Pollution and Environmental Issues

Climate change occurs when changes in Earth's climate system result in new weather patterns
that last for at least a few decades, and maybe for millions of years. The climate system
comprises five interacting parts, the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), cryosphere (ice and
permafrost), biosphere (living things), and lithosphere (earth's crust and upper mantle)

Human activities can also change earth's climate, and are presently driving climate change
through global warming. There is no general agreement in scientific, media or policy documents
as to the precise term to be used to refer to anthropogenic forced change; either "global
warming" or "climate change" may be used. The first describes the average effect on a global
scale, whilst the second describes how different geographical regions are affected differently.

Global warming is the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.
It is a major aspect of current climate change, and has been demonstrated by direct temperature
measurements and by measurements of various effects of the warming. The term commonly
refers to the mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected
continuation. In this context, the terms global warming and climate change are often used
interchangeably, but climate change includes both global warming and its effects, such as
changes in precipitation and impacts that differ by region. There were prehistoric periods of
global warming, but observed changes since the mid-20th century have been much greater than
those seen in previous records covering decades to thousands of years.

Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity

Unchecked global warming could affect most terrestrial ecoregions. Increasing global
temperature means that ecosystems will change; some species are being forced out of their
habitats (possibly to extinction) because of changing conditions, while others are flourishing.
Secondary effects of global warming, such as lessened snow cover, rising sea levels, and weather
changes, .may influence not only human activities but also the ecosystem.

Terrestrial Ecosystems and Biodiversity: With a warming of 3 °C, relative to 1990 levels, it is
likely that global terrestrial vegetation would become a net source of carbon (Schneider et al.,
2007:792). With high confidence, Schneider et al. (2007:788) concluded that a global mean
temperature increase of around 4 °C (above the 1990-2000 level) by 2100 would lead to major
extinctions around the globe.

Marine Ecosystems and Biodiversity: With very high confidence, Schneider et al. (2007:792)
concluded that a warming of 2 °C above 1990 levels would result in mass mortality of coral reefs
globally. In addition, several studies dealing with planktonic organisms and modelling have
shown that temperature plays a transcendental role in marine microbial food webs, which may
have a deep influence on the biological carbon pump of marine planktonic pelagic and
mesopelagic ecosystems.
Freshwater Ecosystems: Above about a 4 °C increase in global mean temperature by 2100
(relative to 1990-2000), Schneider et al. (2007:789) concluded, with high confidence, that many
freshwater species would become extinct.

Mountain Ecosystem

Mountains cover approximately 25 percent of earth's surface and provide a home to more than
one-tenth of global human population. Changes in global climate pose a number of potential
risks to mountain habitats. Researchers expect that over time, climate change will affect
mountain and lowland ecosystems.
Studies suggest a warmer climate would cause lower-elevation habitats to expand into the higher
alpine zone. Such a shift would encroach on the rare alpine meadows and other high-altitude
habitats. High-elevation plants and animals have limited space available for new habitat as they
move higher on the mountains in order to adapt to long-term changes in regional climate.
Changes in climate will also affect the depth of the mountains snowpacks and glaciers. Any
changes in their seasonal melting can have powerful impacts on areas that rely on freshwater
runoff from mountains. Rising temperature may cause snow to melt earlier and faster in the
spring and shift the timing and distribution of runoff. These changes could affect the availability
of freshwater for natural systems and human uses.
Species Migration
In 2010, a gray whale was found in the Mediterranean Sea, even though the species had not been
seen in the North Atlantic Ocean since the 18th century. The whale is thought to have migrated
from the Pacific Ocean via the Arctic.
Climate Change & European Marine Ecosystem Research (CLAMER) has also reported that the
Neodenticula seminae alga has been found in the North Atlantic, where it had gone extinct nearly
800,000 years ago. The alga has drifted from the Pacific Ocean through the Arctic, following the
reduction in polar ice.
It has been projected many fish species will migrate towards the North and South poles as a
result of climate change, and that many species of fish near the Equator will go extinct as a result
of global warming.
Migratory birds are especially at risk for endangerment due to the extreme dependability on
temperature and air pressure for migration, foraging, growth, and reproduction. Much research
has been done on the effects of climate change on birds, both for future predictions and for
conservation. The species said to be most at risk for endangerment or extinction are populations
that are not of conservation concern. It is predicted that a 3.5 degree increase in surface
temperature will occur by year 2100, which could result in between 600 and 900 extinctions,
which mainly will occur in the tropical environments.
Range Shifts
Range shifts are a natural response to climate change. Species with sufficient levels of mobility
may respond quickly to environmental change, with species capable of undertaking long
migratory movements likely to shift ranges first (Lundy et al., 2010). Migration is not limited to
animal populations—plants can migrate via passive seed dispersal, establishing new individuals
where conditions allow.
"The range of plants and animals are moving in response to recent changes in climate" (Loarie
2009). As temperature increases, ecosystems are particularly threatened when their niche has
essentially nowhere else to move to. This hindrance is particularly prevalent in mountain ranges,
for example. The speed at which climate is changing is derived from the ratio of temporal and
spatial gradients of mean annual near-surface temperature.
"Mountainous biomes require the slowest velocities to keep pace with climate change. In
contrast, flatter biomes, such as flooded grasslands, mangroves and deserts require much greater
velocities. Overall, there is a strong correlation between topographic slope and velocity from
temperature change" (Loarie 2009).
Temperatures are expected to rise more than average in higher latitudes and at higher elevations.
Animals living at lower elevations could migrate to higher elevations in response to climate
change as temperatures rises, whereas animals in higher elevations will eventually "run out of
mountain". "Results confirmed that protected large-scale elevation gradients retain diversity by
allowing species to migrate in response to climate and vegetation change. The long-recognized
importance of protecting landscapes has never been greater" (Moritz 2008).
Over the past 40 years, species have been extending their ranges toward the poles and
populations have been migrating, developing, or reproducing earlier in the spring than previously
(Huntley 2007).
Similarly, dispersal and migration are crucial to preserving biodiversity as rapidly rising
equatorial temperatures push an increasing number of species in poleward directions.

Phenology

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are
influenced by seasonal and inter annual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as
elevation).

The timing of phonological events such as flowering is often related to environmental variables
such as temperature. Changing environments are therefore expected to lead to changes in life
cycle events, and these have been recorded for many species of plants. These changes have the
potential to lead to the asynchrony between species, or to change competition between plants.
Flowering times in British plants for example have changed, leading to annual plants flowering
earlier than perennials, and insect pollinated plants flowering earlier than wind pollinated plants;
with potential ecological consequences.
Changes in the timing of phonological events—such as flowering, migrations, and breeding—
have been called a ‘globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts’ on plants and
animals. Climate-induced changes in phenology have been linked to shifts in the timing of
allergy seasons and cultural festivals, increases in wildfire activity and pest outbreaks, shifts in
species distributions, declines in the abundance of native species, the spread of invasive species,
and changes in carbon cycling in forests. The breadth of these impacts highlights the potential for
phenological data and related information to inform management and policy decisions across
sectors.
For example, phenology data at multiple spatial and temporal scales are currently being used to
identify species vulnerable to climate change, to generate computer models of carbon
sequestration, to manage invasive species, to facilitate the planning of seasonal cultural
activities, to forecast seasonal allergens, and to track disease vectors in human population
centers.
Ozone Depletion
It consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four
percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger
springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon
is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion
events in addition to these stratospheric events.
In 2019, NASA announced the "ozone hole" was the smallest ever since it was first discovered in
1982.
The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured chemicals, especially
manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing agents
(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), and referred to as ozone-depleting substances
(ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being
emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can settle. Once in the
stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the
breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to
increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased cancer
risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UV wavelengths of
ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths
cause skin cancer, sunburn and cataracts, which were projected to increase dramatically as a
result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals. These concerns led to the
adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the production of CFCs, halons and other
ozone-depleting chemicals.
The ban came into effect in 1989. Ozone levels stabilized by the mid-1990s and began to recover
in the 2000s. Recovery is projected to continue over the next century, and the ozone hole is
expected to reach pre-1980 levels by around 2075. The Montreal Protocol is considered the most
successful international environmental agreement to date.
Ozone Hole and its Causes
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels
have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the
Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate
around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50
percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.
As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing
source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases
dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-
catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the
presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).
These polar stratospheric clouds form during winter, in the extreme cold. Polar winters are dark,
consisting of three months without solar radiation (sunlight). The lack of sunlight contributes to a
decrease in temperature and the polar vortex traps and chills air. Temperatures hover around or
below −80 °C. These low temperatures form cloud particles. There are three types of PSC clouds
—nitric acid trihydrate clouds, slowly cooling water-ice clouds, and rapid cooling water-ice
(nacreous) clouds—provide surfaces for chemical reactions whose products will, in the spring
lead to ozone destruction.
The photochemical processes involved are complex but well understood. The key observation is
that, ordinarily, most of the chlorine in the stratosphere resides in "reservoir" compounds,
primarily chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) as well as stable end products such as HCl. The formation of
end products essentially removes Cl from the ozone depletion process. The former sequester Cl,
which can be later made available via absorption of light at shorter wavelengths than 400 nm.
During the Antarctic winter and spring, however, reactions on the surface of the polar
stratospheric cloud particles convert these "reservoir" compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl
and ClO). The process by which the clouds remove NO2 from the stratosphere by converting it to
nitric acid in the PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation, is called denitrification.
This prevents newly formed ClO from being converted back into ClONO2.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is
greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no
light over the pole to drive chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out,
providing energy to drive photochemical reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds,
releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole mechanism. Further warming temperatures
near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm, ozone and NO2-rich
air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process
shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.
Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller
ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper
stratosphere.
Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion
Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion
increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in
skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric
ozone are well-tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational
evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human
beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin
cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for
lifestyle changes over time.
Increased UV
Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the
absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone
layer decreases exponentially with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When
stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven
phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the
late 1700s.
In October 2008, the Ecuadorian Space Agency published a report called HIPERION. The study
used ground instruments in Ecuador and the last 28 years' data from 12 satellites of several
countries, and found that the UV radiation reaching equatorial latitudes was far greater than
expected, with the UV Index climbing as high as 24 in Quito; the WHO considers 11 as an
extreme index and a great risk to health. The report concluded that depleted ozone levels around
the mid-latitudes of the planet are already endangering large populations in these areas. Later, the
CONIDA, the Peruvian Space Agency, published its own study, which yielded almost the same
findings as the Ecuadorian study.
Biological Effects
The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV
radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few
percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If
the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the
effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some
instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and
South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be
significant.
Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive
(including production of vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts).
In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to
humans.
Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas
The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, have
been strongly linked to UVB exposure. The mechanism by which UVB induces these cancers is
well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the pyrimidine bases in the DNA
molecule to form dimmers, resulting in transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These
cancers are relatively mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma
sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery. By combining epidemiological data with
results of animal studies, scientists have estimated that every one percent decrease in long-term
stratospheric ozone would increase the incidence of these cancers by two percent.
Malignant Melanoma
Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more
dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between
malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both
UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of
ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB
radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for
women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent
increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of
seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.
Cortical Cataracts
Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB
exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A
detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay
Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing
risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence
linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results,
ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.
Increased Tropospheric Ozone
Increased surface UV leads to increased troposphere ozone. Ground-level ozone is generally
recognized to be a health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties. The risks are
particularly high for young children, the elderly, and those with asthma or other respiratory
difficulties. At this time, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action of UV radiation
on combustion gases from vehicle exhausts.
Increased Production of Vitamin D
Vitamin D is produced in the skin by ultraviolet light. Thus, higher UVB exposure raises human
vitamin D in those deficient in it. Recent research (primarily since the Montreal Protocol) shows
that many humans have less than optimal vitamin D levels. In particular, in the U.S. population,
the lowest quarter of vitamin D (<17.8 ng/ml) were found using information from the National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to be associated with an increase in all-cause mortality
in the general population. While blood level of vitamin D in excess of 100 ng/ml appears to raise
blood calcium excessively and to be associated with higher mortality, the body has mechanisms
that prevent sunlight from producing vitamin D in excess of the body's requirements.
Effects on Animals
Effects on Animals
A November 2011 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales
off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that
the thinning ozone layer is to blame". The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over
150 whales in the Gulf of California and found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage
commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn", having cells that form when the DNA is
damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a result of ozone depletion
are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer rates have
been on the increase in recent decades."
Effects on Crops
An increase of UV radiation would be expected to affect crops. A number of economically
important species of plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the
retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and would be affected by its
increase. "Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects of increased ultraviolet radiation,
plants have a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, therefore plant growth can be
directly affected by UVB radiation."
Eutrophication

(from Greek eutrophos, "well-nourished"), or hypertrophication, is when a body of water

becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive growth of algae.
This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body. One example is an "algal bloom"
or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients.
Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents,
fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system.

Mechanism of Eutrophication

Eutrophication most commonly arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most commonly as
nitrogen or phosphorus, which leads to overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems.
After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass results in oxygen consumption,
thereby creating the state of hypoxia.
According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia, "the primary limiting factor for eutrophication is
phosphate." The availability of phosphorus generally promotes excessive plant growth and
decay, favouring simple algae and plankton over other more complicated plants, and causes a
severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus is a necessary nutrient for plants to live, and is the
limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems. Phosphate adheres tightly to
soil, so it is mainly transported by erosion. Once translocated to lakes, the extraction of
phosphate into water is slow, hence the difficulty of reversing the effects of eutrophication. [4]
However, numerous literatures report that nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient for the
accumulation of algal biomass.
The sources of these excess phosphates are phosphates in detergent, industrial/domestic run-offs,
and fertilizers. With the phasing out of phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s,
industrial/domestic run-off and agriculture have emerged as the dominant contributors to
eutrophication.
Cultural Eutrophication

Cultural eutrophication is the process that speeds up natural eutrophication because of human
activity. Due to clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and
more nutrients such as phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, and then to coastal
estuaries and bays. Extra nutrients are also supplied by treatment plants, golf courses, fertilizers,
farms (including fish farms), as well as untreated sewage in many countries.
Lakes and Rivers
When algae die, they decompose and the nutrients contained in that organic matter are converted
into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, which
reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels in turn may lead to
fish kills and a range of other effects reducing biodiversity. Nutrients may become concentrated
in an anoxic zone and may only be made available again during autumn turn-over or in
conditions of turbulent flow. The dead algae and the organic load carried by the water inflows in
to the lake settle at its bottom and undergo anaerobic digestion releasing greenhouse gases like
methane and CO2. Some part of methane gas is consumed by the anaerobic methane oxidation
bacteria which in turn works as food source to the zooplankton. In case the lake is not deficit of
dissolved oxygen at all depths the aerobic methane oxidation bacteria like Methylococcus
capsulatus can consume most of the methane by releasing CO 2 which in turn aid the production
of algae. Thus a self-sustaining biological process can take place to generate primary food source
for the phytoplankton and zooplankton depending on availability of adequate dissolved oxygen
in the water bodies which are subjected to higher organic pollution loads. As algae enhances the
dissolved oxygen by releasing oxygen from photosynthesis during the sunshine and consume
oxygen by emitting CO2 from its respiration during the absence of sunlight, adequate dissolved
oxygen availability in water bodies is very crucial for fisheries production and elimination of
green house gas emissions especially during the absence of sunlight in eutrophic water bodies.
The CO2 released by the algae during the absence of sunlight is stored in the water by reducing
the water alkalinity and pH for its use during the sunshine.
Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algal blooms disrupts normal
functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen needed for
fish and shellfish to survive. The water becomes cloudy, typically coloured a shade of green,
yellow, brown, or red. Eutrophication also decreases the value of rivers, lakes and aesthetic
enjoyment. Health problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking water
treatment.
Human activities can accelerate the rate at which nutrients enter ecosystems. Runoff from
agriculture and development, pollution from septic systems and sewers, sewage sludge
spreading, and other human-related activities increase the flow of both inorganic nutrients and
organic substances into ecosystems. Elevated levels of atmospheric compounds of nitrogen can
increase nitrogen availability. Phosphorus is often regarded as the main culprit in cases of
eutrophication in lakes subjected to "point source" pollution from sewage pipes. The
concentration of algae and the trophic state of lakes correspond well to phosphorus levels in
water. Studies conducted in the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario have shown a relationship
between the addition of phosphorus and the rate of eutrophication. Humankind has increased the
rate of phosphorus cycling on Earth by four times, mainly due to agricultural fertilizer
production and application. Between 1950 and 1995, an estimated 600,000,000 tonnes of
phosphorus was applied to Earth's surface, primarily on croplands.
Natural Eutrophication
Although eutrophication is commonly caused by human activities, it can also be a natural
process, particularly in lakes. Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in temperate grasslands, for
instance. Paleolimnologists now recognise that climate change, geology, and other external
influences are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. Some lakes also
demonstrate the reverse process (meiotrophication), becoming less nutrient rich with time. The
main difference between natural and anthropogenic eutrophication is that the natural process is
very slow, occurring on geological time scales.
Ecological Effects
Eutrophication was recognized as a water pollution problem in European and North American
lakes and reservoirs in the mid-20th century. Since then, it has become more widespread.
Surveys showed that 54% of lakes in Asia are eutrophic; in Europe, 53%; in North America,
48%; in South America, 41%; and in Africa, 28%. In South Africa, a study by the CSIR using
remote sensing has shown more than 60% of the dams surveyed were eutrophic. Some South
African scientists believe that this figure might be higher with the main source being
dysfunctional sewage works that produce more than 4 billion liters a day of untreated, or at best
partially treated, sewage effluent that discharges into rivers and dams.
Many ecological effects can arise from stimulating primary production, but there are three
particularly troubling ecological impacts: decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition
and dominance, and toxicity effects.

 Increased biomass of phytoplankton

 Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species
 Increases in blooms of gelatinous zooplankton
 Increased biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae
 Changes in macrophyte species composition and biomass
 Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
 Colour, smell, and water treatment problems
 Dissolved oxygen depletion
 Increased incidences of fish kills
 Loss of desirable fish species
 Reductions in harvestable fish and shellfish
 Decreases in perceived aesthetic value of the water body

Decreased Biodiversity
When an ecosystem experiences an increase in nutrients, primary producers reap the benefits
first. In aquatic ecosystems, species such as algae experience a population increase (called an
algal bloom). Algal blooms limit the sunlight available to bottom-dwelling organisms and cause
wide swings in the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Oxygen is required by all
aerobically respiring plants and animals and it is replenished in daylight by photosynthesizing
plants and algae. Under eutrophic conditions, dissolved oxygen greatly increases during the day,
but is greatly reduced after dark by the respiring algae and by microorganisms that feed on the
increasing mass of dead algae. When dissolved oxygen levels decline to hypoxic levels, fish and
other marine animals suffocate. As a result, creatures such as fish, shrimp, and especially
immobile bottom dwellers die off. In extreme cases, anaerobic conditions ensue, promoting
growth of bacteria. Zones where this occurs are known as dead zones.
New Species Invasion
Eutrophication may cause competitive release by making abundant a normally limiting nutrient.
This process causes shifts in the species composition of ecosystems. For instance, an increase in
nitrogen might allow new, competitive species to invade and out-compete original inhabitant
species. This has been shown to occur in New England salt marshes. In Europe and Asia, the
common carp frequently lives in naturally Eutrophic or Hypereutrophic areas, and is adapted to
living in such conditions. The eutrophication of areas outside its natural range partially explain
the fish's success in colonising these areas after being introduced.
Toxicity
Some algal blooms resulting from eutrophication, otherwise called "harmful algal blooms", are
toxic to plants and animals. Toxic compounds can make their way up the food chain, resulting in
animal mortality. Freshwater algal blooms can pose a threat to livestock. When the algae die or
are eaten, neuro- and hepatotoxins are released which can kill animals and may pose a threat to
humans. An example of algal toxins working their way into humans is the case of shellfish
poisoning. Biotoxins created during algal blooms are taken up by shellfish (mussels, oysters),
leading to these human foods acquiring the toxicity and poisoning humans. Examples include
paralytic, neurotoxic, and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning. Other marine animals can be vectors
for such toxins, as in the case of ciguatera, where it is typically a predator fish that accumulates
the toxin and then poisons humans.
Sources of high nutrient runoff
Point sources
Point sources are directly attributable to one influence. In point sources the nutrient waste travels
directly from source to water. Point sources are relatively easy to regulate.
Nonpoint sources
Nonpoint source pollution (also known as 'diffuse' or 'runoff' pollution) is that which comes from
ill-defined and diffuse sources. Nonpoint sources are difficult to regulate and usually vary
spatially and temporally (with season, precipitation, and other irregular events).
It has been shown that nitrogen transport is correlated with various indices of human activity in
watersheds, including the amount of development. Ploughing in agriculture and development are
activities that contribute most to nutrient loading. There are three reasons that nonpoint sources
are especially troublesome:
Soil Retention
Nutrients from human activities tend to accumulate in soils and remain there for years. It has
been shown that the amount of phosphorus lost to surface waters increases linearly with the
amount of phosphorus in the soil. Thus much of the nutrient loading in soil eventually makes its
way to water. Nitrogen, similarly, has a turnover time of decades.
Runoff to Surface Water
Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water.
Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains, sewage pipes, and other forms of surface
runoff. Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture. Modern
agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise
production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or
pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less
stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should
be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can
wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water
bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.
Atmospheric Deposition
Nitrogen is released into the air because of ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide production.
The combustion of fossil fuels is a large human-initiated contributor to atmospheric nitrogen
pollution. Atmospheric nitrogen reaches the ground by two different processes, the first being
wet deposition such as rain or snow, and the second being dry deposition which is particles and
gases found in the air. Atmospheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain) can also affect
nutrient concentration in water, especially in highly industrialized regions.
Other causes
Any factor that causes increased nutrient concentrations can potentially lead to eutrophication. In
modeling eutrophication, the rate of water renewal plays a critical role; stagnant water is allowed
to collect more nutrients than bodies with replenished water supplies. It has also been shown that
the drying of wetlands causes an increase in nutrient concentration and subsequent
eutrophication blooms.

REDD and REDD+

Reducing Emissions From Deforestation And Forest Degradation And The Role Of
Conservation, Sustainable Management Of Forests And Enhancement Of Forest Carbon Stocks
In Developing Countries (REDD+) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2005, with the objective of mitigating climate
change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest
management in developing countries. Most of the key REDD+ decisions were completed by
2013, with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015.

REDD
REDD was first discussed in 2005 by the UNFCCC at its 11th session of the Conference of the
Parties to the Convention (COP) at the request of Costa Rica and Papua New Guinea, on behalf
of the Coalition for Rainforest Nations, when they submitted the document "Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action", with a request to
create an agenda item to discuss consideration of reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation in natural forests as a mitigation measure. COP 11 entered the request to
consider the document as agenda item 6: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing
Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action.
REDD+
Bali Action Plan
REDD received substantial attention from the UNFCCC – and the attending community – at
COP 13, December 2007, where the first substantial decision on REDD+ was adopted, Decision
2/CP.13: "Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: approaches to
stimulate action", calling for demonstration activities to be reported upon two years later and
assessment of drivers of deforestation. REDD+ was also referenced in decision 1/CP.13, the
"Bali Action Plan", with reference to all five eligible activities for REDD+ (with sustainable
management of forests, conservation of forest carbon stocks and enhancement of forest carbon
stocks constituting the "+" in REDD+).
The call for demonstration activities in decision 2/CP.13 led to a very large number of programs
and projects, including the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank, the
UN-REDD Program, and a flurry of smaller projects financed by the Norwegian International
Climate and Forest Initiative (NICFI), the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany,
among many others. All of these were based on substantive guidance from the UNFCCC.
All things considered, there should be no confusion on the formal name(s):

 REDD originally referred to "reducing emissions from deforestation in developing

countries" the title of the original document on REDD . It was superseded in the negotiations
by REDD+
 REDD+ (or REDD-plus) refers to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management
of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries" (emphasis
added); the most recent, elaborated terminology used by the COP

However, the commonly used name outside of the UNFCCC seems to have stuck, perhaps not
surprisingly seeing that the second title is quite unwieldy.
Main Elements of REDD+
As an approach under the multi-lateral climate change agreement, REDD+ is essentially a
vehicle to encourage developing countries to reduce emissions and enhance removals of
greenhouse gases through a variety of forest management options, and to provide technical and
financial support for these efforts. As with other approaches under the UNFCCC, there are few
prescriptions that specifically mandate how to implement the mechanism at national level; the
principles of national sovereignty and subsidiarity imply that the UNFCCC can only provide
guidelines for implementation, and require that reports are submitted in a certain format and
open for review by the Convention. There are certain aspects that go beyond this basic
philosophy – such as the so-called safeguards, explained in more detail below – but in essence
REDD+ is no more than a set of guidelines on how to report on forest resources and forest
management strategies and their results in terms of reducing emissions and enhancing removals
of greenhouse gases. However, a set of requirements has been elaborated to ensure that REDD+
programs contain key elements and that reports from Parties are consistent and comparable and
that their content are open to review and in function of the objectives of the Convention.
Decision 1/CP 16 requests all developing countries aiming to undertake REDD+ to develop the
following elements:
(a) A national strategy or action plan;
(b) A national forest reference emission level and/or forest reference level or, if appropriate, as
an interim measure, subnational forest reference emission levels and/or forest reference levels
(c) A robust and transparent national forest monitoring system for the monitoring and reporting
on REDD+ activities (see below), with, if appropriate, subnational monitoring and reporting as
an interim measure
(d) A system for providing information on how the social and environmental safeguards
(included in an appendix to the decision) are being addressed and respected throughout the
implementation of REDD+
It further requests developing countries, when developing and implementing their national
REDD+ strategies or action plans, to address, among other issues, the drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation, land tenure issues, forest governance issues, gender considerations and
the social and environmental safeguards, ensuring the full and effective participation of relevant
stakeholders, inter alia indigenous peoples and local communities;
REDD+ As A Climate Change Mitigation Measure
Deforestation and forest degradation account for 17-29% of global greenhouse gas emissions, the
reduction of which is estimated to be one of the most cost-efficient climate change mitigation
strategies. Regeneration of forest on degraded or deforested lands can remove CO₂ from the
atmosphere through the build-up of biomass, making forest lands a sink of greenhouse gases.
The REDD+ mechanism addresses both issues of emission reduction and enhanced removal of
greenhouse gases.
Reducing Emission
Emissions of greenhouse gases from forest land can be reduced by slowing down the rates of
deforestation and forest degradation, obviously covered by the first two of the REDD+ eligible
activities. Another option would be some form of reduced impact logging in commercial
logging, under the REDD+ eligible activity of sustainable management of forests.
Enhancing Removals
Removals of greenhouse gases (specifically CO₂) from the atmosphere can be achieved through
various forest management options, such as replanting degraded or deforested areas or
enrichment planting, but also by letting forest land regenerate naturally. Care must be taken to
differentiate between what is a purely ecological process of regrowth and what is induced or
enhanced through some management intervention.
REDD+ and the Carbon Market
In 2009, at COP-15 in Copenhagen, the Copenhagen Accord was reached, noting in section 6 the
recognition of the crucial role of REDD and REDD+ and the need to provide positive incentives
for such actions by enabling the mobilization of financial resources from developed countries.
The Accord goes on to note in section 8 that the collective commitment by developed countries
for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international
institutions, will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010 - 2012.
Implementing REDD+
Decision 1/CP.16, paragraph 73, suggests that national capacity for implementing REDD+ is
built up in phases, "beginning with the development of national strategies or action plans,
policies and measures, and capacity-building, followed by the implementation of national
policies and measures and national strategies or action plans that could involve further capacity-
building, technology development and transfer and results-based demonstration activities, and
evolving into results-based actions that should be fully measured, reported and verified". The
initial phase of the development of national strategies and action plans and capacity building is
typically referred to as the "Readiness phase" (a term like Reddiness is also encountered).
There are a very substantial number of REDD+ projects globally and this section lists only a
selection. One of the more comprehensive online tools with up-to-date information on REDD+
projects is the Voluntary REDD+ Database.

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

It is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the Kyoto Protocol (IPCC, 2007) that provides
for emissions reduction projects which generate Certified Emission Reduction units (CERs)
which may be traded in emissions trading schemes.
The CDM, defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, was intended to meet two objectives:

 (1) to assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in
contributing to the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is to prevent dangerous climate change; and
 (2) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified
emission limitation and reduction commitments (greenhouse gas (GHG) emission caps).

"Annex I" parties are the countries listed in Annex I of the treaty, the industrialized countries.
Non-Annex I parties are developing countries.
The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of their
emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol by buying Certified Emission
Reduction units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries (Carbon Trust,
2009, p. 14). Both the projects and the issue of CERs units are subject to approval to ensure that
these emission reductions are real and "additional." The CDM is supervised by the CDM
Executive Board (CDM EB) under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties (COP/MOP) of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions
where it is cheapest globally (Grubb, 2003, p. 159). Between 2001, which were the first year
CDM projects could be registered and 7 September 2012, the CDM issued 1 billion Certified
Emission Reduction units. As of 1 June 2013, 57% of all CERs had been issued for projects
based on destroying either HFC-23 (38%) or N2O (19%). Carbon capture and storage (CCS) was
included in the CDM carbon offsetting scheme in December 2011.
However, a number of weaknesses of the CDM have been identified (World Bank, 2010, p. 265-
267. Several of these issues were addressed by the new Program of Activities (PoA), which
moves to approving 'bundles' of projects instead of accrediting each project individually. In
2012, the report Climate Change, Carbon Markets and the CDM: A Call to Action said
governments urgently needed to address the future of the CDM. It suggested the CDM was in
danger of collapse because of the low price of carbon and the failure of governments to
guarantee its existence into the future. Writing on the website of the Climate & Development
Knowledge Network, Yolanda Kakabadse, a member of the investigating panel for the report and
founder of Fundación Futuro Latinamericano, said a strong CDM is needed to support the
political consensus essential for future climate progress. "Therefore we must do everything in
our hands to keep it working," she said.
Purpose
The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the "non-
Annex I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention). The
CDM is one of the Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms; in that the CDM is designed to
promote projects that reduce emissions. The CDM is based on the idea of emission reduction
"production" (Toth et al., 2001, p. 660). These reductions are "produced" and then subtracted
against a hypothetical "baseline" of emissions. The baseline emissions are the emissions that are
predicted to occur in the absence of a particular CDM project. CDM projects are "credited"
against this baseline, in the sense that developing countries gain credit for producing these
emission cuts.
The economic basis for including developing countries in efforts to reduce emissions is that
emission cuts are thought to be less expensive in developing countries than developed countries
(Goldemberg et al., 1996, p. 30; Grubb, 2003, p. 159). For example, in developing countries,
environmental regulation is generally weaker than it is in developed countries (Sathaye et al.,
2001, p. 387-389). Thus, it is widely thought that there is greater potential for developing
countries to reduce their emissions than developed countries.
Emissions from developing countries are projected to increase substantially over this century
(Goldemberg et al., 1996, p. 29). Infrastructure decisions made in developing countries could
therefore have a very large influence on future efforts to limit total global emissions (Fisher et
al., 2007). The CDM is designed to start developing countries off on a path towards less
pollution, with industrialised (Annex B) countries paying for the reductions.
There were two main concerns about the CDM (Carbon Trust, 2009, pp. 14–15). One was over
the additionality of emission reductions produced by the CDM (see the section on additionality).
The other was whether it would allow rich, northern countries, and in particular, companies, to
impose projects that were contrary to the development interests of host countries. To alleviate
this concern, the CDM requires host countries to confirm that CDM projects contribute to their
own sustainable development. International rules also prohibit credits for some kinds of
activities, notably nuclear power and avoided deforestation.
To prevent industrialized countries from making unlimited use of CDM, the framework has a
provision that use of CDM be ‘supplemental’ to domestic actions to reduce emissions. This
wording has led to a wide range of interpretations - the Netherlands for example aims to achieve
half of its required emission reductions (from a BAU baseline) by CDM. It treats Dutch
companies' purchases of European Union Emission Trading Scheme allowances from companies
in other countries as part of its domestic actions.
The CDM gained momentum in 2005 after the Kyoto Protocol took effect. Before the Protocol
entered into force, investors considered this a key risk factor. The initial years of operation
yielded fewer CDM credits than supporters had hoped for, as parties did not provide sufficient
funding to the EB, which left it understaffed.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance concrete adaptation projects and program in
developing countries that are parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Fund is to be financed with a
share of proceeds from clean development mechanism (CDM) project activities and receive
funds from other sources.