger, Jet Propulsion Laboratory

In addition to members of the review board,

the following people provided information or illustrations:
Angela Anaya, Hansen Planetarium; Sam Ballard, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company;
Dan Brocious, Whipple Observatory; James Carter, Larry Hill, Paulette Lovingood,
John Reaves, Max Rosenthal, Steve Terry, and Ronald Young of NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center; Edward Collins, Perkin-Elmer Corporation; Terence Dickinson, Camden House
Publishing; Richard Dreiser, Yerkes Observatory; Dennis Ebbets, Ball Aerospace;
Mike Gentry, NASA Johnson Space Center; Marjorie Graham, American Institute of Physics;
Martha Hazen, Harvard College Observatory; Sally Heap, Maureen Locke, and Gabrielle Savoy
of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Thomas Hunt, Astronomy Magazine; Harry Mannheimer
and David Pine, NASA Headquarters; Patricia Pengra, BDM Corporation; Mercedes Stevens,
Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Corporation; and from the Space Telescope Science Institute,
Doug McEIroy, Conrad Sturch, Ed Wells, and Brad Whitmore.

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