Preliminary Characterization Study

Traditional Fuels and Key Derivatives

Prepared in Support of the

Proposed Rulemaking –
Identification of Nonhazardous Secondary Materials That Are Solid Waste

March 18, 2010

1 Introduction

This document summarizes the features, composition, and characteristics of both

traditional fuels used in stationary combustion sources and their key derivatives.
Traditional fuels include fossil fuels (coal, fuel oil and natural gas) and wood.
Derivatives include:

• Coal-based derivatives: bituminous coke, coal tar oil, blast furnace gas, and
coke oven gas, and
• Petroleum-based derivatives: petroleum coke, refinery gas, and asphalts.

For each fuel, this memorandum presents the following information to the extent
readily available:

1. Chemical Composition. Fuels are often described by an ultimate and/or

proximate analysis. An ultimate analysis is an elemental analysis of major
components, typically carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur as well as
ash. 1 Meanwhile a proximate analysis determines the moisture, volatile matter,
fixed carbon and ash content of the fuel. Gaseous fuels and some liquid fuels can
also be described by their constituent compounds. In general, the compositional
analysis is presented on a weight basis for liquid and solid fuels and on a
volumetric basis for gaseous fuels.

2. Heating Value (Calorific Value). The heating value of a fuel is its energy value
or its heat of combustion (i.e., the energy released when a unit mass (or volume)
of the fuel is burned). The heating value of a fuel may be measured according to
its higher heating value (HHV) or its lower heating value (LHV). The HHV, or
the gross heat of combustion, is the energy released when the products of
combustion are brought to a standard temperature and any water produced from
1
For example a typical ultimate analysis might be: 60% carbon, 15% hydrogen, 10% oxygen, 3% nitrogen,
2% sulfur, and 10% ash. Ash, while part of the ultimate analysis, is shown separately because it represents
a fraction of the fuel that does not burn.
 the process is condensed. The LHV, also referred to as the net heat of
combustion, treats the moisture produced from combustion as vapor. Unless
specified otherwise, all heating values presented in this document are HHVs and
will be presented on an as-received basis (i.e., with moisture and ash included).

3. Composition of Non-Fuel Constituents and Impurities. Non- fuel constituents

include gases with no fuel value such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases
as well as moisture and ash. Impurities (i.e., contaminants) may include sulfur
compounds and trace metals such as mercury, vanadium, cadmium, chromium
and lead. Impurity levels are typically presented as parts per million by weight
(ppm) or parts per million by volume (ppmv)

We present this information by the major fuel groupings outlined above. Section
2 describes coal and its derivatives. Petroleum-derived fuels are detailed in
Section 3, while Section 4 presents information on natural gas. Section 5
provides the composition and other characteristics of wood.

Limitations of this Analysis:

• This document presents information that is readily available from engineering

reference publications and reputable online sources. A search of scientific, peer-
reviewed journals was not performed due to time and budget constraints.

• When possible, we present composition and heating values that are representative
of the values associated with a given fuel. However, for some fuels where the
available data were limited, we present data from specific samples that were readily
available. These sample data may or may not be representative.

2
 2 Coal & Derivatives

2.1 Coal
The ASTM (Method D-388) classification for coal ranks coal into four primary
classes based on its volatile matter and fixed carbon content as well as its heating value.
The four categories (highest to lowest rank) are:

I. Anthracite
II. Bituminous
III. Sub-bituminous
IV. Lignite

Each of these classes is further divided into subclasses by the ASTM

classification. In general the higher rank coals have higher carbon content and lower
hydrogen and oxygen content in comparison to the lower ranked coals. Most coals burned
in combustion units are either sub-bituminous or bituminous.

Anthracite: Anthracite coal is glossy black, hard, and by definition has a fixed
carbon content of more than 86% (dry, ash free basis) and a volatile content of
less than 14% (dry, ash free basis). Heating values typically are on the order of
13,000 Btu/lb. Anthracite coal is primarily found in northeastern Pennsylvania,
and represents less than 2% of the US coal demonstrated reserve base. 2

Bituminous: Bituminous coal in general has lower fixed carbon (<86%, dry, ash
free) and higher volatiles than anthracite. This coal has banded layers that
alternate between glossy black and dull black. Heating values for bituminous coal
range from 10,500 to 14,000 Btu/lb. 3 Bituminous coals are the most abundant
class of coal in the US and make up 53% of the demonstrated US coal reserve.
Bituminous coal is found in many states east of the Mississippi River, including
Illinois, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

Sub-bituminous: These coals are also black in color but with less banding and a
higher moisture content than bituminous coals. Heating values range from 8,500
to 11,000 Btu/lb. Although heating values are lower than for bituminous coal,
sub-bituminous varieties in the US tend to have a relatively lower sulfur content
than bituminous coals. Sub-bituminous coal represents approximately 37% of US
coal reserves; sub-bituminous reserves are highest in the states of Montana and
Wyoming.

Lignite: This is the lowest ranked coal. Lignite has a brown-black color and is soft
relative to the other types of coal. Heating values may range from 4000-8000

2
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/reserves/reserves.html, Accessed Nov 2008
3
Coal’s color is indicative of its age. As coal ages in the ground, its color changes from brown to dull
black to glossy black.

3
 Btu/lb. Lignite is found in North Dakota, Montana and Texas and accounts for
about 9% of US coal reserves.

Table 2-1 presents composition and heating value data from Avallone &
Baumeister for select US Coals for each of the classes described above. 4 , 5 Note that the
data in Table 2-1 are sample values; properties may vary widely within each rank.

Chemical Composition. As indicated in Table 2-1, most ranks of coal consist primarily of
carbon.

Non- Fuel Constituents. Moisture and ash represent the non-combustible constituents in
coal. The primary components of ash are silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, ferric oxide,
and calcium oxide. (See Table 2-1)

Contaminants. One trace constituent of particular concern in coal is mercury. The

mercury content of coal ranges from less than 0.1 ppm to 1.8 ppm with a median value of
0.11 ppm. 6 Approximately 80% of samples tested below 0.25 ppm. Coal may also
contain several other metals such as arsenic, chromium and manganese as shown in Table
2-1. 7

Trace Organics: Data on trace organics in U.S. coal are not readily available. One study
from Spain, however, analyzed five Spanish and South African coal samples for volatile
organics. 8 Of the several organics detected, only two were 40 CFR 261 Appendix VIII
hazardous constituents. Results for these two organics are shown in Table 2-1.

Additional information on the characteristics of coal is available in the US

Geological Survey coal quality database, which has information on over 7,000 Coal
samples. 9

4
Avallone, E.A., & Baumeister, T.(eds), “Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,” 9th
Edition, 1987, p 7-19
5
The values shown in the table only describe the specific samples shown although they were selected to be
representative of the rank in general.
6
US Geological Survey, 2001 “Mercury in Coal- Abundance, Distribution, and Modes of Occurrence,
USGS Fact Sheet FS-095-01
7
Davidson, R. A., “Trace Elements in Coal” 1996, Energeia, v.7, No.3, University of Kentucky, Center for
Applied Research.
8
Fernandez-Martinez , G., et al, 2000, “Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Coal, Fly Ash,
and Slag Samples by Direct Thermal Desorption/GC/MS, Analusis, v 28, pp 953-959
9
Bragg,L., et al, USGS Coal Quality (COALQUAL) Database: Version 2.0,
http://energy.er.usgs.gov/products/databases/CoalQual/index.htm, accessed Nov 2008.

4
5
 2.2 Fuels Derived from Coal

Bituminous Coke – Bituminous coke is

derived from the destructive distillation
or pyrolysis of bituminous coal. This
involves heating coal to very high
temperatures (over 1000 °C) in the
absence of air in a furnace. Much of the
moisture and volatile components are
driven off leaving behind a product high
in carbon. While coke is the desired end
product of the distillation/pyrolysis
process, fuel gases, tar and oil with fuel
value are also typically produced. A
large fraction of bituminous coke
(approximately 90%) is burned in blast
furnaces for steelmaking. The remainder
is largely used in foundries and for space
heating.

Table 2-2 shows the typical chemical

composition and heating value of
bituminous coke. Unsurprisingly, the
fixed carbon and ash content are much
higher than the corresponding values for
coal. The heating value of bituminous coke is comparable to coal. Table 2-2 also
presents composition and heating value estimates for coke breeze, an undersized coke
(particle size < 15 mm), comprising about 5% of the total bituminous coke production.
Coke breeze is not suitable for firing in a blast furnace but is typically used for steam
generation. Information on the impurities contained in blast furnace coke is not readily
available, but such information is available for coke breeze, as shown in Table 2-2. 10

10
Ocean Surveys Inc., 2005, Site Demonstration of the AQUABLOK™ Sediment Capping Technology,
http://www.hsrc-ssw.org/6MonthAppH.pdf, accessed November 2008

6
Coal Tar Oil: Coal tars are liquid products of the carbonization process to produce coke.
They may range from free-flowing, low viscosity liquids to highly viscous coal tar pitch.
Table 2-3 shows an ultimate analysis of coal tar fuels CTF 50 and CTF 400. 11 , 12 The
table also presents estimates of the heating value for CTF 50 and CTF 400, as well as
information on the non-fuel constituents and trace metals in these fuels.

Table 2-3 also presents viscosity values

for CTF 50 and CTF 400, expressed in
centistokes (cSt). For comparison, water
has a viscosity of about 1 cSt at 20°C
and a liquid with a viscosity of 2 cSt at
20° would have twice the viscosity of
water. 13

Because coal tar oil is made up of a

complex mixture of more than a
thousand individual compounds,
fractional distillation of coal tar oil can
yield a spectrum of compounds for use
in resins, polymers, motor fuel, wax and
electrode compounds. 14

Coke Oven Gas: Coke oven gas is the

gaseous non-condensable fraction
generated from the coke production
process. As the analysis (by component)
in Table 2-4 shows, coke oven gas is
primarily composed of hydrogen and methane. The heating value is approximately 600
Btu/ft3 and is about 55-60% that for natural gas (on a volume basis).

Impurities in coke oven gas may include hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and hydrogen
cyanide. 15 , 16 Table 2-4 also shows the specific gravity of coke oven gas. 17

11
Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., Mahoney, J.O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 1997, 7th Edition,
McGraw Hill..
12
CTF stands for coal tar fuel. The designation CTF 50 and CTF 400 indicate the temperature to which the
oil must be pre-heated (50 °F and 400°F, respectively) in order to be atomized in a burner.
13
Viscosity values shown is for kinematic viscosity = dynamic viscosity/density. Note viscosity decreases
with temperature for liquids.
14
Skov, E.R., et al, “Coal Tar Chemicals and Syncrude Oil Production from Low-Rank Coals using Mild-
Temperature Pyrolysis,” Proc of AICHE Spring National Meeting, Houston, TX, April 2007. AICHE
Session 16002.
15
Kohl, A., et al, 1997 “Gas Purification,” Gulf Professional Publications.
16
Note that for many gaseous fuels, impurities such as ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide are mostly
removed prior to being used as a fuel in a boiler
17
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance to a reference substance. The reference
substance is air for a gas and water for a liquid.

7
Blast Furnace Gas: Blast furnace gas is a low quality gas that is a by-product of the
blast furnace reduction process. Table 2-4 presents volumetric composition and heating
value estimates for this fuel. Although the heating value is low, the amount of gas
generated by blast furnaces makes it economically feasible to recover the energy. 18 The
energy value is low because approximately 70% of the volume of this fuel is made up of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Blast furnace gas may include small quantities of impurities
including hydrogen cyanide. 19 Table 2-4 also shows the specific gravity of blast furnace
gas. Blast furnace gas is either burnt as fuel or flared.

18
Culp, A.W., 1979, “Principles of Energy Conversion,” McGraw Hill.
19
Gupta, C.K., 2006, Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice,Wiley-VCH

8
 3 Petroleum Fuels

This section presents characterization data for fuels produced by petroleum

refineries as well as their derivatives. Although transportation fuels (e.g., gasoline and
diesel) make up most of the petroleum-based fuel sold in the U.S., this section focuses on
petroleum fuels utilized by stationary combustion sources.

3.1 Fuel Oil

The term fuel oil may refer to any product derived from petroleum that has
volatility lower than that of gasoline. The ASTM D396-2(a) specification divides fuel oil
into several classes, from fuel oil No.1 to fuel oil No. 6, based on boiling range,
composition, and other physical properties. Fuel oils are generally classified as either
distillate or residual based on whether they are vaporized in normal refining operations.
Usually, fuel oils No. 1 and 2 are distillate fuels; No. 5 and No. 6 fuel oils are residual
fuels, and No.4 is a blend of distillate and residual fuels. 20 Note that diesel has similar
but not identical properties and specifications to fuel oil No.2.

Table 3-1 provides the chemical composition, heating values, and typical physical
properties of various classes of fuel oil such as flash point, specific gravity, API gravity,
and viscosity. 21 The flash point is the temperature to which the liquid must be heated to
produce vapors that flash but do not burn continuously. API gravity is calculated by:

141.5
API Gravity = − 131.5
specific gravity @ 60 F

Composition: Fuel oils are primarily composed of hydrocarbons, specifically paraffins,

isoparafins, napthenes and aromatics. Table 3-1 shows an ultimate analysis for different
types of fuel oil from Perry et al.

Heating Values. Fuel oil heating values range from 18,000 to 20,000 Btu/lb or 130,000 to
150,000 Btu/gallon. As indicated in the table, residual fuel oils are extremely viscous and
must be heated in order to be transported and atomized in a burner.

20
USEPA, “AP 42: Compilation of Air Pollution Emissions Factors, Vol I: Stationary Point and Area
Sources,” 5th Edition, 1995, Ch.1.3 Fuel Oil Combustion. Distillate fuels are lighter, less viscous, and have
a lower boiling range when compared with residual fuels.
21
Property values from, Stultz & Kitto, eds, “Steam: It’s Generation and Use,” 40th Edition, 1992, p 8-14.

9
Moving along the scale from No. 1 fuel oil to No. 6 fuel oil, the characteristics of fuel oil
changes as follows:

• The boiling point increases. For No. 1 oil, the boiling points of the different
constituents range from 150-300 °C, while for No. 6 oil this range is 200-550 °C.
• The density increases (i.e., API gravity decreases)
• Viscosity increases from an average of about 1.8 centistokes (cSt) for No. 1 Oil to
90-400 cSt for No. 6 oil.
• Heating values decrease slightly.

10
Impurities: As indicated in Table 3-1, the heavier fuel oils have higher levels of sulfur
than the lighter fuel oils. The trace metal levels shown in the table are from testing
performed in 1998 for the development of the comparable fuels specification, which was
published in 1999. 22 This testing involved eleven samples for No. 2 fuel oil, one sample
of #1 fuel oil, and seven samples of #6 fuel oil. Note that Perry et al. indicate that the
nickel content of No. 6 Fuel Oil ranges from 10-500 ppm and that vanadium
concentrations in No. 6 Fuel Oil range from 10-500 ppm.

Trace Organics: In developing the specifications for comparable fuels, EPA tested
samples of fuel oil for most of the hazardous organics listed in Appendix VIII of 40 CFR
Part 261. Specifications were developed for almost 200 individual volatile and semi-
volatile toxic organic compounds (including hydrocarbons, oxygenates, nitrogenated
organics, sulfonated organics, halogenated organics, and PCBs). Table 3-1 includes the
concentrations for the Appendix VIII organics that were detected. 23

3.2 Other Petroleum Derivatives

Petroleum Coke – Petroleum coke is

produced when vacuum distillation
residues from the petroleum refining
process are sent through a coker where
most of the volatiles are burned off.
Petroleum coke may be called delayed
coke or fluid coke, depending on the
type of process/reactor used. Table 3-
2 provides an ultimate and proximate
analysis for petroleum coke based on
data from Avallone & Baumeister and
Stultz & Kitto.

Petroleum coke is used as the primary

fuel or as supplementary fuel in
fluidized bed boilers as well as a
supplementary fuel in pulverized coal
boilers and cyclone boilers. 24

Table 3-2 also provides a detailed ash

analysis for petroleum coke. 25 As

22
See USEPA, 1999 “Final Technical Support Document for Hazardous MACT Standards,” Vol. IV:
Compliance with the HWC MACT Standards” Ch.17
23
Table 3-1 shows the highest level detected. Most of the compounds that EPA tested for were not
detected. Comparable fuel specifications are based on either the highest detected value or the highest
detection limit among all samples. See USEPA (1999) op cit.
24
Tilman, D.A., et al, 2004, “Fuels of Opportunity, Elsevier.
25
Ibid.

11
indicated in the table, nickel and vanadium levels are high similar to the residual fuel oils
because heavy metals tend to concentrate in the heavier fraction of crude oil from which
petroleum coke is produced.

Refinery Gas – Refinery gas is a general term describing the non-condensable fractions
from various refinery processes, including atmospheric distillation, coking, reforming and
cracking. These gases are sometimes blended together and are typically used by
refineries for their energy value.

The composition of refinery gas

is highly variable, although the
primary constituents are C1-C4
hydrocarbons 26 (methane, ethane
and propane in particular). Table
3-3- presents composition
information for two blended
refinery gas samples and
composition data from a 2003
lifecycle emissions study. 27 , 28

Estimated heating values for

refinery gas are on the order of
1300-1500 Btu/scf. On a
volume basis this is a little higher
than natural gas because refinery
gas contains a greater fraction of heavier gases.

Asphalts – Asphalt is made from the residue

that remains after the vacuum distillation
process at petroleum refineries. It has a
consistency ranging from a viscous liquid to a
glassy solid. 29 Table 3-4 presents an ultimate
analysis range for four asphalt samples. 30
Impurities include sulfur, vanadium and nickel
and their reported concentrations are highly
dependent on the source crude. Heating values
for asphalt are on the order of 17,000-18,000
Btu/lb. 31

26
Hydrocarbons with one to four carbon atoms.
27
Baukal & Schwartz, 2001, “The John Zink Combustion Handbook” CRC Press
28
Delucchi, M., 2003 “A Lifecycle Emissions Model: LifeCycle Emissions from Transportation Fuels,
Motor Vehicles, Transportation Modes, Electricity Use, Heating and Cooking Fuels, and Materials., UCD-
ITS-RR-03-17, available from http://www.repositories.cdlib.org/itsdavis
29
Speight, J.G. 2006, “The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,” CRC Press.
30
Wess, J., et al, 2004, “Asphalt (Bitumen), Concise International Assessment Document 59, World
Health Organization”
31
Cross, R., 1919, “A Handbook of Petroleum, Asphalt, and Natural Gas” Kansas City Testing Laboratory.

12
Asphalt is primarily used as a paving and roofing material. Asphalt is also used in
asphalt-based paints, in lining irrigation canals and water reservoirs, and in adhesives in
electrical laminates. 32 Although the use of asphalt as a fuel is not common, boilers have
been designed to burn asphalt. 33

32
Wess, op cit.
33
Hunt, P.J., et al, 1999, “Boiler Designs for Asphalt Fuels,” POWER-GEN ‘99 International, New
Orleans, Louisiana, November, 1999.

13
 4 Natural Gas

Natural gas is widely used by boilers due to its low content of ash, ease of
handling, and ease of combustion. In addition, natural gas is a cleaner burning fuel than
other fossil fuels. The primary constituent of natural gas is methane. Other paraffinic
hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, and butane, as well as other diluents gases (e.g.,
nitrogen), may be also present. The composition of natural gas field samples as well as
pipeline gas is shown in Table 4-1.

Heating Value: The heating value of natural gas, like its composition, varies by region
but usually is in the range from 950-1150 Btu per cubic feet. Diluents include carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.

Impurities: Trace contaminants found in natural gas include hydrogen sulfide and other
sulfur compounds. If naturally occurring levels are high, these compounds are removed
using various processes because most pipeline specifications limit the level of sulfur

14
compounds that may be contained in pipeline gas. 34 Other impurities may include
mercury in very low levels. As Table 4-1 indicates, mercury levels are well below one
part per billion (ppbv). 35 Trace levels of odorants (eg. mercaptans) are often added to
pipeline gas, which allows natural gas leaks to be easily detected.

Trace organics: Only limited information on the organics content of natural gas was
readily available. The one organics analysis identified examined volatile organics
concentrations in natural gas samples from three California utility plants. 36 Only two 40
CFR 261 Appendix VIII hazardous organics were detected. (See Table 4-1).

34
Natural gas with a high level of hydrogen sulfide is called sour gas.
35
Kidnay, A.J., et al, 2006 “Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing” CRC Press.
36
Chow, W., & Conner, K.K., 1993, “Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants: State of the Art, CRC Press.

15
 5 Wood

Wood is burned primarily in industries

where wood residues are obtained as a by-
product. 37

Table 5-1 shows the properties of wood on a

dry basis and an ash analysis based on data
from Stultz & Kitto. Wood has a lower
carbon content and a much higher oxygen
content compared to coal.

Heating values for wood (on a dry basis) are

in the range 8000-9000 Btu/lb. Wet wood
can have a significantly lower heating value.
As indicated in Table 5-1, the sulfur content
of wood is relatively low. Trace metals in
wood may include lead and cadmium.

37
USEPA, 2003, AP-42, Ch.1.6, “Wood Residue Combustion in Boilers”,
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/final/c01s06.pdf, accessed Nov 2008.

16
References
1. Avallone, E.A., & Baumeister, T.(eds), “Mark’s Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers,” 9th Edition, 1987, p 7-19.
2. Baukal & Schwartz, 2001, “The John Zink Combustion Handbook” CRC Press.
3. Bragg, L., et al, USGS Coal Quality (COALQUAL) Database: Version 2.0,
http://energy.er.usgs.gov/products/databases/CoalQual/index.htm, accessed Nov 2008.
4. Chevron Products Company, 2007, “Diesel Fuels Technical Review.”
5. Chow, W., & Conner, K.K., 1993, “Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants: State of the Art,
CRC Press.
6. Cross, R., 1919, “A Handbook of Petroleum, Asphalt, and Natural Gas” Kansas City
Testing Laboratory.
7. Culp, A.W., 1979, “Principles of Energy Conversion,” McGraw Hill.
8. Davidson, R. A., “Trace Elements in Coal” 1996, Energeia, v.7, No.3, University of
Kentucky, Center for Applied Research.
9. Delucchi, M., 2003 “A Lifecycle Emissions Model: LifeCycle Emissions from
Transportation Fuels, Motor Vehicles, Transportation Modes, Electricity Use, Heating and
Cooking Fuels, and Materials., UCD-ITS-RR-03-17, available from
http://www.repositories.cdlib.org/itsdavis.
10. Fernandez-Martinez , G., et al, 2000, “Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in
Coal, Fly Ash, and Slag Samples by Direct Thermal Desorption/GC/MS, Analusis, v 28, pp
953-959.
11. Gupta, C.K., 2006, Chemical Metallurgy: Principles and Practice,Wiley-VCH.
12. Hunt, P.J., et al, 1999, “Boiler Designs for Asphalt Fuels,” POWER-GEN ‘99 International
New Orleans, Louisiana, November, 1999.
13. Kidnay, A.J., et al, 2006 “Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing” CRC Press.
14. Kohl, A., et al, 1997 “Gas Purification,” Gulf Professional Publications.
15. Ocean Surveys Etc., 2005, Site Demonstration of the AQUABLOK™ Sediment Capping
Technology, http://www.hsrc-ssw.org/6MonthAppH.pdf, accessed November 2008.
16. Perry, R.H., Green, D.W., Mahoney, J.O., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 1997,
7th Edition, McGraw Hill.
17. Skov, E.R., et al, “Coal Tar Chemicals and Syncrude Oil Production from Low-Rank Coals
using Mild-Temperature Pyrolysis,” Proc of AICHE Spring National Meeting, Houston,
TX, April 2007. AICHE Session 16002.
18. Speight, J.G. 2006, “The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum,” CRC Press.
19. Stultz & Kitto, eds, 1992 “Steam: It’s Generation and Use,” 40th Edition.
20. Tilman, D.A., et al, 2004, “Fuels of Opportunity, Elsevier.
21. US DOE, EIA, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/reserves/reserves.html, Accessed Nov
2008.
22. USDOE, EIA, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/ng/hist/n9190us3m.htm, accessed November
2008.
23. USEPA, 2003, AP-42, Ch.1.6, “Wood Residue Combustion in Boilers”,
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch01/final/c01s06.pdf, accessed Nov 2008.
24. USEPA, “AP 42: Compilation of Air Pollution Emissions Factors, Vol I: Stationary Point
and Area Sources,” 5th Edition, 1995, Ch.1.3 Fuel Oil Combustion.
25. USEPA, 1999 “Final Technical Support Document for Hazardous MACT Standards,” Vol.
IV: Compliance with the HWC MACT Standards” Ch.17.
26. US Geological Survey, 2001 “Mercury in Coal- Abundance, Distribution, and Modes of
Occurrence, USGS Fact Sheet FS-095-01.
27. Wess, J., et al, 2004, “Asphalt (Bitumen), Concise International Assessment Document 59,
World Health Organization.”

17