CrackCLAT Sample Study Material

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Legal GK Part-I
Legal Aptitude
In the CLAT paper one of the major sections is of LAT (Legal Aptitude test). Unlike other sections
such as General Knowledge and English where preparation can only help limitedly, the LAT section is
largely dependent on understanding legal principles and applying them to the specific problem given
in the question paper. The basic understanding of the concepts and what is the legal standing in a
particular fact will only lead to correct choice of answer.
To every one it seems quite difficult to tune up in new ambiance or field but hard slog, fortitude &
ardor can make even unfeasible thing possible. Just as a child when takes admission to school, he
finds quite difficult to leave home and go to school to be disciplined and a learner, but, subsequently
he adjusts himself in with new peer group, people and become disciplined and ardent learner.
Similarly, when a student starts up with Legal Aptitude section s/he finds law altogether a new area
of learning with having very vague or no knowledge about it. Several questions erupt in student
mind as to; how to begin with it? How difficult is it? And many other questions, these queries are
put to end simply by stating that: Legal Aptitude is mean to attempt the problems that can be
achieved by “reasonable application of mind”. Thus, now it becomes all very easy to learn the legal
skills. Basically the areas of laws which are included in CLAT test are Law of Torts, Contracts,
Constitution and Indian Procedure Code.
There are three modules designed for the legal studies:
Module 1: Law of Torts
Module 2: Law of Contract & Crime
Module 3: Legal G.k.
How to refer the modules?
Each area of law has been explained in such a manner that the student can easily grasp the main
theme. With the help of illustrative examples and ample of exercises it becomes easy for aspirants
to understand. Firstly it is very important that the aspirants read every chapter, understand all legal
aspects by reading and understanding the illustrations after that the aspirant should try to attempt
the exercises given back of the chapters without referring the answer key if required can discuss
with the other aspirant to draw a conclusion. After solving it he can refer the answer key to find out
the correct answer and he should make an effort not to repeat the same mistake in future being
thorough with the ruling.
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Crack CLAT...Gateway to Law Schools Sample Study Material
To be expert in a particular field one requires mental exercise. Constant exercise is required for
mastery (to be expert) in a field. Interesting problems and factual situation along with certain legal
principles will make you think logically and help to tone up your brain cells. The more you solve the
problems, the more you become clear with the concepts and get to know the format. To attain the
question based on legal aptitude.
To achieve skill and expertise in a field requires a lot of commitment and dedication. Legal skills
once perfected, makes you dead sure of your success in entrance.
Now question arises: How to develop legal skills?
While conducting the entrance exams the examiner generally provide principle along with each
factual situation. The students are expected to scrutinize the principle carefully and then to apply it
while attempting the question.
To be more clear refer the following explanations:
PRINCIPLE : It is the legal ruling for that particular question. If there are more than one principles
then all has to applied together.
FACTS: Imaginative incidents are put up to which principle has to be applied.
MULTIPLE CHOICES: Generally 4-5 options are given after each fact the aspirants has to select
the most appropriate answer by carefully applying principle to the fact. At times it seems two or
more answers are correct but you have to be very carefully select best against the rest option i.e.
most appropriate answer.
Note: At times no principle is provided, in such case, the student should apply their
fundamental knowledge of law, referring Legal Aptitude modules.
The person who achieve mastery over these major areas becomes 80 per cent sure of his success
and rest 20 percent of success could be achieved by studying minor areas of law like- Administrative
Law, Civil Procedure, Arbitration Law , Family law etc.
Note: The students are advised not to mug up the definitions and the legal principles but to
understand the concept hidden in each legal principle and then apply them according to the problem
asked. At the same time the exceptions are to be kept in mind.
The following symbols symbolize:
: Note : Recall important points : Question

Certain entities are explained with the help of following table:
Entity Literal Meaning Explanation
CLAT : Common law It is a competitive exam that testifies the examinee

entrance test. for aptitude, reasoning, intelligence and creativity
generally in fields of English, Mathematics, General
reasoning, Law & General knowledge.
Quantitative Problem based on It represents any situation where student needs to

problem: NLU entrance test apply his fundamental knowledge as well as
course content innovative thought to get the solution. The problem
may be stated explicitly or may have to be inferred
from state of situations and /or its surroundings.
Examiner: A person who puts up It may represent a teacher, leader, judge, and any
the problem for the entity that require the problem solver to apply their
solution mind and reach the correct solution.
Student: A person in pursuit of It represents a person who has certain goals to

knowledge and skills achieve by developing his/her personal skills,
knowledge, caliber, intelligence and I.Q.
Time: A non-renewable It could be understood by famous saying, “Time once

resource passed, can never be regained”. It is invaluable, and
its right use leads to success and misuse leads to
deterioration.
For any further queries regarding the Legal aptitude section email us at info@nluentrance.com.
Wishing you all the best and success in your examination and promising you all the
cooperation and help in future.

Law of Torts
Chapter-1
Nature and Definition of Torts
In chapter one firstly the term tort is explained with its origin, definition and illustrations. Further
the definition of tortfeasor, plaintiff, defendant, damages, kinds of damages, need of tort,
comparison between civil and criminal law, role of guilty mind and malice in torts and question like
is law of tort or torts is discussed in comprehensively with elaborated illustrations and examples.
To start with we will first understand the word tort. This is one of the term which you have to be
(must) acquainted with. In Latin term ‘Tortum’, means, “to twist”. It is counterpart to the English
term ‘wrong’. Tort is committed in the form of tortious act.
Tortious act refers to that conduct, which violates the legal rights of other person.
What is Tort
 The late English law professor Sir Percy Winfield (1933) defined a tort as 'the breach of a
duty primarily fixed by the law, where the duty is one towards persons generally
and its breach is repressible by an action for damages.'
 Tort is a civil wrong; at the same time remember that not every civil wrong is tort such as
a breach of contract and breach of trust etc. “It is a civil wrong i.e. a wrong against an
individual, which is redress by an action for unliquidated damages”
 We may define tort as “Tort is a civil wrong, which is not based on contract, and for which
the victim is entitled to compensation from the tortfeasor.”
 A tort occurs when someone deliberately or through carelessness causes harm or loss to
another person or his or her property. A tort is a civil law matter; only the interests of the
particular individuals are involved.
For example,
i. Violation of a duty to injure the reputation of someone else results in the tort of defamation,
ii. Violation of a duty not to interfere with the possession of land of another person results in
the tort of trespass to land and
iii. Violation of a duty not to defraud another person results in the tort of deceit.
ILLUSTRATION: -

a) Suppose Diana tripped on a loose carpet in a restaurant and sprained her ankle. Diana may
have suffered a wrong, but the restaurant owner is not a criminal. The restaurant owner;
however, may have to compensate Diana for a civil wrong—the tort of negligence.
The main purpose of tort law is for the wrongdoer to compensate (pay back) the person who
suffered a loss or injury, not to punish the person who is responsible. Much of the process of tort
law involves determining who is at fault and the extent of the damage. The wrongdoer must repay
the injured person. This usually means paying a sum of money.
Tortious acts are informal occurrences that deal with wrongs or injuries inflicted upon one party by
another, outside of the context of a formal relationship or contract. Therefore, the liability does not
come from an agreed upon set of rights and responsibilities such as those defined in a contract, but
rather from the law itself. In torts, the parties involved are strangers according to the law. The only
reason they are brought together is the misfortune, which resulted in the tort action. E.g., I may not
have very much to do with my neighbor until my son puts a rock through her bay window.
Examples of torts could include:
 Susan is struck by a reckless driver and suffers a loss of income because she can not attend
work due to injuries.
 The State fails to care properly for a public swing set and a child is injured as a result.
Who is Tortfeasor
It is to refer to the person who commits tort i.e. he violates the legal rights of other person. When
we say it is violation of other’s legal right it do means that ‘tort’ is a breach of duty recognized under
the law of torts.
If tort feasor is found to be at fault, he/she would have to pay for any loss or injury. This payment is
called "damages." This would include out-of-pocket expenses such as dental or medical bills, lost
wages or the cost of a new jacket.
Why do we need tort
Tort law comes mainly from the common law (judge-made law). While this law has developed to
protect citizens from loss or injury, they are not paid back automatically. They must first show that
another person’s action caused their loss.
Now imagine that one A announces at a market place that C and his wife D are like a pair of beauty
and beast. Take another example where A’s pet dog bites C.
In both the above cases if we no duty is imposed on people like A there shall be peace or law and
order. Thus under law of tort A had a duty in both the cases to take care, in former case by his
announcement and in the later case by his negligence has injured C.
Thus A being a tortfeasor is liable to pay damages to C for his tortious act.

Who is Plaintiff / Complainant
a) Plaintiff is the person who files the plaint.
b) The plaintiff is the one whose legal rights have been violated.
c) He/she is the person who goes to the court first seeking remedy.
Plaint is the way of instituting a suit in civil cases. To be simpler in civil cases plaint is the
mode by which court is approached and the person who approaches the court is called as
plaintiff. In Criminal cases instead of plaint the term used is complain and the plaintiff is
the complainant.
Who is Defendant
a) He/She is the one against whom the plaint has been brought i.e. the person who is accused
of violating legal rights of plaintiff.
b) The defendant is the person who fails to perform his/her legal duty , which he/she owes
towards plaintiff.
c) He is the one who denies the accusation of the plaintiff.
If defendant is proved to be at fault shall be made liable to pay damages.
Comparing Civil and Criminal:
Civil wrong is the wrong against individual and criminal is one which is against the whole society.
When is a legal problem criminal and when is it civil? What difference does it make
whether it is criminal or civil?
One way of looking at criminal law is that it is dealing with something of public interest. For
example, the public has an interest in seeing that people are protected from being robbed or
assaulted. These are legal problems that fall into the criminal law.
Criminal law involves punishing and rehabilitating offenders, and protecting society. Since the public
has an interest in having criminal law, we give the government the power to put it in place and
enforce it. The police are hired by the government to put the criminal law into effect. Public funds
are used to pay for these services.
If you are the victim of a crime, you report it to the police and they have the responsibility to
investigate. They arrest and charge the suspect. In most cases, if a charge has been properly laid
and if there is evidence supporting it, the State Prosecutor, not the person who complains of the
incident, prosecutes it in the courts. This is called a system of public prosecutions. Long ago the
person who had been wronged prosecuted the case. The power to prosecute privately remains, but

is used rarely now. Even if a person starts a prosecution privately, the Attorney General has the
power to take over the prosecution of the case. As a victim, you do not have to be responsible for
enforcing the law. The police and State Prosecutor do their jobs for the public at large, not for you
personally.
In a criminal case, the State Prosecutor must prove the defendant’s guilt "beyond a reasonable
doubt." This means that at the end of a trial the judge or jury can only find the defendant guilty if
they are left without a reasonable doubt about the defendant’s guilt. In other words, there is no
logical or rational reason to doubt the defendant’s guilt.
This is not the case in civil law. Civil law is about private disputes between individuals or between
individuals and organizations. Civil matters include areas such as contract law, family law, tort law,
property law and labour law. The person suing for a wrong has the burden of proving their case on a
"balance of probabilities." This means that a judge or jury must believe their story and evidence
more than the defendant’s version. They do not need to be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt.
Civil disputes usually involve some harm, loss or injury to one party or their property. Unlike
criminal law; however, civil law is primarily involved with compensating victims. If a civil action is
successful, the defendant will be responsible for the wrongful action. While a defendant in a criminal
case may be found "guilty" or "not guilty," a defendant in a civil case is said to be "liable" or "not
liable" for damages.
If you have a civil law problem, you have to take action yourself if you want to get a legal remedy.
You can hire a private lawyer, and you will have to pay the expenses of pursuing the matter. For
example, if you hire someone to paint your house and they do a poor job, it is a dispute between
you and the painter. The police do not get involved. If you want to sue the painter for breach of
contract, it is your responsibility to do so.
Sometimes criminal law is referred to as part of our public law because it applies to all Citizens and
regulates relationships within our society. Similarly, civil law is sometimes referred to as private law
because it regulates private relationships between individuals in our society.
In brief, the differences between the two terms are as following:-
1) The wrongs, which are comparatively less serious, are considered to be private wrongs and have
been labeled as civil wrongs, whereas more serious wrongs have been considered to be public
wrongs and are known as crimes.
2) In the case of a criminal wrong, the criminal proceedings against the accused are brought by the
state whereas in case of civil proceedings against the wrongdoer are brought by the sufferer
himself.
3) There are various wrongs, which find their place both under criminal law and law of torts. Some
examples of such wrongs are Assault, Defamation. Negligence and Nuisance etc.

4) Generally, when the wrong is a serious one as it affects public at large is termed as crime
whereas civil wrongs is less serious one as it is wrong against private rights. For instance, if a
person causes an obstruction outside a residential building, as the wrong affects only the
residents of the building, it would be considered as a tort of private nuisance. If, however, a
similar obstruction is caused in the middle of a public road it would amount to the offence of
public nuisance stated in Sec. 268, I.P.C.
5) In the case of tort the ends of justice are met by awarding compensation i.e. damages by the
defendant to the injured party i.e. plaintiff. The idea of awarding compensation to the injured
party under civil law is to make good the loss suffered by him whereas In the case of crime the
wrongdoer is punished. This means that the individual, who is the victim of the crime, i.e., the
sufferer is not compensated. Justice is administered by punishing the wrongdoer in such a case.
The punishment under criminal law protects the society by preventing the offender from committing
further offences and deterring him and other potential offenders from committing wrongs.
Meaning of Damages:
Torts are defined as a civil wrong for which damages is the most remedy claimed by plaintiff.
Now what do we mean by term damages
“Damages are compensation payable to the sufferer by the wrongdoer for the injuries he caused to
the plaintiff by violating his legal rights”.
It is usually the most common remedy for torts. After the wrong has been committed, generally it is
the money compensation of the wrong it is generally not possible to undo the harm, which has
already been caused.
If, for example, the reputation of a person has been injured the original position cannot be restored
back.
The only thing, which can be done in such a case, is to see what is the money equivalent to the
harm by way of defamation and the sum so arrived at has to be paid by the defendant to the
plaintiff. There are other remedies also which could be available when the tort is committed.
The amount of money which a plaintiff (the person suing) may be awarded in a lawsuit.
How many kinds of damages can be awarded to injured party?
Damages are divided into a number of categories upon which the recovery may be based, such as:
1. Special damages are such of which the law will not infer from the wrongful act; they must
therefore be specially claimed on pleadings and evidence of them must be given at trial losses
suffered from the date of tort up till date of trial and which can be precisely quantified in
monetary form. It include medical and hospital bills, ambulance charges, loss of wages,

property repair or replacement costs or loss of money due on a contract.
Special Damages which do not arise as a result of the wrongful act or omission itself but arise
due to the circumstances after the loss or harm has occurred. Special damages include out-of-
pocket items that can be documented such as the need to rent replace property (such as a car
rental) or the cost of services (such as the cost to have property valued or appraised).
2. General damages are those which the law will imply in every violation of legal right. They
need not to be proved by evidence for they arise by inference of law, even though no actual
pecuniary loss has been there .They are which presumed to be a result of the other party's
actions, but are subjective both in nature and determination of value of damages. These
include pain and suffering, future problems and crippling effect of an injury, loss of ability to
perform various acts, shortening of life span, mental anguish, loss of companionship, loss of
reputation (in a libel suit, for example), humiliation from scars, loss of anticipated business
and other harm. General Damages which necessarily result from the act or omission - the
amount needed to restore the fair market value of the property to its owner (the injured
party);
3. Exemplary/punitive damages, which combines punishment and the setting of public

example. Punitive Damages can be assessed against the party at fault to punish the wrong-
doer for his/her willful, malicious, or oppressive behavior and to deter others from acting in a
similar manner. Exemplary damages may be awarded when the defendant acted in a
malicious, violent, oppressive, fraudulent, hasty or grossly reckless way in causing damages to
the plaintiff. On occasion punitive damages can be greater than the actual damages, as, for
example, in a sexual harassment case or fraudulent schemes. Although often asked for, they
are seldom awarded. Such damages are awarded in following cases:
a) When damage is caused by oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional action of govt. or its

servant e.g. Bhim singh case.
b) When defendants conduct has been calculated by him to make a profit for himself which
may exceed the compensation payable to plaintiff. E.g. gross defamation cases or Bhopal
leakage case.
c) Malicious prosecution.
d) Seduction of one's daughter, wife etc.
4. Future/ Prospective Damages means compensation for damages which are quite likely to
occur as the result of defendants’ wrongful act but which has not actually resulted at the time
of the decision of court. thus these are those damages which certain to occur in the future as
a result of the loss or harm, are recoverable so long as there is a satisfactory basis for which
the future, anticipated losses or harms can be determined. Without a satisfactory basis, future
damages are provisional and are not subject to recovery.

Like in case of Subhash Chandra v.Ram singh case where plaintiff was hit by the bus
belonging to state caused permanent disability i.e. he could not walk without surgical shoes
and lost employment in certain avenue. He was awarded compensation under heading
“probable future loss by reason of incapacity and diminished capacity of work.”
5. Nominal/substantial damages are those given when the actual harm is trifling and an
award is warranted under the circumstances. Simply, when there has been infringement of
person’s legal right but he has suffered no loss thereby, so the law awards nominal damages
in recognition of his rights. E.g. Ashby v. white case.
The one of the famous case was when Winston Churchill was awarded a shilling (about 25
cents) against author Louis Adamic, who had written that the British Prime Minister had been
drunk at a dinner at the White House.
These are awarded generally in cases of torts which are actionable per se, like bare trespass,
infringement of absolute rights of personal security e.g. assault.
6. Incidental Damages include the reasonable charges, expenses, or other costs which flow
from the loss or harm - such as delivery expenses and the cost of photocopies.
7. Liquidated damages are those pre-set by the parties in a contract to be awarded in case one
party defaults for e.g. in breach of contract.
8. Unliquidated damages mean such compensation the amount or extend of which has not
been predetermined or decided before the wrong was committed. Damages in the case of a
tort are unliquidated. It is this fact, which enables us to distinguish tort from other civil
wrongs, like breach of contract or breach of trust, where the damages may be liquidated.
Generally in claim of torts as it is a civil wrong a plaintiff get remedy in form of unliquidated
damages, as it is not possible to predetermine the amount.
Role of Guilty mind in tort
It strikes in one mind:
Does guilty mind plays important role in wrongs committed in torts
Well answer is “No”. In law of torts there is no general rule that one must have guilty mind while
committing wrongful act to be held liable in law of torts. But certain torts like assault, false
imprisonment, malicious prosecution and conspiracy etc. mental condition is relevant whereas in
torts like trespass, nuisance, defamation etc. mental condition is totally irrelevant. The reason for
this is that law of torts requires that people do their best not to allow their actions to inadvertently
injure other i.e. they do not breach their legal duty which they owe towards the injury.
Role of Malice/ Evil motive in tort
While studying the law of torts a question erupts in mind:

Does malice plays same role in tort law as in crime
Let’s discuss this: -When someone does an act with a feeling of ill feeling or vengeance or evil
intention then the act said to be done maliciously.
In law of torts as a general rule, the presence or absence of malice does not affect the liability of the
defendant. If an act is legal, the mere fact that it was done maliciously will not make it illegal or
tortuous.
For example, if the income tax department raids your house and the department can show that
there was good reason to raid it, then to the fact that the raid was prompted solely by the ill will of
an officer in the raid won't make any difference.
It must be remembered that malice deals with motive for an act rather than whether the act was
intended or not. What's the difference between motive and intention? The difference is that intention
is whether the act was deliberate or not and motive deals with why the intended or unintended act
was done.
For example, consider a situation where you play music very loudly in the house. Your neighbor
takes you to court for causing a nuisance. You intended to play the music so there is intention but
you had no malice. However if you had played the music loudly to disturb your neighbour then it
would have been a case of intention along with malice. In tort law intention makes a difference in
some torts while malice makes a difference in very rare, rare torts.
Malice is essential element in few wrongful acts such as: defamation and malicious prosecution.
Is it Law of Tort or Law of Torts?
Ordinarily, to a layman there is no or a slight difference between these two terms. But for a law
studying person it is necessary to know the difference between them.
In this connection, Salmond had posed the question, "Does the law of Torts consist of
fundamental general principle that it is wrongful to cause harm to other persons in the absence of
some specific ground of justification or excuse, or does it consist of a number of specific rules
prohibiting certain kind of harmful activity, and leaving all the residue outside the sphere of legal
responsibility?"
In other words, the question is:
 Is it the Law of Tort, i.e., Is every wrongful act, for which there is no justification or excuse
to be treated as a tort; or
 Is it the Law of Torts, consisting only of a number of specific wrongs beyond which the
liability under this branch of law cannot arise?
Winfield, preferred the first of these alternatives and according to him, it is the-“Law of Tort”

According to this theory, if I injure my neighbour, he can sue me in tort whether the wrong happens
to have particular name like assault, battery, deceit, slander, or whether it has no special title at all;
and I shall be liable if I cannot prove lawful justification.
Salmond, on the other hand, preferred the second alternative and for him, there is no Law of Tort,
but there is “Law of Torts.”
The liability under this branch of law arises only when the wrong is covered by anyone or the other-
nominate torts. There is no general principle of liability and if the plaintiff can place his wrong in
anyone of the pigeonholes each containing a labeled tort, he will succeed. Simply, the specific torts
are like pigeonholes and to succeed in his/her case the person must prove that the wrong
committed against him/her falls one of the pigeonholes. This theory is also known as 'Pigeon-hole'
theory. If there is no pigeonhole in which the plaintiffs’ case could fit in his case, the defendant has
not committed any tort.
Classification of Torts
I. Personal wrongs: Torts may relate to:

1) Body: i) Assault
ii) Battery
iii) False imprisonment
iv) Nervous Shock
2) Dignitary /Reputation
i) Libel
ii) Slander
iii) Malicious prosecution
II. Property wrongs: Torts may relate to:
1) Immovable property: Trespass to land
2) Movable property: i) Trespass to goods
ii) Conversion
III. Person and Property wrongs:
i) Negligence
ii) Nuisance

Chapter-2
Essentials of a Tort
In chapter two the essentials of a tort which are applicable to all torts in general is discussed. In it
two very important maxim injuria sine damno and damnum sine injuria are explicated with
bounteous case laws and illustrations.
To constitute a tort, it is essential that the following two conditions be satisfied:
1) There must be some act or omission on the part of the defendant; and
2) The act or omission should result in legal damage (injuria) i.e., violation of legal right
vested in the plaintiff.
Torts are the act of omission (failure to do something) or the act of commission (doing something
you should not) that causes harm.
 Act or Omission
In order to make a person liable for a wrong he must have done some act which he was not
expected to do, For example, A commits the act of trespass or publishes a statement defaming
another person, or wrongfully detains another person; he can be made liable for
Or, he must have omitted to do something which he was supposed which is illegally made will make
a person liable.
It means, when there is a legal duty to do some act and a person fails to perform that duty he can
be made liable for such omission.
For example, if a corporation, which maintains a public park, fails to put proper fencing to keep the
children away from a poisonous tree and a child plucks and eats the fruits of the poisonous tree and
dies, the corporation would be liable for such omission.

Exercise – 1
Directions: Select the best options provided under each questions after reading the facts
by applying the principle wherever provided. Attempt the descriptive questions by
reasoning out the answer.
1. Principle: No one is responsible for unforeseen circumstances, but liable for not taking due
cares.
Fact: Rahul, aged about 19 years, was playing cricket with his friend in housing society’s
lane where they live. While playing he made a good shot, which hit a window of a new
Maruti car and broke the window. Has Rahul to pay for? (NLU 2004)
i. Rahul is not liable because they have no other place the cricket in the society.
ii. Rahul is liable to pay because from the nature of game it is quite sure that such loss
could be there.
iii. Rahul is not liable to pay because he never intended to hit the car glass.
iv. Rahul is not liable to pay because it was by chance a good short which break the
glass that was not predictable.
2. Fact: There is a warehouse in factory. The owner suffers pilferage every night. On the
advice of the experts, a very high compound wall with 10 feet height is constructed with 4
feet bug wire over the wall on iron angles. The bugged wire is charged with electric current
every night after 10 p.m. One day, Y, a thief tried to enter into the compound and is hit by
the current and fell on the roadside, dead. Is the owner of the factory responsible? (NLU
2002)
i. The owner is not responsible because he holds no responsibility towards the

trespassers.
ii. The owner is liable because he used excess force to defend his property from
pilferages.
iii. The owner is not responsible because he put up the wire with electric current to
defend it from thieves’ further he holds no responsibility of care towards a criminal.
iv. The owner is responsible for his act of defending the property took away the life of a
person.

3. Principle: If a person stores in his premises any object which has a tendency to escape and
which, on escape, is likely to cause harm, shall be strictly liable for any such harm.
Fact: Raman has a ferocious dog which he always keeps under leash. There is notice outside
his house regarding the dog. One day when Raman’s servant was holding the dog in leash,
some children were playing cricket outside the premises. The ball came inside and hit the
dog. The dog became wild, pulled hard, escaped from the hands of servant, ran out and
attacked the children. The parent of a child, so attacked, filed a suit against Raman. Decide
the case. (NLS 1998)
i. Raman is not responsible because he had put up the warning board and also kept
the servant to control the dog.
ii. Raman is responsible because his servants failed to keep proper control over the
dog.
iii. Raman is responsible because the cautions taken by him were not sufficient for the
ferocious dog.
iv. None of the above.
4. Principle: Whoever stores a substance which would cause damage on escape shall be
strictly liable (i.e. liable even when he has exercised necessary care) for any damage caused
by the escape of that substance.
Fact: Cynamide Company was manufacturing acrylonitrile, an extremely toxic chemical. This
chemical is used in manufacturing certain pharmaceuticals, manufactured in another factory,
owned by Cynamide itself. While transporting acrylonitrile stored in a sealed container to the
factory where the pharmaceuticals were manufactured, there was unexpected leakage from
the container and the chemical spilt on the ground. The local municipal authorities
immediately rushed in and decontaminated the place. The container was sealed back within
a short period of time and subsequently it was realised that the contamination was not that
significant and it was not necessary to spend so much resources for decontamination.
The municipal authorities filed a suit against Cynamide Company for whatever cost incurred
in decontamination process. But Cynamide Company argued that it would pay only a small
sum, which could have taken care of contamination in this case. (NLS 2004)
i. Cynamide company would be liable only to the extent of contamination caused ;
ii. The municipal authorities are entitled to recover the entire cost incurred in
performance of their duty of safeguarding public interest;
iii. Cynamide is not liable for unexpected leakage.

5. Facts: You own an electric water pump for the purposes of watering your fields. You are
watering your fields at 2 A.M. Your neighbor gets very disturbed by the noise of the electric
water pump. He files a tort claim against you. Will his claim succeed?
Principle: Damage without the violation of any legal right does not give rise to a tort.
i. His will not succeed because he has sustained no injury.
ii. He will succeed because discomfort was caused at odd hours of day.
iii. He will not succeed because the noise of electric pump is not so to cause discomfort.
iv. He will not succeed because watering field does not interfere with anybody comforts.

Legal GK Part-II
Law of Contract
Chapter-1
Nature of Contract
To begin with law of contract we will study in the first chapter the definition of promise,
agreement and essentials of contract with the aid of the illustrations.
What is contract
A contract has been defined in Section 2(h) as "an agreement enforceable by law."
Now to understand it we need to know: what an agreement is? Indian Contract Act Section 2(e)
defines Agreement as “Every promise and every set of promises forming the consideration for
each other is an agreement”.
 In an agreement there is a promise from both sides. For example, A promises to deliver his
watch to B and in return B promises to pay a sum of Rs. 2,000 to A, there is said to be an
agreement between A and B.
 A promise is a result of an offer (proposal) by one person and its acceptance by the other.
For example, when A makes a proposal to sell his watch to B Rs. 2,000 and B accepts his
proposal, there results a promise between two persons.
Section 2(b) of the Act defines Promise as under: -
“When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to
be accepted. A proposal, when accepted becomes a promise. Thus, when there is proposal from one
side and the acceptance of that proposal by the other side, it results in a promise. This promise from
the two parties to one another is known as an agreement.”
On analyzing the above definition the following characteristics of an agreement become evident:
 Plurality of persons: There must be two or more persons to make an agreement because
one person cannot enter into an agreement with himself.
 Consensus-ad-idem: Both the parties to an agreement must agree about the subject
matter of the agreement in the same sense and at the same time.

As stated above, an agreement to become a contract must give rise to a legal obligation i.e., a duty
enforceable by law. If an agreement is incapable of creating a duty enforceable by law, it is not a
contract. Thus an agreement is a wider term than a contract.
"All contracts are agreements but all agreements are not contracts”, because agreements of
moral, religious or social nature e.g., a promise to lunch together at a friend's house or to take a
walk together are not contracts because they are not likely to create a duty enforceable by law for
the simple reason that the parties never intended that they should be attended by legal
consequences.
In business agreements the presumption is usually that the parties intend to create legal relations
for e.g. An agreement to buy certain specific goods at an agreed price e.g., 10 bags of wheat at Rs
500 per bag is a contract because it gives rise to a duty enforceable by law, and in case of default
on the part of either party an action for breach of contract could be enforced through a court
provided other essential elements of a valid contract as laid down in Section 10 are present, namely,
if the contract was made by free consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful
consideration and with a lawful object.
What are the essentials of a contract
According to Section 10, all agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of the
parties, competent to contract, for a lawful consideration, with a lawful object, are not expressly
declared by the Act to be void, and, where necessary, satisfy the requirements of any law as to
writing or attestation or registration. As the details of these essentials form the subject matter of
our subsequent chapters, we propose to discuss them in brief here. The essential elements of a valid
contract are as follows:
(i) Lawful Offer and Acceptance:
There must be a 'lawful offer' and a 'lawful acceptance' of the offer, thus resulting in an agreement.
The adjective 'lawful' implies that the offer and acceptance must satisfy the requirements of the
Contract Act in relation thereto.
(ii) Intention to create legal relations:
There must be an intention among the parties that the agreement should be attached by legal
consequences and create legal obligations. Agreements of a social or domestic nature do not
contemplate legal relations, and as such they do not give rise to a contract.
For e.g.:
(a) An agreement to dine at a friend's house is not an agreement intended to create legal relations
and therefore is not a contract.
(b) Agreements between husband and wife also lack the intention to create legal relationship and
thus do not result in contracts.

ILLUSTRATIONS: -
i. Raja promises his wife Neha to get her a sari if she will sing a song. Neha sang the song
but Raja did not bring the sari for her. Neha cannot bring an action in a Court to enforce
the agreement as it lacked the intention to create legal relations.
A case decided on it is:-
Case 1: Balfour v. Balfour, where the defendant was a civil servant stationed in Ceylon. He and
his wife were enjoying leave in England. When the defendant was due to return to Ceylon, his wife
could not accompany him because of her health. The defendant agreed to send her Rs. 300 a month
as maintenance expenses during the time they were thus forced to live apart. She sued for breach
of this agreement. Her action was dismissed on the ground that no legal relations had been
contemplated and therefore there was no contract
In commercial agreements an intention to create legal relations is presumed. Thus, an agreement to

buy and sell goods intends to create legal relationship, hence is a contract, provided other requisites
of a valid contract are present. But if the parties have expressly declared their resolve that the
agreement is not to create legal obligation, even a business agreement does not amount to a
contract.
(iii) Lawful consideration:
The third essential element of a valid contract is the presence of 'Consideration'. Consideration has
been defined as “the price paid by one party for the promise of the other”. An agreement is legally
enforceable only when each of the parties to it gives something and gets something. The something
given or obtained is the price for the promise and is called 'consideration'. But only those
considerations are valid which ‘lawful’.
According Section 23 “The consideration is unlawful if: -
i. Law forbids it;
ii. It is fraudulent
iii. Involves or implies injury to the person or property of another
iv. It is of such a nature that, if permitted it would defeat the provisions of any law;
v. Is immoral or is opposed to public policy.
(iv) Capacity of parties: -
The parties to an agreement must be competent to contract; otherwise it cannot be enforced by a

court of law. In order to be competent to contract according to Section 11 the parties must be:
i. Of the age of majority
ii. Of sound mind and
iii. Must not be disqualified from contracting by any law to which they are subject.

Thus, if any of the parties to the agreement suffers from minority, lunacy, idiocy, drunkenness, etc.,
the agreement is not enforceable at law, except in some special cases which we shall discuss in
subsequent chapters.
(v) Free consent:
‘Consent' means that the parties must have agreed upon the same thing in the same sense (Sec.
13). Free consent of all the parties to an agreement is another essential element of a valid contract.
There is absence of 'free consent', if the agreement is induced by any of the following factors:
a) Coercion,
b) Undue influence,
c) Fraud,
d) Mis-representation, or
e) Mistake.
If the agreement is vitiated by any of the first four factors, the contract would be voidable and
cannot be enforced by the party guilty of coercion, undue influence etc. The other party (i.e., the
aggrieved party) can either reject the contract or accept it, subject to the rules laid down in the Act.
But, if the agreement were induced by mutual mistake that is material to the agreement, it would be
void.
(vi) Lawful object:
For the formation of a valid contract it is also necessary that the parties to an agreement must
agree for a lawful object.
The object for which the agreement has been entered into must not be fraudulent or illegal or
immoral or opposed to public policy or must not imply injury to the person or property of another
(Sec. 23).
If the object is unlawful for one or the other of the reasons mentioned above the agreement is void.
For e.g., when a landlord knowingly lets a house to a prostitute to carry on prostitution, he cannot
recover the rent through a court of law.
(vii) Oral, Writing and Registration:
According to the Indian Contract Act, a contract may be oral or in writing.
But in certain special cases it lays down that the agreement, to be valid, must be in writing or/and
registered.
For example: under Section 25 of the act - It requires that an agreement to pay a time barred debt
must be in writing and an agreement to make a gift for natural love and affection must be in writing
and registered.

Similarly, certain other Acts also require writing or/and registration to make the agreement
enforceable by law, which must be observed.
ILLUSTRATIONS: -
i. An arbitration agreement must be in writing as per the Arbitration and Conciliation Act,
1996;
ii. An agreement for a sale of immovable property must be in writing and registered under
the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 before they can be legally enforced.
(viii) Certainty:
Section 29 of the Contract Act provides that "Agreements, the meaning of which is not certain or
capable of being made certain, are void."
In order to give rise to a valid contract the terms of the agreement must not be vague or uncertain.
It must be possible to ascertain the meaning of the agreement, for otherwise, it cannot be enforced.
ILLUSTRATION: -
i. Ajeet agrees to sell Bhanupriya "a hundred pieces of soap." There is nothing whatever to
show what kind of soap was intended. The agreement is void for uncertainty i.e.
whether it was bathing soap, toilet soap, cloth or utensils washing bar.
(ix) Possibility of performance:
Another essential feature of a valid contract is that it must be capable of performance.
Section 56 lays down that "An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is void". If the act is
impossible in itself, physically or legally, the agreement cannot be enforced at law.

Law of Crimes
Chapter-1
Introduction
In the first chapter which is introductory various elements of the crime like Intention,
Motive, Knowledge, Innocence, Mistake of fact & law, Mens rea are referred and the
differences between tort and crime and criminal intention and motive are marked out for the
better understanding.
The term Crime has not been defined in the Indian Penal Code. In general a crime is an unlawful act
or default, which is an offence against the public and renders the person guilty of the act or default
liable to legal punishment. While a crime is also an injury to a private person, who has remedy in a
civil action, it is as an act or default contrary to the order.
Criminal law addresses those acts that are classified as offences and have been defined in the IPC
(Indian Penal Code), 1860. The act of offences is punishable to make and ensure coexistence of the
human society. To have general information of the criminal law helps in solving typical problems
present in the law entrance examination. Many of the topics covered in the Torts have been covered
under the IPC like Defamation, Restraint, Nuisance etc, but here a question arises that what is the
fundamental difference between Torts and crime?
How can one distinguish between Tort and Crime
Both the tort and crime are related to each other with a minor difference. Differences between
Crime and Tort are: -
1) Tort is related to personal action whereas Crime is an action by the State. This means that
Crime is prosecuted by the state on behalf of the victim, and in case of Tort the person or the victim
himself prosecutes.
2) Another difference between a Tort and a Crime is their respective composition. A Tort only
requires the particular act classified as a Tort to have been committed (this more often than not, is
the breach of some duty that is imposed on a person). On the other hand, a Crime requires not only
the commission of a specified act. For a Crime to take place mental element is also considered and
plays a major role in differentiating between a Tort and Crime.
3) In case of Tort the only remedy with the plaintiff is Damages i.e. compensation whereas in
case of Crime the defendant is punished or fined.

This module deals with the questions on criminal law with a fundamental approach and thinking.
Every topic has sufficient material to understand it and it then further consists with few examples for
better understanding. The students are advised to kindly go through the subject matter very
carefully before solving the questions given at the end of the module. The pattern of the National
Law University entrance examination deals with both objective as well as subjective. A student
needs to give more emphasis on the writing skills so the reading of the subject matter will help you
to write better, and creating an impact on the examiner. The specific legal terminology should be
used while answering the questions.
What are the Mental Elements of Crime
The mental elements of crime are Intention, Motive, Mens rea, Knowledge, Innocence, Mistake of
fact, Mistake of law, are some of the mental elements that play a significant part in criminal law.
We will take up every element in detail:
(1) Intention: -
“Criminal intention” simply means “the purpose or design of doing an act forbidden
by the criminal law without just cause or excuse”.
The intention of the accused to produce a particular consequence shows his intention to do that act.
An act is intentional if it exists in idea before it exists in fact, the idea realizing itself in the fact
because of the desire by which it is accompanied. The word ‘intent’ does not mean ultimate aim and
object. Nor is it used as a synonym for ‘Motive’. Where the Legislature makes an offence dependent
on proof of intention, the Court must have proof of facts sufficient to justify it in coming to the
conclusion that the intention existed. No doubt one has usually to infer intention from Conduct, and
one matter that has to be taken into account is the probable effect of the conduct.
But that is never conclusive. As a general rule,
“Every sane man is presumed to intend the necessary or the natural and probable consequences of
his acts, and this presumption of law will prevail unless from a consideration of all the evidence the
Court entertains a reasonable doubt whether such intention existed”. This presumption, however, is
not conclusive or alone sufficient to justify a conviction and should be supplemented by other
testimony. An accused must be judged to have the intention that is indicated by his proved acts.
The burden of proving guilty intention lies upon the prosecution where the intent is expressly stated
as part of the definition of the crime.
(2) Motive: -
Motive is not to be confused with intention. If a man knows that a certain consequence will follow
from his act, it must be presumed in law that he intended that consequence to take place although
he may have had some quite different ulterior motive for performing the act. The motive for an act
is not a sufficient test to determine its criminal character.

By Motive is meant “Anything that can contribute to, give birth to, or even to
prevent, any kind of action”. Motive may serve as a clue to the intention; but although
the motive is pure, the act done under it may be criminal. Purity of motive does not
abolish an act of its criminal character.
Motive, though not a sine qua non for bringing the offence home to the accused, is relevant and
important on the question of intention.
Though the prosecution is not bound to prove motive for the crime, absence of any motive
is a factor that may be considered in determining the guilt of the accused. Thus, if there is
really no, motive and the crime is completely motiveless then that circumstance can be taken into
consideration along with the evidence of prior insanity. But if the actual evidence as to the
commission of the crime is believed, then no question of motive remains to be established. It is not
the bounden duty of the prosecution to prove motive with which a certain offence has been
committed. It is sufficient if the prosecution proves by clear and reliable evidence that certain
persons committed the offence, whatever the motives may be which induced them to commit that
offence. For, motive is a fact very often within the special knowledge of the person doing the act and
thus it becomes extremely difficult to ascertain the motive in a given case but that does not mean
that the offence was not committed.
The question of motive is not material where there is direct evidence of the acts of the accused and
the acts themselves are sufficient to disclose the intention of the actor. But in cases of
circumstantial evidence, absence of motive is a factor in favor of the accused.
An act that is unlawful cannot, in law, be excused on the ground that it was committed from a
good motive.
(3) Knowledge: -
Where knowledge of a fact is an essential ingredient of an offence it must be particularly proved.

There are certain offences in the Indian Penal Code where the accused who commits those offences
is punished irrespective of the fact whether he had knowledge or not. Where ‘a particular act is
forbidden then the question of knowledge becomes irrelevant.
(4) Innocence: -
The law presumes “Innocence until guilt is proved”. The onus of proving everything essential to
the establishment of the charge against the accused lies upon the prosecution. Every man is to be
regarded as legally innocent until the contrary be proved. Criminality is therefore never to be
presumed. If there be any reasonable doubt about the guilt of the accused, he is entitled as of right
to be acquitted.
The more heinous and improbable a crime is, the greater is the force of the evidence required to
overcome the presumption of innocence. The presumption of innocence in criminal cases signifies no

more than that if the commission of a crime is directly in issue, it must be proved beyond
reasonable doubt. The proof of guilt must depend on positive affirmation, and cannot be inferred
from mere absence of explanation. The prosecution cannot be permitted to take advantage of the
weakness of the defence case. Suspicion however strong is not proof. In other words, the
persuasion of guilt ought to amount to a moral certainty.
Where facts are as consistent with the prisoner’s innocence as well as with the guilt, innocence must
be presumed; and criminal intent or knowledge is not necessarily imputable to every man who acts
contrary to the provisions of the law.
Culpable possession, knowledge, or motive, may overthrow the presumption of innocence and raise
in its place a presumption of guilt.
(5) Mistake of fact: -
Mistake, means “an erroneous mental condition, conception or conviction induced by ignorance,
misapprehension, or misunderstanding of the truth, and resulting in some act or omission done or
suffered erroneously by one or both of the parties to a transaction, but without its erroneous
character being intended or known at the time”.
It may concern either the law or the facts involved.
A Mistake of fact consists in “An unconsciousness, ignorance, or forgetfulness of a fact, past or

present, material to the transaction, or in the belief of the present existence of a thing material to
the transaction, which does not exist, or in the past existence of a thing which has not existed”.
Under the Indian Penal Code the mistake must be one of fact and not of law. Where, through a
mistake, a man, intending to do a lawful act; does that which is unlawful, the deed and the will act
separately; there is not that conjunction between them, which is necessary to form a criminal act.
But where an act is clearly a wrongful in itself, and a person, under a mistaken impression as to the
facts that render it criminal, commits that act, he will be guilty of a criminal offence. For e.g., a
burglar cannot escape punishment by saying that he entered a wrong house through mistake, nor
can a murderer be heard to say that the deceased was not his intended victim. In either case the
Mistake of fact is no excuse.
(6) Mistake of law: -
A Mistake of law happens when “A party having full knowledge of the facts comes to an
erroneous conclusion as to their legal effect”. Mistake of law ordinarily means ‘mistake as to
the existence or otherwise of any law on a relevant subject as veil as mistake as to what
the law is’.

Mistake in point of law in criminal cases is “No defence”. Ignorance of the law of the State
does not exclude any person of the age of discretion from the penalty for the breach of it, because
every person of the age of discretion is bound to know the law, and is presumed so to do.
If any individual should break the statute law of the country through ignorance or carelessness, he
must abide by the consequences of his error; it is not open to him to claim in a Court that he was
ignorant of the criminal law of the land, and no Court is at liberty to entertain such a plea.
The maxim Ignorantia juris non excusat, (ignorance of law excuses no one), in its application to
criminal offences, admits of no exception, not even in the case of a foreigner who cannot reasonably
be supposed in fact to know the law of the land.
Although a person commits an act that is made an offence for the first time by a statute so recently
passed as to render it impossible that any notice of the passing of the statute could have reached
the place where the offence has been committed, yet his ignorance of the statute will not save the
accused from punishment.
(7) Mens rea: -
Mens rea means “Guilty mind”. It is defined as “the mental element necessary to
constitute criminal liability”.
In making a person criminally liable an inquiry into his mental attitude is made. Criminal intention,
Malice, Negligence, and rashness, etc. all are different kinds of mens rea.
Historically, mens rea had its origin in the idea of blameworthiness of the wrongdoer for the
wrongful act and thus it was an element of crime. In modern times, though it continues to be
necessary condition for criminal liability, standards with respect to its enquiry have challenged. In
different legal systems different values have been attached to this mens rea.

Legal GK Part-III
Chapter 1: Structure of government in India

In general Governance has been used to describe the "proper functioning of
institutions and their acceptance by the public" (legitimacy). And it has been used to
invoke the efficacy of government and the achievement of consensus by democratic
means (participation). Also it is said to be that it is the use of institutions, structures of
authority and even collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate or control activity in
society or the economy.
Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions
are implemented (or not implemented). Hereby, public institutions conduct public
affairs, manage public resources, and guarantee the realization of human rights. Good
governance accomplishes this in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and
with due regard for the rule of law.
Structure of government (central) in India

The union government, as India's central government is known, is divided into three
distinct but interrelated branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. As in the British
parliamentary model, the leadership of the executive is drawn from and responsible to the
legislative body. Although Article 50 stipulates the separation of the judiciary from the
executive, the executive controls judicial appointments and many of the conditions of
work. In addition, one of the more dramatic institutional battles in the Indian polity has
been the struggle between elements wanting to assert legislative power to amend the
constitution, and those favoring the judiciary's efforts to preserve the constitution's
basic structure.

Since India has adopted parliamentary democracy, we need to understand how does it
work? Parliamentary democracy functions on three wings namely, legislature,
judiciary, and executives with the bureaucracy constituting the fourth wing.
Structure of government (central) in India
(1) EXECUTIVE President Council of Ministers

(Aid and Advice the President)
Subordinate Officers
(2) PARLIAMENT President

(Legislature)
Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha
Presided over by Speaker Presided by Vice President

Ex-Officio Chairman
Council of Ministers
(3) JUDICIARY
Supreme Court at New Delhi
^
High Courts (21)

1) EXECUTIVES
There is a presence of two executives - the nominal executive and the real executive. The
nominal executive is the President of India. He enjoys all the constitutional powers,
but exercises them only on the advice of the real executive. The real executive that is
the Prime Minister of India and the Cabinet or council of ministers, enjoy all the
real powers and make all the important policy decisions.
All the members of the Council of Ministers as well as the Prime Minister have to be
members of either house of the Parliament. If they are not, they must get elected within a
period of six months from the time they assume their respective office. The Executive, the
Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha, both
individually as well as collectively.
2) PARLIAMENT
In India, the legislature, namely, the Parliament consists of the President, the Lok
Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha. The function of the Parliament is to provide a cabinet,
make laws and to manage and provide funds for various development activities.
Though the president is a part of the legislature, he does not sit in Parliament except for
the purpose of delivering his opening address. The composition of the Lok Sabha and the
Rajya Sabha is as under:
1. House of the People (Lok Sabha) 2. Council of the States (Rajya Sabha)
 Presided over by a Speaker he  Presided over by a chairman

certifies a bill as a Money Bill (Vice President Acts as ex officio
(Article 110). He also presides chairman). Rs cannot be
over the joint Sessions. dissolved.
 Strength: 552 members of which  Strength: not more than 250

– members of which –
(a) Not more than 530 are (a) Not more than 238 States and
representatives from the States. Union Territories
(b) Not more than 20 representatives representatives
of Union Territories. (b) 12 nominated by the president.
(c) Not more than 2 nominated Anglo
Indians.  Term: 6 years. It is not subject
to dissolution. One – third of its
 Term: Normally for 5 years, but members retire every second
can be dissolved earlier also and years.
can be extended during
Emergency.  Election: By the elected
Members of the State
 Election: Directly elected by the Legislatures.

people, through universal adult

franchise (the voting age has  Qualification: For membership
been reduced from 21 to 18 years –
by the 61st Amendment to the (a) He / She must be a citizen of
Constitution in 1989.) India.
(b) He / She must be not less than
 Qualification: For membership – 30 years of age.
(a) He / She must be a citizen of
India.  Additional qualifications:
(b) He / She must be not less than 25 (Same as Lok Sabha)
years of age.
 Additional qualifications:
(c) He / She should not hold any
office of profit under the
government.
(d) He / She should not be of
unsound mind.
(e) He / She should not be declared
insolvent.
(f) He / She should not be
disqualified under any law.
3) JUDICIARY
India has opted for a unified and single judiciary. The Judiciary exists to see that the
laws made by the Legislature are intra-vires the Constitution and they are properly
administered by the Executive and the authority is not exceeded or abused. It is only
through the Judiciary that the powers of the different organs of the State are kept under
control. It is the Judiciary which maintains the supremacy of the Constitution in a
federation.
At the apex of the Indian Judiciary stands the Supreme Court. It also acts as the protector
of the fundamental rights of individuals guaranteed to them by the Constitution. It is the
highest court of appeal in all fields of law – constitutional, civil and criminal.

Chapter 2 : Indian Legal System
The Indian Legal System is one of the oldest in the history of the world. It has changed
and evolved over the centuries to imbibe inferences from the legal systems around the
world.
Concepts of Law and Justice

Law is a body of rules which regulates human conduct in a society and which is
enforced by the State or authority in the courts of law. Justice is the moral idea of being
right, just and reasonable. Law aims to ensure justice in the society.
Law in Ancient India

Law has its equivalent in Hindu jurisprudence the word ‘Dharma’.
Yajnavalkya, an ancient scholar, stated ‘Shruti and Smritis’ to be the sources of

law.
Shruti means the Vedas which were mainly the philosophy of Hindu religion.
The Smritis or Dharmasutras were the basic law of Indian legal system.
‘Manusmriti’ and ‘Naradsmriti’ were important piece of ancient Indian legal system.
Gautam, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Narad were ancient law-givers.
Law in Medieval India

In Medieval India, Hindu Law had two main forms—Mitakshra and Dayabhaga.
Mitakshra which prevails in most of India was given by Vijaneshwara.
Dayabhaga prevailing in Bengal and North-East states were given by Jimutvahana.
Historical and Social Background

The legal scenario prior to the advent of British colonization was a mix of Hindu and
Muslim laws. The Mughal period saw the Muslim law, Shariyat, co-existing with the
Hindu law.
The arrival and subsequent colonization by the British in India gave India a new
perspective to law. This has prevailed since then and has been amended a number of
times to lend itself to the current face of Indian judicial system.

Classification of Law
Law can be classified into different categories on different bases. On the basis of
territorial jurisdiction, law may be National or Municipal Law and International Law. Again
it may be divided into Civil Law and Criminal Law or Public Law and Private Law. We
should learn the meaning of each of them.
I. National or Municipal Law and International Law

All laws applying within the national boundaries are municipal laws. For example:
Indian constitution or the statutes passed by Parliament and State Legislatures. Laws
emanating from the Parliament or the Central Government are sometimes called
Central Laws and those being passed from state legislature are called State Laws.
International Law is a body of rules which regulates the relationship between different
countries. These are generally in the form of treaties and International Customs.
International Law is further divided into two parts:
(a) Public International Law: Also called ‘Law of Peace’, it regulates the relationship
of different countries as members of the International Community.
(b) Private International Law: Also called ‘Conflict of Laws’, it regulates the
relationship of private individuals or juristic persons like companies of two or
more different countries. For example: the marriage of an American with an
Indian or dispute between two companies of different countries.
II. Criminal Law and Civil Law
Criminal Law concerns with public wrongs or offences against the state or society at
large. State prosecutes for criminal offences which are specific and are defined in
Indian Penal Code, 1860 and some other penal laws. Criminal Procedure Code or
Cr.P.C., 1973 deals with the procedure to be adopted for enforcing Criminal Law.
Civil Law relates to restoration of rights of private individuals or juristic persons like,
companies. For example, Law of Contract regulates the relationship between two or
more parties making the agreement.
III. Public Law and Private Law
Public Law is that part of law which deals with relations between the state and ordinary
individuals in circumstances where state has special rights or powers. Criminal Law is a
public law. Constitutional Law and Administrative Law are also public laws.

Private Law regulates relations among subjects. Hindu law and Mohammedan law
regulate relations among Hindus and Muslims, hence they are private laws.
IV. Common Law and Civil Law Systems
Laws laid down by courts in judicial decisions also called precedents constitute the
Common Law. England and those countries which have modeled their legal system on
the basis of English Law are members of Common Law System. India is also a part of
Common Law fold.
Civil law system does not recognise precedent or decisions of the courts as laws.
Countries like Germany and France are Civil Law Countries. The do not recognise
precedents or Judge Made Laws.
V. Substantive Law and Procedural Laws
Law which provides specific provisions as to the rights, duties or obligations of an

individual is normally substantive laws. Indian Penal Code provides specific crimes and
their punishments and hence substantive laws.
Procedural laws are those laws which regulate the functioning of the court or the
judicial system to ensure compliance of the substantive laws. For example, Code of
Civil Procedure, 1908 regulates the functioning of Civil Courts and Cr. P.C. regulates
the affairs of a criminal court.
Personal Law
The people of India are of different religions and faiths. They are governed by different
sets of personal laws in respect of matters relating to family affairs, i.e., marriage,
divorce, succession, etc.
Marriage
Law relating to marriage and/or divorce has been codified in different enactments
applicable to people of different religions.
The Special Marriage Act, 1954 extends to the whole of India except the State of
Jammu and Kashmir. Persons can specifically register marriage under this Act even
though they are of different religious faiths. The Act also provides that the marriage
celebrated under any other from can also be registered under the Special Marriage Act, if
it satisfies the requirements of the Act.

An attempt has been made to codify customary law which is prevalent among Hindus
by enacting the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 applies to
Hindus and also to Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and also those who are not Muslims, Christians,
Paris or Jews by religion.
Provisions in regard to divorce are contained under the provisions of both Marriage Act
and the Special Marriage Act. Common ground on which divorce can be sought by a
husband or a wife under these Acts fall under these broad heads: adultery, desertion,
cruelty, unsoundness of mind, venereal disease, leprosy, mutual consent and being not
heard of as alive for seven years.
As regards Muslims, marriages are governed by the Mohammedan Law prevalent in

the country. As regards divorce, i.e., Talaaq, a Muslim wife has a much restricted right to
dissolve her marriage.
However, by the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939, a Muslim wife has been
given the right to seek dissolution of her marriage on certain grounds including non-
maintenance and cruelty.
Muslim Law
Muslim Law is contained in four sources namely: 1. The Quran 2. Hadis 3. Ijmaa and
4. Qiyas.
Muslims in India are mainly governed by the ‘Hanafi’ school.
A Muslim marriage is defined to be a civil contract with the object of procreation and
legalizing of children.
Dower (Mahr) is a peculiar concept of Muslim marriage. This is a sum of money or

other property promised by husband to be paid or delivered to the wife as a consideration
for the marriage.
A Muslim marriage can be dissolved by the means of ‘talak’ which can be effected
orally or by written talaknama.
The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 provides Muslim woman certain
ground to file a suit for divorce.
Source of Indian Law
The main sources of law in India are

The Constitution,

Statutes (legislation),
Case law or precedent and
Customary law
Statutes are enacted by Parliament, State legislatures and Union Territory
legislatures. Besides, there is a vast body of laws known as subordinate legislation in the
form of rules, regulations as well as bye-laws made by Central/State governments and
local authorities like municipal corporations, municipalities, gram panchayats and other
local bodies. This subordinate legislation is made under the authority conferred or
delegated either by Parliament or State or Union Territory legislatures concerned.
Therefore they are called delegated legislation also. Judicial decisions of superior courts
like Supreme Court are binding on all courts within the territory of India. Local customs
and conventions which are not against statute, morality, etc., are also recognized and
taken into account by courts while administering justice in certain spheres.
 Legislation as a source of law
Legislation is enacted mainly by two bodies in India:

(A) Parliament; and
(B) State Legislatures.
Their area of operation is as follows –

(a) Parliament makes laws for the whole country on matters assigned to it by the
constitution. These are listed in the Union legislative list, contained in the Seventh
Schedule of the Constitution.
(b) State Legislatures can make laws for a State on matters assigned to them by the
Constitution. These are listed in the State Legislative list, contained in the Seventh
Schedule of the Constitution.
(c) On certain matters, Parliament and State legislatures can make laws. These are
listed in the Concurrent list in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution. Of course,
Parliamentary legislation generally overrides State Laws.
(d) In exceptional circumstances, Parliament can make laws for matters in the State
list.
Besides, there is a vast body of laws known as subordinate legislation in the form of
rules, regulations as well as bye-laws made by Central / State Governments and local
authorities like municipal corporations, municipalities, gram panchayats and other local
bodies.

 Delegated legislation
“Delegated legislation” refers to rules and orders made by the executive through
power “delegated” to it by an Act. In modern times almost every Act empowers an
appropriate Government to make rules or orders to “carry out the purposes” of the Act.
The assumption is that the legislature cannot foresee all situations, or may not have time
to provide for all details, or may not possess the expertise needed to set out technical
matters. Hence, out or necessity or for reasons of convenience, the rules on such details is
left to the executive. This is called “delegated legislation” or subordinate legislation.
Principal examples of delegated legislation or subordinate legislation are the

following rules and orders, made under an Act: -
(a) Rules (usually made by the Central or State Government);
(b) Regulations (usually made by a Board or Corporation);
(c) Orders and notifications (usually issued by the Government);
(d) Schemes;
(e) Bye-laws (usually made by local authorities);
(f) Statutes, Ordinances and Regulations, made by a University under the Act creating
that University;
(g) Guidelines.
 Case law as a source of law
Case law or precedent is a source of law in India. In this respect, India belongs to
the common law fold. When a High Court or the Supreme Court decides a case, its
judgment has two aspects. First, the judgment binds the parties to the proceeding.
Second, the rule on a particular legal point of a High Court or Supreme Court judgment
becomes binding on all lower courts, for the future litigation on the matter in a lower
court. Of course, the High Court can (by a larger Bench) overrule its earlier view, and the
Supreme Court can overrule the view taken by the High Court on a particular point.
However, until that happens, the rule, as laid down, remains binding. This is called the
doctrine of “precedent”.
 Custom as a source of law
“Customs” are habitually observed course of conduct since times immemorial so as
to get the force of law in the society:

(i) In family law i.e., in Hindu and Muslim Personal Laws custom is recognized, in most
cases, as being able to supplement or modify the general rules of law otherwise
applicable.
(ii) In the law relating to certain commercial transactions (e.g., negotiable

instruments), business usage can supplement general statutory provisions, or as
annexing certain incidents to contracts or as explaining the meaning of certain
business terms.
(iii)Usage has also a limited recognition in the law of leases.
Who creates law for us?

Parliament is competent to make laws on matters enumerated in the Union List.
State legislatures are competent to make laws on matters enumerated in the State List.
Parliament alone has power to make laws on matters not included in the State or
Concurrent List. On matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, laws can be made by both
Parliament and legislatures. But in the event of repugnancy or conflict law made by
Parliament shall prevail and law made by State legislature, to the extent of repugnancy,
be void.
Acts and Ordinances
An Act of Parliament is an Act passed by both the Houses of Parliament and assented to
by the President.
Ordinances can be promulgated by the President (for the Union) and by the Governor (for
the State) when circumstances make immediate action necessary and Parliament (or the
State Legislature) is not in session.
Ordinances are temporary laws. These can be made on any matter which is within the
competence of Parliament (or State Legislature). However, an Act must be passed to
replace the ordinance within six weeks of the reassembly of Parliament or State
legislature; otherwise the validity of the Ordinance expires.
Legal Profession: People who practice law
In India, the law relating to legal profession is governed by The Advocates Act,
1961 and the rules framed there under by the Bar Council of India. It is a self-contained
code of law relating to legal practitioners and provides for the constitution of State Bar
Councils and Bar Council of India.

A person enrolled as an advocate under the Advocates Act, 1961, is entitled to practice
law throughout the country. An advocate on the roll of a State Bar Council may apply for
transfer to the roll of any other State Bar Council in the prescribed manner. No person can
be enrolled as an advocate on the rolls of more than one State Bar Council.
There are two classes of advocates, namely, senior advocates and advocates. An advocate
with his consent, may be designated as a senior advocate, if the Supreme Court or a High
Court is of the opinion that by virtue of his ability, standing at the Bar or special
knowledge or experience in law, he deserves such distinction.

GK Part-I
Concept 1: Constitutional Development
 Idea of Constituent Assembly for making the constitution was first mooted by M.N. Roy in 1934.
 First time Indian National Congress officially demanded the formation of constituent assembly in
1935.
 First time demand accepted, in principle, for a constituent assembly in August offer of 1940.
 The failed Cripps Proposals envisaged a constituent assembly after World War- II.
 Finally, under the provisions of Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) a constituent assembly was formed
for framing the Indian Constitution.
 Out of total no. of Members (389) – 296 were indirectly elected from British India and 93 were
nominated by Princely States. Thus Constituent Assembly had nominated as well as elected
members.
 The elected members from British India were to be indirectly elected by members of the provincial
assemblies.
 The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was held on Dec 9, 1946.
 The Muslim league boycotted the constituent Assembly. Due to the boycott of Muslim league, it
was attended by only 211 elected members of the congress.
 Constituent Assembly was not a sovereign body as it was brought about by British Government and
could be abolished by it.
 Dr. Sachinand Sinha, the oldest member, was elected as the temporary President of assembly.
 Later, Dr. Rajendra Prased and H.C. Mukherjee were elected as President and Vice– President
of the assembly respectively.
 Sir B. N. Rau was appointed as the constitutional advisor to the assembly.
 The historic ‘objective resolution’ was moved by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru which was later accepted
in its modified form as the preamble of the constitution.
 In addition to the making of the constitution and enacting of ordinary laws, the constituent assembly
also performed followed functions:
 It ratified India’s membership of the Commonwealth in May 1949
 It adopted the national flag on 22 July 1947

 It adopted the national anthem and national song on January 24, 1950
 It elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India on January 24, 1950
 On the 26th November, 1949 constitution was declared as passed after the signature of the President
of the assembly. Thus on 26th November 1949 the constitution of India was adopted.
 The provisions relating to citizenship, elections, provisional Parliament, and temporary

provisions, were given effect from 26th November 1949.
 The rest of the constitution came in to force on the 26th January, and date is referred to in the
constitution as the Date of Its commencement. (To commemorate the independence day celebrated
since 1930 after the passage of Purna Swaraj resolution)
 On January 24, 1950 the constituent assembly held its has't session. However it continued as the
provisional Parliament of India from 26 January, 1950 till the formation in of new Parliament after
the first general elections in 1951-52.
IMPORTANT COMMITTEES
COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN
Drafting committee Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Committee for states Sardar Patel
Union constitution committee Pt. Nehru
Provincial constitution committee Sardar Patel
Special committee to examine the draft constitution Sir Alladi Krishnaswamy
Union powers committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Committee on fundamental rights and minorities Sardar Patel
 The most important of the committees was the drafting committee which was entrusted with the
task of making the new constitution. It consisted of seven members
1. Dr. Ambedkar (chairman)
2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyengar
3. Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyyar
4. Dr. K.N. Munshi
5. Syed Saadullah
6. N. Madhav Rau (the replaced B.L. Mitter who resigned due to ill – health)
7. T.T. Krishnamachari (he replaced D.P. Khaitan who died in 1948)
 The first ‘Draft constitution of India’ was published in Feb. 1948. It was prepared by Sir B. N.
Rau, constitutional advisor to the constituent assembly.
 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the drafting committee is recognized as the father of the
Indian constitution.

EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION

CONSTITUTIONAL
IMPORTANT PROVISIONS
LANDMARK
Regulating Act of 1773  First step by British Government to regulate affairs of East
India Company.
 It established a definite system of government of India.
 Designated Governor of Bengal as Governor General of
Bengal. 1st one was Warren Hastings
 Established Supreme Court at Calcutta
Pitts India Act, 1784  Indian affairs came under direct control of British Government
 Distinguished between commercial and political functions of the
company.
 Board of Control was established to manage the political affairs
of the company.
 Introduced dual government in India.
Charter Act of 1833  GG of Bengal became Governor – General of India
 Final step towards centralization in British India
 Created Government of India, for first time having authority
over British India
 Ended activities of East India Co. as commercial body
Charter Act of 1853  Separated Legislative & Executive functions of Governor
General’s Council
 Created separate Legislative Councils for India.
 Open competition for civil services of the company
Government of India,  Rule of company was replaced by rule of crown
1858  Secretary of state for India was appointed to exercise the power
of the crown. He was member of British Cabinet, responsible to
it & was assisted by Council of India having 15 members.
 Governor General became the agent of the crown.
Indian Councils Act of  Seeds of Parliamentary system sown in India
1861  Introduced Indians as non – official members in Legislature
 Initiated process of decentralization
 Policy of legislative devolutions introduced which culminated
into grant of almost complete internal autonomy of Provinces in
1937

Indian Councils Act of  Introduced indirect elections. GG still had power to nominate
1892 members
 Enlarged functions of Legislative councils. They had power to
discuss budget and address questions to the executive, but they
wee not given the power of voting.
Indian Councils Act,  Changed name of central legislative Council to Imperial
1909 (Morley–Minto legislative Council. Officials had majority.
Reforms)  Attempted for the first time the introduction of representative and
popular element in the government
 Provincial legislative Councils had non – official majority
 Introduced communal representation for Muslims. Introduced
separate electorate system. Legalized communalism (Lord
Minto called as father of communal electorate)
Government of India  Separated central subjects from provincial
Act, 1919 (Montagu –  Provincial subjects were of 2 types: 1. Transferred 2. Reserved
Chelmsford Reforms)  Transferred subjects administered by Governor with aid of
Montagu (Secretary of ministers responsible to Legislature
State) Chemsford  Reseved subject administered by Governor & his executive
(Governor-General of Concil without any responsibility to Legislature
India)  Dyarchy (dual system of government) was introduced
 Introduced Bicameral Legislature (upper & lower houses) &
direct elections for the first time
 Majority of members of both houses chosen by direst elections
 3 of the 6 members of Governor-General’s Council wee to be
Indin
 Demand for responsible government remains unfulfilled as
Central government remains responsible to British Parliament.
 Dyarchy failed in Provinces because of dominance of Governor
and Executive Council over policy and ministers
Government of India  Provided for establishment of All – India Federation consisted
Act, 1935 of Provinces & Princely States as units
 3 lists of subjects – Federal, Provincial & Concurrent –
introduced
 Abolished Dyarchy in provinces & introduced provincial
autonomy

 Introduced Dyarchy at Centre & Bicameralism in Provinces

 Introduced Responsible governments in Provinces
 Established a federal court having original, appellate & advisory
jurisdiction
Indian Independence  Declared India as independent & sovereign state
Act, 1947  Created 2 independent dominions, GG of each appointed by king
 Established responsible government at both Center & Provinces
 Designated GG of India & Provincial Governors as constitutional
heads (nominal heads)
SOME LANDMARKS IN CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1773 centralization started
1784 direct control of British government
1833 centralization completed, GG of India
1853 executive separated from Legislature, open competition

introduced
1858 Secretary of State
1861 representative institutions, decentralization
1892 indirect election principle, budget discussion
1909 separate electorate
1919 division of subjects in 2 lists, dyarchy in provinces,

bicameralism at centre, direct elections
1935 division of subjects in 3 lists, dyarchy at centre, bicameralism in

provinces, provincial autonomy
Indian constitution is the longest known constitution of the world. It is the highest law of the land.
Originally it contained 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. After amendments till date, there are more than 447
Articles and 12 Schedules. Indian constitution has borrowed various provisions from different
constitutions:-
SOURCES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

COUNTRY CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS BORROWED
U.K. Parliamentary System
(England) Bicameral Parliament
Lower House More Powerful
Powers of Speaker in Lok Sabha

Prime Minister
Council of Ministers
Council of Ministers responsible to Lower House
Single Citizenship
USA Written Constitution
Fundamental Rights
Supreme Court
Head of State (President)
Judicial Review
Australia Concurrent List
Centre-State Relationship
Erstwhile Fundamental Duties
USSR 5-Year Plan (Non-Constitutional Feature)
Germany Emergency Provisions
Canada Federal System
Residuary Powers
South Africa Procedure of Constitutional Amendment.
Ireland Concept of Directive Principles of State Policy. Originally borrowed from
Spain
 Indian constitution includes administrative provisions in detail. These are the fundamental
principles of governance, followed and reproduced by the constitution makers from Government
of India Act 1935. Such provisions were borrowed from this Act because people were familiar
with the existing system.
 Constitution of India also includes the constitution of constituents of Indian Federation i.e. States.
State of J&K is an exception as it has its own constitution and Article 370 of constitution of India
provides it a special status.
 In order of address the regional problems of certain states, Articles 371 to 371-I have been
introduced after inauguration of the constitution. These articles deal with Assam, Manipur, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sikkim, Mizoram etc.
 Indian constitution provides for procedure and power for the amendment of the constitution to
the Legislature under Article 368. Therefore legislation is supplementary to the constitution.
 Indian Constitution is rigid as well as flexible and written constitution, which implies Rigidity with
Parliamentary sovereignty (implies flexibility)
 Though constitutional makers tried to make Indian constitution an exhaustive document but taking
into consideration the organic law, room has been left for Conventions. Therefore some powers of
the speaker of Lok Sabha have been left to conventions followed in England.
 Preamble is not an enforceable part of constitution. It serves following purposes:
 Indicates the source from which constitution derives its authority

 States some of objects which constitution seeks to establish
 Declares great rights and freedoms
 3 Words ‘Secularism, socialism and Integrity” were added to the Preamble by 42nd Amendment
Act.
INDIA: A UNITARY BASED FEDERAL SYSTEM
 India is a distinct federation. Following characteristics make it a federation:-

o Dual Polity
o Division of Powers
o Bicameralism
o Supremacy of the Constitution
o Written constitution
o Rigid Constitution (complicated and difficult procedure for amendment)
o Authority of Courts (legal supremacy of the constitution)
 However there are certain features which make it unitary biased. These are:-
o Appointment of Governors by the centre
o Parliament’s power to legislate in the national interest
o Parliament’s power to form new States, change names of the States and alter the boundaries
of existing States
o Emergency Provisions
o Single Constitution, All India Services, CAG
o Constitution is more flexible than rigid as it can be amended by Parliament alone
o Single citizenship, integrated judiciary, centralized election machinery,

GK Part-II
Concept 1: Concept of National Income
 National income (NI) is calculated by CSO (Central Statistical Organisation). Base Year is
taken as 1999-2000 (From 2005-06). (Earlier 1993-94)
 GDPMP= Sum total of the market value of all final goods and services produced within the
domestic territory of a country during an accounting year (counted without duplication)
 GNPMP = GDPMP + Net factor income earned from abroad (In India, GDP>GNP)
 Depreciation value of consumption of fixed capital = GDP-NDP
(NDPMP= GDP – Depreciation)
 NNPMP= GNP – Depreciation (NNP = NDP + Net factor income from abroad).
 GDPFC= GDPMP – Net direct Taxes
(Net direct taxes = Indirect taxes paid - Subsidies received).
 Therefore GDPFC = GDPMP – Indirect taxes + Subsidies
 When NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known as “National Income”.
NI = NNPFC. Therefore NNPFC = NNPMP – Indirect taxes + Subsides
 NI at current Prices: Goods and services are valued at prices prevailing in the current year for
which NI is calculated.
 NI at constant Prices: If goods and services are valued at constant prices i.e. with reference to
some base year in past. It eliminates the effect of rising prices. Therefore known as real NI.
Per capita income = Total income

Total population of the country

 Purchasing power party: PPP Index is constructed by taking into account what a unit of currency
can purchase in its own country as compared to what a dollar can purchase in the US of a certain
representative internationally traded basket of goods or services. Introduced by International
Comparison Program of U.N.
GNPMP = GDPMP + Net Factor income from abroad
NDPMP – GDPMP – Depreciation
NNPMP = GNPMP – Depreciation
GDPFC = GDPMP – Indirect taxes + subsidies
= GDPMP – Net Indirect Taxes
NI = NNPFC NNDFGF
Note: Gross Domestic product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), Net National Product (NNP), Net
domestic product (NDP), Market Prices – MP, Factor cost – FC

Concept 2: Planning In India
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
 1934: ‘Planned Economy for India’ book written by M. Vishveshvarya.
 1938: ‘National Planning committee set up under JL Nehru.
 1944: Bombay Plan by 8 industrialists of Bombay.
 1945: People’s Plan by M.N. Roy.
 1950: Sarvodaya Plan by J.P. Narayan.
PLANNING COMMISSION: (PC)
 15 March 1950 constituted by Government of India.
 Prime minister is ex-officio chairman of the P. C.
 Non – constitutional and non – statuary body.
 Formulates five year plan
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTAL COUNCIL - NDC
 Non-statuary body
 Constituted on 6 Aug 1952
 Prime minister is the chairman.
 Gives representation to states and UT’s
 Evaluates the implementation of planning from time to time.
 Final approval to a five year plan is given by the Parliament.
TYPES OF PLANNING
 Planning By Direction: Characteristic of Socialist economies. In this planning, the state has
complete control over the means of production.

 Planning By Inducement: Democratic planning. Private sector is given some inducements to

achieve the given targets. Central planning authority followed this type of plan in India from 1951
to 1990.
 Perspective Planning: Long term planning, whereby long range targets are set in advance for a
period of 15, 20 or 25 years. Started in India 6th plan onwards.
 Rolling Plan: Concept given by Gunnar Mydral. Combination of annual, five year and
perspective plan. Every year targets and achievements are assessed and necessary changes are made.
Introduced in India by HM Patel in 1978.
 PL – 480:- Public law 480 of the USA, it was meant for aiding poor countries through food
assistance. India got assistance under this Law.
 Indicative planning – Induced by Monnet in France (1946). Private sector is neither rigidly
enrolled nor directed to fulfill the targets and priorities of the plan. Started in India with 8th plan.
RAO – MANMOHAN MODEL OF PLANNING (1991)
 Based on indicative planning.
 Ushered in an era of liberalization, privatization and globalization in India.
 Industry was 1st sector in which liberalization started.
 Two components of (R – M) Model.
8. Stabilization program, short term course correction suggested by IMF to stabilize macro
economic indicator like: balance of payments, inflation and fiscal deficit.
9. Structural Adjustment Program conditioned by World Bank aimed at deregulating

economy by reducing government intervention in various sectors.
 Both 1 and 2 are known as Economic Reform Program based on “WASHINGTON

CONSENSUS”
ICOR: INCREMENTAL CAPITAL OUTPUT RATIO
 It establishes relationship between increase in investment and the resultant increase in output.
 Thus it shows how much increase in output can be obtained by increasing investment per unit i.e.
ICOR is inversely proportional to productivity
ICOR = Investment / Growth rate
e.g. 10th plan: Investment target 28.41
Growth rate 7.93
ICOR = 28.41/7.93 = 4.53
SECTOR WISE CONTRIBUTION TO GDP (CHANGING TRENDS)

SECTOR 1951-52 1990-91 2007-08
Agriculture 59.2% 34.9 17.3%
Industry 13.3% 24.5 26.7%
Services 27.5% 40.6 56%
A LOOK AT THE PLANS IN INDIA

PLAN PERIOD MODEL OBJECTIVES GROWTH RATE (%) SPECIAL
TARGET ACTUAL FEATURES
I 1951-56 Harrod Domar Development of 2.1 3.6 Community
agriculture development
programme
II 1956-61 Mahalanobis Rapid industrializati 4.5 4.6
on
III 1961-66 John Sandy & Self reliance & self 5.6 2.7
Chakravarty sustained economy
1966-69 Plan Holiday - Green
Revolution
IV 1969-74 Allen Manne & Self reliance & 5.7 3.3 1971 war,
Ashok Rudra growth stability shooting oil
prices
V 1974-79 Planning Stress was laid on 4.4 4.8 20-point
commission employment, programme
poverty removal,
and justice
1979-80 Plan Holiday -
VI 1981-85 Planning Stress on village 5.2 5.5 Economy started
Commission and cottage opening up
industries and
natural mobilization
of resources to
increase
employment
VII 1985-90 Planning Liberalization, 5 6
Commission modernization
1990-92 Plan Holiday - 1991 policy
VIII 1992-97 John Miller – Human Resource 5.6 6.7
liberalized Development
economy
IX 1997-2002 Planning Growth with social 6.5 5.4 Pokhran, Kargil
Commission equity war, South-East
Asia crisis
X 2002-07 Planning Quality of life, 8
Commission reduce imbalances,
employment
generation
IX 2007-12 Planning Towards faster and Average 9% -
Commission more inclusive and a
growth growth of
10%during
2011-2012

MID-TERM APPRISAL OF THE 10TH PLAN
 Conducted by the National Planning Commission.
 National Development council (NDC) considers the mid-term appraisal for mid – term course
correction.
 Appraisal:-
1. The GDP growth rate target set for the tenth plan was 8.1%. However during the first three
years of the plan the average GDP growth had been only 6.5%
2. Growth rate:
4% in 2002-03
8.5% in 2003-04
6.9% in 2004-05
3. Agriculture has virtually stagnated during the last decade, growth at an average rate of
1.9% (target 4%) The problems of small and marginal farmers as well as of the landless
labour are yet to be addressed effectively.
4. Unemployment have grown from 8.87% (2001-02) to 9.11% in (2004-05)
5. The enormous increase in global oil prices may affect our export target of 16%.
6. Infrastructure inadequacies in rural and urban India continue as serious constrains.
ELEVENTH PLAN (2007-2012)
‘Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth’ is the central theme of the plan. The eleventh plan has the
following targets:
INCOME & POVERTY
 Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th plan in order to
double per capita income by 2016-17
 Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of benefits
 Reduce educated unemployment to <5%. Create 70 mn new work opportunities
 Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
 Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.
EDUCATION
 Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-
12
 Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or more to 85%

 Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage points
HEALTH, WOMEN AND CHILDREN
 Reduce infant morality rate to 28 & maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births. Reduce
Total Fertility Rate to 2.1
 Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip – backs
 Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level
 Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17
 Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all government schemes are
women and girl children
 Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work
INFRASTRUCTURE
 Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and round – the – clock
power.
 Ensure all – weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above (500- in
hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant habitation by 2015
 Connect very village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband connectivity to all
villages by 2012
 Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for rural poor to
cover al the poor by 2016-17
ENVIRONMENT
 Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
 Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.
 Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.
 Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.

GK Part-III
HISTORY

Concept 1:
Indus Valley Civilization
Discovery and  R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921.

Time  R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922.
 According to radiocarbon dating, it spread from the year
2500 – 1750 B.C.
Geographical  Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujrat,
Extent Rajasthan and some parts of western UP.
 Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on Ravi in W.
Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu – Daro
(Sindh), etc. In India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur
and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangam (Rajasthan),
Banwali (Hissar), and Alamgirpur (western UP).
 Largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in
Gujrat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in
it.
Town Planning  Elaborate town-planning. It follows the grid system.
Roads well cut, dividing the town into large rectangular
blocks.
 Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building
material.
 Their drainage system shows developed sense of health
and sanitation.
 The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper Part or
Citadel and Lower Part.
 In Mohanjodao, a big public bath (Great Bath) has been
found.
Agriculture  Used wooden ploughs.
 Produced sufficient to feed them selves. Food grain were
stored in granaries.
Art and Craft  The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.
 Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were
mostly made of copper and bronze.
 Cotton fabrics quite common. Woolen in winter.
 Very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper,

etc) and dressing up.

 Ornaments were worn by both men and women.
 Potter’s wheel was in use. Played dice games.
Economic Life  Well-knit external and internal trade.
 Barter system was there.
 A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal.
Religious Life  Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess.
 Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.
 Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon)
and stones were worshipped.
 Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.
Script  Not yet deciphered.
 The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about
600 undeciphered pictographs).
End / Decay  The Harappan culture lasted for around 1,000 years.
 Invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods, social breakup
of Harappans, earthquakes, major ecological changes
etc. are listed as possible causes.

Concept 2:
Vedic Period: The Aryans
 The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the
Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
 Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (Hindukush Mountains) around 1500
B.C.
 EARLY VEDIC OR RIGVEDIC PERIOD
Region  The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern

Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western U.P. The whole
region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called
the ‘Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava’ (The Indus
and its five tributaries and the Saraswat).
Political  Monarchial form. Tribe was known as Jan and its king as
Organization Rajan.
 The king was assisted by a number of officers of which

purohita was the most important.
 Family was the basic unit of society. The family was

patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power
with men.
Economy  Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and

agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part.

 Standard unit or exchange was cow. At the same time

coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal
and Satmana).
Religion  The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked

upon them as living beings.
 The most important divinity was Indra who played the

role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar, also
associated with storm and thunder).
 Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship.

Worshipped in open air through yajnas.
 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (PAINTED CREY WARE PHASE)
Region  Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Punjab
over the whole of western UP covered by the Ganga – Yamuna
doab.
 In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with
the use of iron tools which became common by 1000 – 8000
B.C.
Political  Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.

Organization  Powers of the king, who was called Samrat increased.
 A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.
 References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati),
Charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Sangrahita), tax collector
(Bhagdugha), chief queen (Mahisi) and the game companion
(aksavapa).
Social Setup  The four fold division of society became clear – initially based on
occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests),
and Shudras (servers of the upper three).
 Woman enjoyed freedom & respect but their status deteriorated
compared to earlier time.
 The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra
signified descent from common ancestors.
 Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the main
pastime.
 THE VEDIC LITERATURE

THE VEDAS  Oldest religious text in the world.

(a) Rig Veda  A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of
sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion.
 Contains 1028 hymns (1017 + 11 valakhilyas) and is
divided into 10 mandals.
 The X mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which
explains that the 4 varmas (Brahmans, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms,
thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.
 The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra
(addressed to sun).
(b) Sama Veda  Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘melody’. It is a
collection of melodies.
 It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been
borrowed from Rig Veda.
 Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’.
(C) Yajur Veda  Deals with the procedure for the performance of
sacrifices.
(D) Atharva Veda  Divided into 20 kandas (Books) and has 711 hymns –
mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems
of people).
THE BRAHMANS  They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox

manner.
 Each veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.
 Rigveda: Kaushetki and Aitreya
 Yajurveda: Taitriya and Shatpatha
 Samaveda: Panchvish and Jemineya
 Atharvaveda: Gopath
THE ARANYAKAS  Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living
in the jungles for their pupils.
 Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to
sacrifice and emphasize ‘Meditation’.
THE UPANISHADS  The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes
a student sitting near his guru to learn.
 They are the main source of Indian philosophy.

 There are 108 Upanishads.

 They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices.
VEDANGAS  Six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta,

Chhanda and Jyotisha.
 Shiksha deals with pronunciation.
 Kalpa with rituals.
 Vyakarana with grammar.
 Nirukta with etymology.
 Chhanda with meter.
 Jyotisha with astronomy.
DARSHANS  There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad

– Darshana.
 These are given by 6 philosophers of Ancient Indian:
 Nyaya (Analysis) Darshana: Gautama.
 Vaishesika Darshana: Kanada Rishi (referred atom as
kan/anu).
 Sankhaya Darshana: Kapila
 Yoga Darshana: Patanjali.
 Purva Mimansa: Jaimini
 Uttara Mimansa: Badaryana or Vyasa (wrote
Mahabharata, classified Vedas, composed the puranas,
gave vedantic philosophy).
UPAVEDAS  There are four upavedas:

 Dhanurveda (deals with art of warfare) (Upaveda of
Yajur Veda).
 Gandharva veda (deals with art music) (Upaveda of
Sama Veda).
 Shilpa veda (deals with architecture) (Upaveda of
Atharva Veda).
 Ayurvea (deals with medicine) (Upaveda of Rig Veda).
EPICS  Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the

Ramayana – were compiled later, they reflect the state
of affairs of the Later Vedic Period.
 The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is considered
older than the Ramayana and describes the period from

the tenth century BC to the fourth century AD. It is also

called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one
lakh verses.
 The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, has 24,000 verses.
Its composition started in the fifth century BC and passes
through five stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth
century AD.

Geography
Theory

Concept 1:
Earth And Solar System
 The science of studying stars, planets is called Astronomy.
 North Star or Polaris indicates north, because seen directly above North Pole.
 Huge system of star is known as Galaxy. It contains millions of stars
 At some places, stars are so close that they look like a white glowing path. One
such path is known as Milky Way Galaxy (Akash Ganga).
 Sun is at centre and head of Solar System.
 Sun is formed by moving cloud of Gases known as Nebula (Even Planets).
 Force of Gravity ha created them.
 Satellite move round the planets. Satellites like planets have no light or heat of
their own.
 Earth has only one natural satellite, that is, Moon. Moon is 384, 400 km. away
from Earth.
 Moon spins on its own axis and revolves around the earth. It takes 27 days 7 hrs to
complete both movements.
 Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin set foot on Moon for the first time.
 Armalcolite: A mineral discovered from Moon, named after Armstrong, Aldrin &
Collins
 Asteroids are the tiny bodies found between Mars and Jupiter.
 Meterites (smaller pieces of Asteroids)

 Gedid means earth like shape.
 Earth is also known as BLUE PANET.
Distance of Earth from sun - 3rd Place
Size of Earth from Sun - 5th Planet
 Eratosthenes calculated size of Earth
 When far side of Moon faces sun, it is illuminated. This is called New Moon. We
cannot see New Moon from earth
 The different Planets can be arranged away from the sun as follows:-
My Very Educated Mother Just Show Us Nine Planets
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
NAME OF THE WHAT DID HE SAY

DISCOVERER
Ptolemy Earth was the centre of the universe and all heavenly
bodies revolve around it.
Copernicus Sun and not earth was the centre of the universe and
equated the universe with the solar system
Kepler Sun was the centre of the solar system and not of the
universe.
Herschel Solar system was the part of much larger system of stars
called galaxy.
Hubble He have Dopler Effect and Red Shift Theory and

propounded that universe is expanding rapidly.
Big Bang Theory supported by Red

Shift Theory explains the origin of
universe
The Earth vis-à-vis the Solar System
S. No. Distance from Time taken Temperature Known

o
Planet the sun (I m to complete in C satellites
million km) orbit

1. Mercury 58 88 days 350 0
2. Venus 108 225 days 480 0
3. Earth 150 365 days 22 1
4. Mars 228 687 days -23 2
5. Jupiter 778 11-9 years -150 16
6. Saturn 1,427 295 years -150 21
7. Uranus 2,869 84 years -210 15
8. Neptune 4,496 165 years -220 8
9. Pluto 5,900 248 years -230 1
Recently Pluto has been excluded from the list of 9 Planets
 EARTH’S IMAGINARY LINES – LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES
 For locating places on the earth, two reference points – North Pole & South Pole
are used.
 Equator is the largest possible circle (Imarginary circular line) on earth.
 Latitudes are the lines parallel to equator and to each other. These are also
known as parallels of latitudes. These show the angular distance of a place from
the equator.
 From equator to poles, parallel of latitudes becomes smaller and becomes a

point at poles.
 The value of latitudes at important places is:-
 Equator - Zero
 Tropic of Cancer - 23o 30’N
 Tropic of Capricorn - 23o 30’S
 Artic Circle - 66o 30’N
 Antarctic Circle - 66o 30’S
 On 21st June. Sun is directly over Tropic of Caner.
 On 22nd December, Sun is directly over Tropic of Capricorn.
 Tropic of cancer divides India in almost two equal parts.
 Torrid Zone is the hottest part of the world. Most of Deserts are located here.

DAY POSITION OF SUN W.R.T. EARTH
21st June Summer solstice (Northern Hemisphere)
23rd Sept Autumnal equinox (Northern Hemisphere)
22nd Dec Winter solstice for Northern Hemisphere and Summer solstice
for Southern Hemisphere
21st March Vernal Equinox (North Hemisphere)
The sun is rever very high above the horizon in Polar Regions Nights on poles
extend for six onths.
 Meridians of Longitude are the imaginary vertical lines on earth. These are not
parallel to one another, are equal in length and converge at poles. These are
drawn at an interval of 1o. Time of different countries is calculated w. r. t. these
lines.
 There are 180o Meridians drawn at an interval of 1o on both sides of prime

meridian.
 All places situated along same meridian will have same local time.
 For 1o longitudinal difference, the time difference will be of 4 min. (it is I hr

for a longitudinal distance of 15o).
 Prime or Chief Meridian is considered to be 0o. It passes through Greenwich

near London.
 Indian Standard Time (IST) is calculated at 82030’ E (line passing through

Allahabad).
 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the time that prevails in UK. It is 5.30 hr behind
IST.
 Countries with large longitudinal extent have more than 1 time zone. e.g. Russia
has 11 time zones. Conada and USA each have 5 times zones.
 These meridians of longitudes and parallels of latitudes form a network called grid.
 As one goes from equator to pole, while the distance between two meridians
decreases, latitudes remain equidistant (being parallel).
 HOW DAYS AND SEASONS ARE CREATED
 Seasons on the earth are caused because of its tilt about its North – South
axis. Earth axis is tilted by an angle of 23o 30’ from vertical.

 Rotation is the spinning of earth about its own axis. Period of Rotation is
known as Earth Day. Earth rotates form west to east, that is, anticlockwise.
 Earth revolves in a fixed route known as orbit (shape is ellipse).
 Because of this tilt, the earths is marking an angle of 66o 30’ with its plane.
 Cartography is the Science of map making.
 Ptolemy, an Egyptian geographer made map – making, a Science. He first

showed direction by drawing a “N-line”.
 Four major directions are called cardinal points.

Concept 2:
Inside the Earth
 Centre of Earth is about 6,400 km below the surface.
 Temperature & Pressure increase inside the earth with depth
 Most abundant elements are O > Si > AI > Fe > Ca
EARTH’S INTERIOR
CRUST MANTLE CORE
Crust is the outer part of Separated from crust Composed of mostly

Lithosphere. Made of oceanic by MOHO metal, therefore,
& continental crusts; Avg. Discontinuity. known as Metallic
thickness 5-40 km. Oceans is Core. Made of outer
5 km thick beneath oceans. (2900-5000 km) &
Continental Crust is 40 km inner cores (5000-
thick. 6400 km)
Continental Crust is less Upper part 100 - 1700 Outer Core is made
dense than Oceanic Crust km. Consists of SIMA of NIFE (Nickel +
because it is made of a mix (Silicon + Magnesium) Iron) which is in
of light and dense rock types. and Basic Rocks. First Liquid state.
Consists of SIAL (Silicon + 100 – 400 Km consists Composed of
Aluminium) – sedimentary of a zone of weak Barysphere (heavy
and Granitic rocks. Oceanic roacks called metallic rocks)
Crust composed of dense Asthenosphere.
rocks Basalt
Inner part of lithosphere Lower part 1700 – 2900 Inner is solid because
extends upto 100Km and is Km. Consists of Ultra- of pressure exerted by
in partly molten state basic Rocks. wt. of overlying rocks.
 The boundary between Crust and Mantle is called Mohorovicic boundary. It is

established at 30 KM.
 The discontinuity between core & Mantle is called Gutenberg Discontinuity.

 P – Waves Shadow Zone inside the earth exists between 105o -140o. S – Waves
are discontinuous between 105o -105o inside the earth
 ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Ignis means fire.
 Formed from hot molten lava or Magma.
 Materials in molten state are called Magma. When Magma reaches earth’s surface,
it is known as lava.
 Cooling of Magma either inside the earth or above it, results in the formation of
hard Igneous Rocks.
 These rocks make up 2/3rd of earth’s crust. Therefore primary rocks.
 Granite and Basalt are examples.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Rocks are broken into small pieces and form sediments. Sediments and organic
remains are deposited in low – lying areas. They get compressed and cemented to
form sedimentary rocks.
 These rocks are soft and break easily.
 Most of rocks on Earth’s Surface are sedimentary rocks, e.g. Sandstone, limestone,
shale, coal etc.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Due to pressure and heat of earth, these rocks undergo chemical (recombination of
elements) as well as structural (more compact mineral patterns) changes.
 Rocks thus formed are completely different in appearance and characteristics from
the original rocks. Such kinds of rocks are known as Metamorphic Rocks.
 Examples of few igneous & sedimentary rocks have been given below:-
IGNEOUS  METAMORPHIC
Granite  Gneiss
SEDIMENTARY  METAMORPHIC
Shale  Slate
Lime Stone  Marble
Coal  Diamond


Organism

1. Introduction
Biology – Branch of science in which living beings are studied.

Bios = Life & Logos = Study. Therefore study of life is called biology. The term biology
was first coined by Lamarck and Treviranus in the year 1801. Biology has two main
branches.
1. Botany – Study of different aspects of plants. Theophrastus is known as father of

Botany.
2. Zoology – Study of various aspects of animals. Aristotle is called father of Zoology

as well as Biology.
Important Terms of Biology:
 Anatomy – Study of internal structure of organism.
 Agrology – Soil science dealing specially with production of crop.
 Agronomy – Science of soil management and production of crop.
 Agrostology – Study of grass.
 Arthrology – Study of joints.
 Apiculture – Rearing of honey bee for honey.
 Anthropology – Study of origin, development and relationship between the

culture of past and present human.
 Anthology – Study of flower and flowering plant.
 Angiology – Study of blood vascular system including arteries and veins.
 Andrology – Study of male reproductive organ.

 Bryology - Study of Bryophytes.
 Biometrics – Statical study of Biological problem.
 Biomedical engineering – Production and designing of spare part for man for
overcoming various defects in man. e.g. artificial limbs, Iron lung, Pacemaker etc.
 Biotechnology – Technology connected with living beings for willful manipulation

on molecular level.
 Bacteriology – Study of bacteria.
 Cytology – Study of cell.
 Cryobiology – It is the study of effect of low temperature on organisms and their

preservation.
 Clone – Celones are genetically identical individuals in a population.
 Cardiology – Study of heart.
 Clone – Clones are genetically identical individuals in a population.
 Demography – Study of population.
 Diffusion – Random movement of molecule / ion or gases from a region of higher

concentration to lower concentration.
 Diffusion – Random movement of molecule / gas/ ion from regin of higher

concentration to lower concentration.
 Dermatology – Study of skin.
 Dendrochronology – Counting and analyzing annual growth rings of tree to know

its age.
 Ecology – Study of inter- relationship between living and their environment.
 Evolution – Study of origin of life, variation and formation of new species.
 Embryology – It is the study of fertilization and development of zygote.
 Eugenics – Study of factors connected with the improvement of race.
 Euthenics – Study of environmental condition that contribute to the improvement

of human beings.
 Euphenics – Treatment of defective in heredity through genetics engineering.
 Ethnology – Study of science dealing with different races of human.
 Ethology – Study of animal behaviour.
 Etiology – Study of life cycle of pathogen.

 Entomology – Study of possibility of life in space.
 Floriculture – Cultivation of plant for their flower.
 Food technology – Scientific processing, storage and transportation of food.
 Forensic science – Application of science for identification of variours facts of

civilian.
 Fishery – Catching, breeding, rearing and marketing of fishes.
 Forestry – Development and management of forest.
 Fermentation – Process of incomplete oxidation that occur in microbes and other

cells in absence of oxygen, leading to the for nation of ethyl alcohol.
 Genetics – Study of variation and transmission of characters from parents to their

young ones.
 Growth – Permanent increase in the weight and volume or size of an organism.
 Genetic Engineering – Manipulation of genes in order to improve the organism.
 Gynecology – Study of female reproductive organ.
 Gerontology – Study of ageing.
 Gastroenterology – Study of alimentary canal or stomach, intestine and their

disease.
 Hypertonic – when two solution have differcut sdute concentration. The sol at ion
which have higher concentration is called hypertonic.
 Hypotonic – In two solation which have lawer solute con centration is called
hypotonic
 Home thermic – Animals who have a constant body temperature are called home
thermic or warm-blooded animal.
 Histology – Study of tissue with the help of microscope.
 Hygience – Science taking care of health.
 Hydroponics – Study of growing plant without soil in water which contain

nutrient.
 Haematology – Study of blood.
 Hepatology – Study of liver.
 Ichthyology – Study of fishes.
 Immunology – Study of immunity or resistance of body to disease.
 Kallology – Study of human beauty.

 Metazoans – All multicellular animals are called metazonans.
 Monoecious – Plant which have both male and female flower
 Microbiology – Study of external structure.
 Microbiology – Study of micro – organism like virus, bacteria, algae, fungi and
protozoa.
 Molecular biology – Study of molecule found in the body of living organism.
 Medicine – Study of treating disease by drug.
 Mammography – Branch of science which deal test of breast cancer.
 Nutrients – chemical substance taken as food which are necessary for various
faction, growth and heath of living.
 Neurology – Study of new born.
 Nephrology – Study of kidneys.
 Osmosis – Movement of water molecule across semipermeable membrane from

the region of its higher concentration to the region of lower communication.
 Odontology – Study of teeth and gum.
 Osteology – Study of bones.
 Oncology – Study of cancer and tumours.
 Obstetrics – Science connected with care of pregnant women before, during and
after child birth.
 Ornithology – Study of birds.
 Ornithology – Study of eyes.
 Orthopaedics – Diagnosis and repair of disorders of locomotery system.
 Phytoplanlktons – Microscopic organism which passively float on the surface of

water.
 Parasite – Organism which depend on other living for their food and shelter.
 Poikilothermic – Organism which change their body temperature according to

surrounding. These are also called cold blooded animal.
 Pigment – A substance which absorb light of certain wavelength like chlorophyll

formed in green leaves.
 Paleontology – Study of fossils.
 Physiology – Study of function for various system of organism.

 Pathology – Study of diseases, effects, causable agents and transmission of

pathogens.
 Pomology – Study of fruit and fruit yielding plant.
 Psychiatry – Treatment of mental disease.
 Psychology – Study of human mind and behavior.
 Pisciculture – Rearing of fishes.
 Psycology – Study of algae.
 Paediatrics – Branch of medicine dealing with children.
 Parasitology – Study of parasites.
 Photobiology - Effect of light on various biological processes.
 Phylogeny – Evolutionary history of organism.
 Physiotherapy – Treatment of body defects through massage and exercise.
 Radiology – Science dealing with the effect of radiation on living beings.
 Rhinology – Study of nose and olfactory organs.
 Sonography – Study of ultrasound imaging.
 Saurology – Study of lizards.
 Serology – Study of serum, interaction of antigen and antibodies in the blood.
 Sphygmology – Study of pulse and arterial pressure.
 Taxonomy – Study of classification, nomenclature and identification of organism.
 Telepathy – Communication of thoughts or ideas from one mind to anther without

normal use of senses. In other word this is the process of menta contact.
 Veterinary Science – Science of health care and treatment of animals.

2. What is living
 The word living cannot be defined.
 There are certain characters by which they are distinguished from non living.
1. Growth – Increase in the number of cell or mass is called growth
2. Reproduction – Living organism produce young ones of their same kind.
3. Metabolism – Chemical reaction occurring inside a living bodies
4. Response of stimuli – Living have the ability to sense the condition in

their surrounding and respond to these stimuli.

3. Classification of Organism
 There are millions of organisms. It is impossible to study each individual

separately. Classification means to categories organism into different groups.
Study of an individual of group gives us the idea of rest of the member of that
group.
 Linnaeus divide all organism into two kingdoms – Planate and Animalia in his book
“System a Nature”. The foundation of modern classification system was laid in the
line of classification system started by Linnaeus. Therefore Linnaeus is called
‘Father of Taxonomy’. Due to disputed position of organism like bacteria, virus,
fungi and euglena, there is need of reconsideration of two system of classification.
Five Kingdom Classification
 Five Kingdom Classification was proposed in 1969 by R.H. Whittaker. Te criteria of

classifying organism into five kingdoms are its complexity, body of organism, mode
of nutrition, life style and phylogenetic relationship.
Living World
Monera Protista Fungi Planatae Animalia
1. Monera – It includes all prokaryotic organism like bacteria, cynobacteria and

archiobactera. Filamentous bacteria also come under this kingdom. All the
organism of this kingdom are microscopic.

2. Protista – This kingdom includes unicellular form usually found in aquatic habitats.
On the basis of mode of nutrition they are autotrophic, parasitic, and saprophytic.
Diatoms flagellates and protozoa come under this kingdom. Euglena have both
heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of nutrition. So, it is placed between plant and
animal.
3. Fungi – This kingdom includes non-green plants. It has saprophytic nutrition and
growing on dead and decaying organic matter. The cell wall is composed of chitin.
Example: Mushroom, Mucor, Albugo etc.
4. Planatae – This kingdom includes all plants except some algae, diatoms, fungi and
member of monera and protista.
5. Animalia – Almost all the animal comes under this kingdom except protozoan.
 Binomial nomenclature – There was the need of uniform international naming of

organism. In biology every organism is given two proper names. The first name is
genus name always started with capital letter and the second name is species
name started with small letter. For example scientific name of human is Homo
sapiens. Homo is the name of genus, who0se one species is sapiens.
Scientific Names of some Organisms
1. Man Homo sapiens 2. Frog Rana tigrina
3. Cat Felis domestica 4. Dog Canis familaris
5. Cow Bos Indicus 6. Housefly Musca domestica
7. Mango Mangifera indica 8. Rice Oryza sativa
9. Wheat Triticum aestivum 10. Pea Pisum sativum
11. Gram Cicer arietinum 12. Mustard Brassica campestris

Mathematics
1. NUMBER SYSTEM
Topics covered: Types of numbers Basic mathematical operations, Divisibility tests, and Algebrical
formulae.
Ø Numbers are basically of 2 types: Real no. & Imaginary no.
A number tree is shown below: -
Real nos.: These are the numbers, which can represent actual physical quantities in a meaningful way.
These can be represented on the number line. Number line is a geometrical straight line with arbitrarily
defined zero (origin).
Natural nos. : Set of all non – fractional numbers from 1 to  .
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ……}

Whole nos. : W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …….}
Integers : Set of all non-fractional numbers from - to .
I/Z = {-. …-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. …}
Rational nos. : These are real numbers, which can be expressed in the form of (pq), where p & q are
integers. & q  o
Ex. 2/3, 37/15, 43/9, 43/9, -17/19, 115/1, -49/2 etc.
 (All integers are rational numbers.)
Irrational nos. : All real numbers, which are not rational, are irrational. These are non-recurring as well
as non-terminating type of decimal nos.
Ex. (3)1/3 , (4)1/5
Irrational nos. are also called as Surds, which are of 2 types-
Pure Surd ( 8 ) & Mixed surd ( 2 2 )
 (Mathematical constants  & e are irrational nos.)
Prime nos. : All natural numbers that have one & itself as their factors are prime nos. i.e. prime nos. are
exactly divisible by 1 & themselves.
Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23…
Identification of prime number:
Step 1 : Find approximate square root of given no.
 There are 25 prime numbers up to 100.
 The only even prime number is 2.
 Every prime number greater than 3, is of the form (6N+1) or (6N-1), where N is a natural
number.
Step 2 : Divide the given no. by prime numbers less than approx. Square root of number. If given
number is not divisible by any of these prime nos. then the no. is prime otherwise not.
Ex. 571

Solution : approximate square root = 24
Prime nos. < 24 are – 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, & 23. 571 is not divisible by any of these prime nos. so
571 is a prime number.
Composite number :
All natural numbers, which are not prime, are composite numbers. Ex. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc.
 1 is neither prime nor composite number.
Fractions :
Common fraction: Fractions whose denominator is not 10.
Decimal fraction: Fractions whose denominator is 10 or any power of 10.
Proper fraction: Numerator < denominator
Improper fraction: Numerator > Denominator
Terminating decimal : In this a finite number of digits occur after decimal.
Ex. ½ = 0.5 , 0.6875 , 0.15
Non – terminating & repeating: (Recurring decimal): -
In this a set of digits or a digit is repeated continually.
Ex. 2/3 = 0.6666 -------- = 0.6
5/11 = 0.454545 -------- = 0.45
Conversion of Recurring decimal into a fraction: -
Step 1: To obtain numerator subtract the number formed by non – repeating digits from the complete
number after decimal. (Consider repeated digits only once).
Step 2: To obtain denominator take number of 9‘s = no. of repeating digits & after that put no. of 0‘s =
no. of non-repeating digits.
Ex. 0.45 = (45 – 0) / 99 = 45/99 = 5/11
0.737 = (737 – 7) / 990 = 730/990 = 73/99
0.46573 =( 46573 – 46) / 99900 = 46527/99900
Division :
General representation of result: -

Dividend / Divisor = Quotient + Remainder / Divisor
Dividend = (Divisor x Quotient) + Remainder
Divisibility Test :
 Rule for 7: -
Number Test
2. Unit digit should be 0 or even
3. The sum of digits of no. should be divisible by 3.
4. The no. formed by last 2 digits of given no. should be divisible by 4.
5. Unit digit should be 0 or 5.
6. No. should be divisible by 2 & 3 both.
8. The no. formed by last 3 digits of given no. should be divisible by 8.
9. Sum of digits of given no. should be divisible by 9.
11. The difference between sums of the digits at even & at odd places should be zero or
multiple of 11.
25. Last 2 digits of the number should be 00, 25, 50 or 75.
Ex. 126
Last digit = 6 previous no. = 12
12 - (6 x 2 ) = 0 i.e. 126 is divisible by 7
Ex. 413
Last digit = 3, previous no. = 41
41 – (3 x 2) = 35 (divisible by 7)
i.e. 413 is divisible by 7.
This rule can also be used for nos. having more than 3 digits.
Ex. 6545
Last digit = 5 previous no. 654
654 – (5 x 2) = 644
64 – (4 x 2) = 56 divisible by 7
i.e. 6545 is divisible by 7.
Some Algebrical formulae:-

1. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
2. (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
3. (a2 – b2) = (a + b) (a –b)
4. (a3 + b3) = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
5. (a3 – b3) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
6. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc - ca)
When a + b + c = 0
a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
(0.7  0.7  0.7)  (0.3  0.3  0.3)
Ex. Evaluate :-
(0.7  0.7)  (0.7)(0.3)  (0.3  0.3)
Using formula: a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) we get

(0.7  0.3)[(0.7  0.7)  (0.7)(0.3)  (0.3  0.3)]
=
[(0.7  0.7)  (0.7  0.3)  (0.3  0.3)]
= 0.7 + 0.3 = 1.0 answer.
VBODMAS Rule : In resolving the value of a given expression the various operations must be
performed in the given order:
V Viniculum or Bar
B Bracket ( ) , { } , [ ]
O Of
D Division
M Multiplication
A Addition
S Subtraction
Ex. (1) Simplify

2 3
1 {(7 / 8  3 / 4  2 / 3)  1  5 / 8}
3 4
Solution = 5/3 {(13/8 x 2/3) ÷7/4 + 5/8}
= 5/3 {13/12 ÷7/4 + 5/8}

= 5/3 {13/12 x 4/7 + 5/8}
= 5/3 {13/21 + 5/8}
= 5/3 x 209/168 = 1045/504
(2) Simplify 12,1/3 + 4, 3/15 of 1/3

8/9 ÷2/3 + 5/2 of 3/5
37 / 3  63 / 15  2 / 3 37 / 3  7 / 5
Solution: =
8/ 9 3/ 2  5/ 2 3/ 5 4 / 3  3/ 2
= 185 + 21
15
8+9
6
= 206/15 x 6/17 = 1236/255
Properties of square number :
 A square no. can not end with 2, 3, 7, or 8.
 Every square no. is a multiple of 3 or exceeds a multiple of 3 by 1.
 Every square no. is a multiple of 4 or exceeds a multiple of 4 by 1
 If a square number ends in 9, the preceding digit is even.

EXERCISE-1 A
1. Find the value of 3 – [2 – { 7 – (6 – 3 – 2 ) }]
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 0
2. Simplify 1/5 ÷ 3/5 + 4/3 x 1/4 – 1/6 of 2

(a) 1/5 (b) 3 (c) 1/3 (d) 5
3. Simplify 1/7 + 3/4 of 2 2 5 1 ÷ 4 3 – 1/6
3 x 6 7 -1
5/12 – 2/7 14 4 + 5 3 ÷ 2 7
11 4 8
(a) 5 (b) 0 (c) 5/12 (d) 1
4. A number 1568 x 35 y is divisible by 88. Find x & y.

(a) 6, 4 (b) 4, 6 (c) 2, 6 (d) 6, 2
5. Reduce 609/1595 to its lowest terms.

(a) 29/21 (b) 21/55 (c) 55/65 (d) 21/51
896  896  896  104  104  104
6. The value of is
896  896  896  104  104  104
(a) 792 (b) 984 (c) 1000 (d) 890
7. If 148a3 , 7b563 , 8276c845 are divisible by 11 , then find the value of a, b & c.
(a) 8, 7, 2 (b) 9, 8, 2 (c) 8, 9, 2 (d) 0, 1, 5
8. What least number must be added to 91463 in order to obtain a multiple of 9.
(a) 5 (b) 9 (c) 7 (d) 4
9. Find (53)4 .
(a) 7890480 (b) 7891267 (c) 7890481 (d) 7990480
10. The value of 1 + 1 .

1 + 1. .
1 + 1/4
(a) 7/10 (b) 3/10 (c) 14/9 (d) 3/7
11. The sum of all the divisors of 150 is

(a) 400 (b) 1200 (c) 372 (d) 482

12. Find the number of divisors of 320.

(a) 15 (b) 6 (c) 14 (d) 18
___
13. The value of .875 is:
875 875 867 800
(a) (b) (c) (d)
990 999 990 999
14. The value of 1334025 is

(a) 1165 (b) 1155 (c) 1265 (d) 1255
3 4 6
15. Which if greatest 9, 20 & 50
3 4 6
(a) 9 (b) 20 (c) 50 (d) None

EXERCISE-1 B
(1) Four – fifth of number is more than three fourths of the number by 4 find the number.
(a) 90 (b) 80 (c) 75 (d) 60
(2) If one fifth of one – third of one – half of number is 15, find the number.
(a) 450 (b) 350 (c) 300 (d) 400
(3) Find the number of different divisors of 50, besides unity and the number itself.
(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 7
(4) The sum of two numbers is 30 and their difference is 6 find the difference of their squares.
(a) 165 (b) 180 (c) 36 (d) 90
(5) The product of two terms is 39 and their difference is 28. Find the difference of their reciprocals.
(a) 28/39 (b) 39/28 (c) 67/39 (d) 67/28
(6) Is 1001 is a prime number ?
(a) No (b) Yes
(7) What least value must be given to * so that the number 97215 * 6 is divisible by 11?
(a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 9
(8) What is mixed surd form of 567

7 9 6 13
(a) 9 (b) 7 (c) 18 (d) 19
(9) Find the sum of divisors of 90 ?
(a) 230 (b) 273 (c) 234 (d) 276
(10) Find the number of factors of 7056 ?
(a) 21 (b) 22 (c) 27 (d) 45
(11) Find the value of 1/(216)-2/3 + 1/(256)-3/4 + 1/(243)-1/5
(a) 101 (b) 103 (c) 107 (d) 105
(12) Find the value of (i)989
(a) i (b) -1 (c) -i (d) 1

(0.7  0.7  0.7)  (0.3  0.3  0.3)

(13) Evaluate
(0.7  0.7) - (0.7) (0.3)  (0.3  0.3)
(a) 0.4 (b) 0.7 (c) 0.1 (d) 1.0
(14) Find the value of (343/216)1/3

(a) 7/6 (b) 6/7 (c) 9/8 (d) 8/9
(15) Evaluate : (34)3 . (32)4 / (-3)15 . 34

(a) –3 (b) 3 (c) 9 (d) 37
(16) Find the greater of the two number such that 3 times the greater subtracted from 10 times the lesser
is equal to 15 and 5 times the smaller exceeds the greater one by 10.
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7
(17) What least value must be given to * so that the number 91876 * 2 is Divisible by 8?
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) 9
(18) How many odd prime number are there upto 100 ?
(a) 25 (b) 1 (c) 24 (d) 19
(19) If a = 16 and b = 15, then what is the Value of (a2 + b2 + ab) / (a3 – b3)
(a) 1/31 (b) 31 (c) 1 (d) 1/15
(20) If 1453 x 35 y is divisible by 88. Then find the Value of x?
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 5 (d) 0

2. L. C. M. & H. C. F.
Least Common Multiple (L.C.M)
It is the least number which is exactly divisible by each of the given numbers.
Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)
It is the greatest number that divides each of the given number exactly (i.e. leaving o as the remainder).
It is also called Greatest common divisor (G.C.D.) or the Greatest common measure (G.C.M)
To find H.C.F. of given numbers: -
For two given numbers divide the larger number by the smaller one, Now, divide the divisor by the
remainder keep on dividing the earlier divisor by the remainder last obtained, till a remainder of zero is
obtained. The last divisor obtained in this fashion is the H.C.F. of 2 given numbers.
For more than 2 numbers choose any 2 numbers & find their H.C.F. The H.C.F. of these 2 numbers &
the third number gives the H.C.F. of 3 numbers & likewise.
Ex. Find H.C.F of 2923 & 3239.

2923) 3239 (1
2923
316 ) 2923 ( 9
2844
79 ) 316 (4
316
X  Required H. C. F. = 79.
To find L.C.M. of given numbers: -
Put the given numbers in a row & start dividing by the smallest number that divides all of them stop the
process when the common divisor is 1. The L.C.M. is the product of all the divisors & the dividends left.
Ex. Find L.C.M. of 12, 15, 27 & 39

2 12, 15, 27, 39

2 6, 15, 27, 39
3 3, 15, 27, 39
5 1, 5, 9, 13
9 1, 1, 9, 13
13 1, 1, 1, 13
1, 1, 1, 1
L.C.M. = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 9 x13 = 7020
L.C.M. & H.C.F. by factor method: -
Convert the given numbers in the powers of prime numbers.
 To find L.C.M. of given numbers consider each & every prime number with their highest powers &
multiply them.
 To find H.C.F. of given numbers consider only common prime number with their least power &
multiply them.
Ex. Find L.C.M & H.C.F. of 24, 54, & 70.

Solution : 24 54 70
23 x 3 2 x 33 2x5x7
L.C.M. = 23 x 33 x 5 x 7 = 7560
H.C.F. = 2.
L.C.M. & H.C.F. of fractions: -

LCM of Numerators
L.C.M. of fractions =
HCF of Denominators
HCF of Numerators
H.C.F. of fractions =
LCM of Denominators
Note: First convert the fractions into their simplest form (i.e. H.C.F. of Numerator & Denominator is
equal to 1) & then apply above formula.
Ex. :- Find H.C.F. of 1/2, 2/3,. 3/4, & 4/5

H.C.F. of 1, 2, 3, & 4
Solution:- H.C.F =
L.C.M. of 2, 3, 4 & 5
= 1/60
Ex. Find L.C.M. of 100/24 & 60/16

Solution :- Simplest form of above fractions are :
25/6 & 15/4

L.C.M. of 25 & 15 75
L.C.M = 
H.C.F. of 4 & 6 2
L.C.M. & H.C.F. of Decimals :
In given decimals, make the no. of digits equal after decimal in each & every decimal no.. Consider
these numbers without decimal point, find L.C.M. & H.C.F. as usual. Now in the result mark off as many
decimal places as there are in each of the nos.
Ex. Find L.C.M. & H.C.F. of 0.6, 0.45, 0.3 & 1.2
Solution :- These decimals can be written as :-
0.60, 0.45, 0.30 & 1.20
L.C.M & H.C.F of 60, 45, 30& 120 are L.C.M = 360 H.C.F = 15
 Required L.C.M = 3.60 & H.C.F = 0.15
Product of two numbers=Product of their L.C.M. & H.C.F.
Ex. The H.C.F of two numbers is 1/5 of their L.C.M. If product of two numbers is 720 find their H.C.F.
Solution :- H.C.F = 1/5 L.C.M. => L.C.M = 5 x H.C.F
L.C.M x H.C.F = Product of nos. = 720
5 x H.C.F. x H.C.F = 720
(HCF)2 = 720/5 = 144
 HCF = 144 = 12.
Some Important Points :

 H.C.F. of given numbers always divides their L.C.M.
 L.C.M. is always greater than or equal to the greatest of the given numbers & it is exactly
divisible by given numbers.
 H.C.F. always divides the given numbers exactly & is always less than or equal to least of
the given nos.

EXERCISE-2 A
1. Three bells toll together at intervals of 3, 4 & 5 seconds. If they now toll together, they will again toll
together after :
1 3
(a) 1 min. (b) 1 min. (c) 1 min. (d) 1/2 min. (1988, NLSIU)
2 4
2. Find the H.C.F. of 35/12, 49/30, and 21/20.
(a) 6/50 (b) 60/7 (c) 7/60 (d) 49/2
3. The H.C.F. of two numbers is 113 and their L.C.M. is 228825. One of the numbers is 2825. Find the
other.
(a) 9153 (b) 9126 (c) 9258 (d) 9166
4. The greatest number that will divide 290 , 460 and 552 leaving respectively 4, 5, 6 as remainders, is :
(a) 11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (d) 14
5. The L.C.M. of two numbers is 28 times of their H.C.F. The sum of their L.C.M. & H.C.F. is 1740. If one
of the numbers is 240, find the other number.
(a) 400 (b) 440 (c) 420 (d) 445
6. Find H.C.F. of 88 , 32 & 128
(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 8 (d) 16
7. Find L.C.M. of 9 x5y6 & 36 x6 y7.
(a) 36 x6 y6 (b) 9 x5 y6 (c) 36 x6 y7 (d) 9 x6 y7
8. The least number which when divided by 35, 45 & 55 leaves the remainder 18 , 28 & 38 respectively is :
(a) 2468 (b) 3265 (c) 3448 (d) 3482

Logical Reasoning
15. Syllogism Test
The term ‘SYLLOGISM’ is used to denote that form of reasoning where conclusion is
drawn from two statements. This is undoubtedly the most important part of logical
reasoning. Logical reasoning is an indispensable feature of all competitive exams and tests
a candidate’s basic intelligence and aptitude. Some are of the opinion that Venn-diagram
can be of great use for solving questions of syllogism. No doubt a few questions can be
solved with the help of venn-diagrams, but Venn-diagram alone does not help the
students to solve variety of questions on syllogism. Even common sense also will not be of
much help in working out certain difficult questions. Only the basic concepts and rules
which have a bearing on reasoning faculty alone will help. To proceed further for the study
of rules, we must first know some terminology used in logic.
Proposition: A proposition, also known as a premise, is a grammatical sentence

which comprises a subject, a predicate and a copula. Subject is that which affirms or
denies a fact. Predicate is a term which states something about a subject and copula
establishes relationship between subject and predicate.

Example:
(i) All
(ii) No
Classification of Proposition:
A proposition can mainly be divided into three categories:
(a) Categorical: In categorical proposition there exists a relationship between Subject

and Predicate without any condition. It means predicate is either affirmation or denial of
the subjects unconditionally.
Example: (i) All books are chairs.
(ii) No apple is a Pen.
(b) Hypothetical: In hypothetical proposition, relationship between Subject and

Predicate is asserted onditionally.
Example: (i) If it rains, he will not come.
(ii) If he comes, I will accompany him.
(c) Disjunctive: In disjunctive proposition the assertion is of alteration.
Example: (i) Either he is honest or he is loyal.
(ii) Either he is educated or he is illiterate.

Keeping in view the existing pattern of syllogism in competitive exams, we are

concerned only with the categorical type of proposition.
Four – fold classification of categorical proposition:
Categorical proposition has been classified on the basis of quality and quantity of
proposition. Quality denotes whether the proposition is affirmative or negative. Quantity
represents whether the proposition is universal or particular.
The four-fold classification of categorical proposition can be sumarised as under:
Symbol Proposition Quantity Quality
A All A are B Universal Affirmative
E No A is B Universal Negative
I Some A are B Particular Affirmative
O Some A are not B Particular Negative
To draw valid inferences it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the A E, I,

O relationship.
Distribution: In a proposition a term (either subject or predicate) is said to be distributed

if the quantity of that term is well defined. For example in A type proposition (All A are B),
the quantity of subject, A, is defined. In E type proposition (No A is B) the quantity of
subject and predicate both are defined. In I type proposition (Some A are B) the quantity
of neither subject nor predicate is defined. And in O type proposition (Some A are not B)
the quantity of predicate is defined. This has, further been discussed in the following
paragraph in relation to each type separately.
1. Universal Affirmative or A – Type Proposition
Proposition: All A are B
The above proposition is universal affirmative or A- type proposition. Here, in the

proposition entire category represented by subject (A) is distributed in category as
represented by Predicatge (B). Also from graphical representation of the above proposition
we observe that all A are distributed in B.
From here, we conclude that in A-type proposition only subject is distributed.
2. Universal Negative or E-Type Proposition
Proposition: No A is B

In this type of proposition both Subject and Predicate are denial of each other. This
can also be seen in the diagram that (A), (B), have nothing in common and hence both
Subject and Predicate are distributed.
3. Particular Affirmative or I-Type Proposition
Proposition: Some A are B
Fig. 3 represents the I-type proposition graphically. In this type Subject and
Predicate have something in common. This implies that in I-type neither Subject nor
Predicate is distributed.
4. Particular Negative or O-Type Proposition
Proposition: Some A are not B
In O-type proposition some of the category represented by (A) Subject is not B,

which means that a section of A is denied with the entire category of B. It is, therefore,
deduced that in O-type proposition only Predicate is distributed.
Before we proceed to the rules for arriving at valid inferences, it is necessary to

have a clear understanding of difference between Immediate inference and Mediate
inference. Lack of conceptual knowledge of this difference can lead to confusion while
solving questions on syllogism. On account of different logical approach required to be
applied for drawing each type of inference, a clear understanding of this difference
becomes more important.

Immediate Inference: In syllogism a conclusion is drawn from two propositions

connected by a common term which is popularly known as middle term.
Statements: 1. Some tigers are cows
2. No cow is goat.
In the above pair of statements the term cow is common to both the statements
and links the two statements. Now if an inference is drawn from any one of the two
statements without taking consideration the other statement it is known as Immediate
inference. We are giving below the immediate inferences drawn from the above two
statements.
Conclusions:
(i) Some cows are tigers (From statement 1)
(ii) No goat is cow (From statement 2)
Mediate Inference: In mediate inference coclusion is drawn from the two

statements connected by the middle term. Hence, in mediate inference middle term will
be missing.
Statements: 1. Some tables are trees.
2. No tree is door.
Conclusion: (i) Some tables are not doors.
(ii) No table is a door.
In the above conclusions we see that middle term ‘tree’ is missing and hence these
conclusions are mediate inferences. So, it is clear from the above discussion that

Immediate inference is drawn from a single statement whereas the Mediate inference is
drawn from two statements.
Rules for Immediate Inference: Immediate Inferences can be drawn with the
help of some rules. These rules are divided into four heads as follow:
(a) Conversion (b) Obversion (c) Contrapostion (d)

Subalteration
(a) Conversion: In conversion the subject and the predicate of a given

proposition are transposed, ie, the subject becomes the predicate and the predicate
becomes the subject. The quality of the proposition remains unchanged, ie, the affirmative
remains affirmative and the negative remains negative.
In conversion, A-type proposition can be converted into I-type. E-type propositions

can be converted into E-type. I-type can be converted into I-type and O-type proposition
cannot be conveted.
Examples:
(i) Statement : All lamps are mangoes. (A-type)
Conclusion : Some mangoes are lamps. (I-Type)
(ii) Statement : No men are wise. (E-Type)
Conclusion : No wise are men. (E-Type)
(iii) Statement : Some chairs are tables. (I-Type)
Conclusion : Some tables are chairs. (I-Type)
(b) Obversion: In obversion the conclusion is drawn from interchanging the

quality (affirmative to negative and negative to affirmative) while retaining its original
meaning. The subject of the given statement remains the subject in the conclusion.
Example:
(i) Statement : No men are perfect. (E-Type)
Conclusion : All men are non-perfect. (A-Type)
(c) Contraposition: In this case, there will be double change, first to obverse and
then to converse.
Example: (i) Statement: No men are perfect (E-Type)
Conclusion: All men are non-perfect (A, - Obverse)
Conclusion: Some non-perfect beings are men. (I-Converse)

(d) Sub-alteration: A proposition can be changed into a sub-alternation form by

having the same subject, same predicate, same quality but with changed quantity. Thus,
A will be changed to I and E will be changed to O.
Example:
(i) Statement : All men are wise. (A)
Conclusion : Some men are wise. (I)
(ii) Statement : No men are perfect. (E)
Conclusion : Some men are not perfect. (O)
For conceptual simplicity and procedural convenience of students we are giving

below all the possible valid immediate inferences drawn from each type of proposition (A,
E, I, O). A study of the table given below will enable a student to remember all the valid
immediate inferences easily without going into details of above rules.
Type Proposition Valid Immediate

Inferences
A All A are B Some B are A

Some A are B
No B is A
E No A is B Some A are not B

Some B are not A
I Some A are R Some B are A
O Some A are not B No inference
Immediate inferences drawn from each type of proposition (A, E, I, O) as given in

the above table are based on the different rules as discussed in the foregoing paragraphs.
The same inferences can also be drawn from logic using Venn-diagrams. But one of the
important points to be noted while drawing such inferences from the Venn-diagrams is
that all possibilities of Venn-diagrams should be drawn. Let us now discuss each type of
proposition in relation to the pictorial representation.
1. A-Type – All A are B
It is clear from the A type of proposition that all A are contained in B. Therefore,
circle representing A will be either inside or equal to circle representing B. However, in
both the cases conclusions (Some B are A) are (Some A are B) are ture. This case can be
comprehended clearly by taking two sets in all possible ways.
(i) A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

(ii) A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 2, 3}
The above cases show all possibilities of two sets A and B showing the relationship
between other as represented by the proposition – All A are B. Now in both the
cases we see that set {2, 3} is the part of set A and also of set B. Hence, it is clear
that inference (Some A are B) is true from this relationship. Likewise set {2, 3} is
the part of set B and also of set A. Therefore, it is also clear that inference (Some B
are A) is true. Inference (Some B are not A) is not valid because it is true from
case (i) but false from case (ii). Inference (All B are A) is not valid because it is
true from case (ii) and false from case (i).
Multiple Choice Questions:
Type 1
Directions (Q. 1 – 25): In each question below is given a statement followed by two
conclusions numbered I and II. You have to assume everything in the statement to be
true; then consider the two conclusions together and decide which of them logically
follows beyond a resanoable doubt from the information given in the statement.
Give answer
(a) If only conclusion I follows.
(b) If only conclusion II follows.
(c) If neither I nor II follows.
(d) If both I and II follow.
1. Statements : All books are Copies.
All Copies are Cakes.
Conclusion : I. All books are Cakes.
II. All Cakes are books.
2. Statements : All girls are honest person.
All honest persons are intelligent.
Conclusion : I. Some girls are intelligent.
II.Some intelligent are girls.
3. Statements : All elephants are dog.
No dog is a cow.
Conclusion : I. No cow is an elephant.

II. Some dogs are not cows.
4. Statements : No pen is a potato.
All potatoes are tomatoes.
Conclusion : I. Some pens are tomatoes.
II. Some pens are not tomatoes.
5. Statements : All skirts are shirts.
All keys are skirts.
Conclusion : I. All keys are shirts.
II. All shirts are keys.
6. Statements : No room is a house.
All houses are village.
Conclusion : I. Some rooms are villages.
II. Some rooms are not villages.
7. Statements : No mango is an apple.
No apple is a guava.
Conclusion : I. Some mangoes are guavas.
II. Some guavas ar mangoes.
8. Statements : No book is a pen.
All pens are white dress.
Conclusion : I. Some white dress are pens.
II. No pen is a book.
9. Statements : No bulb is a television.
All televisions are radios.
Conclusion : I. Some radios are not bulb.
II. Some television are not bulbs.
10.Statements : No rickshaw is a bicycle.
All bicycles are motor-cycle.

Conclusion : I. Some rickshaws are not motor-cycles.
II. Some motor-cycles are not rickshaws.

16. Decision Making
Decision making is an indispensable process in one’s personal and official life. A

decision is the final outcome of the process of evaluating and analyzing data. Systematic
analysis of facts and figures reduces the chances of inaccuracy and ensures speedy
decision making. The idea behind incorporating these questions in the competition is to
test candidate’s ability to exploit data for decision making.
In these questions, a set of conditions showing criterian for the selection of a

candidate for a particular job is given. Students are required to match personal data of a
person with the conditions given to select him/her for the job. Following examples will
illustrate these questions.
Examples
Directions: Following are the conditions for drawing a list of suitable candidates to
be called for interview after a written test for recruitment conducted for supervisory level
persons for a reputed company providing software and services.
A candidate must –
(a) be holding a degree in basic science with 60% or above or engineering degree with
45% and above marks.
(b) have passed the written examination with 65% or above marks.
(c) be in the age group of 24 years to 30 years as on 1.4.1997.
(d) have experience of working in a computer company for a minimum period of 3 years
after haing obtained diploma in computers with 60% or above marks.

(e) be presently drawing a monthly salary of Rs 8,000 and above.
In case of the applicant, who satisfies all other criteria except
(i) at (a) above, be referred to the Manager (Recruitment)
(ii) at (b) above, but has more than 75% marks in M. Sc. In Engineering degree be
referred to the Asstt Gen Manager (AGM)
(iii)at (c) above be referred to the General Manager (GM) Based on these criteria and
information provided below, decide the course of action in each case. You are not
to assume anything if the data provided is not adequate to decide the given course
of action, your answer will be “data inadequate”.
The cases are given to you as on 1.4.1997.
1. Niranjan Singh did his diploma in computers at the age of 22 after completing his
BSc. Immediately after completing his diploma he got job in a coputer company
and is employed for the last four years with a salary of Rs 10,500 per month. He
has got more than 65% marks in all examinations including the written
examinations.
(a) Data inadequate
(b) Refer to Manager (Recruitment)
(c) Do not call for interview
(d) Refer to Asstt Gen Manager
(e) Call for interview
2. Kamalnath has been working in a computer company for the last 6 yr after
completing his diploma in computers with 62% marks. He has completed 28 yr of
age in September 1995.
(a) Data inadequate

(b) Do not call for interview
(c) Call for interview
(d) Refer to GM
(e) Refer to AGM
3. Dipti Sahi has been working in supervisory capacity for the last 4 yr in a computer
company after having completed her engineering degree with 55% and diploma in
computers with 70% marks. She has secured 72% marks in the written
examination. Her date of birth is 15 January 1967 and her present salary is Rs
10,000 per month.

(a) Data inadequate
(b) Call for interview
(c) Do not call for interview
(d) Refer to General Manager
4. Jemina Khan completed her BSc at the age of 21 yr, completed her one year’s
diploma in computers immediately and got a job in June 1994. She draws a
monthly salary of Rs 11,000/- She has cleared all her examinations with a
minimum of 68% marks.
(a) Refer to GM
(b) Refer to AGM
(c) Refer to Manager (Recruitment)
(d) Do not call for interview
(e) Data inadequate
5. Anand Gupta has done his masters degree in science and then completed his
diploma in computers with 64% marks from a reputed institute. For last 4 yr he
has been working ina computer company. His age is 27 yr and his present salary is
Rs 8,500 per month. He has obtained 68% marks in the written examination.
(a) Refer to Manager
(b) Data inadequate
(c) Call for interview
(d) Do not call for interview
(e) Refer to Asstt interview

17. Statement-Assumptions
Definition: An assumption is a statement for which no proof or evidence is

offered. It is a hidden premise. It is something supposed or taken for granted.
It is a supposition (or presumption) on the basis of which we may take actions.
When Someone says something, he does not put everything into words. That
means some things are left unsaid. These unsaid things which a person takes for granted
is an assumption.
When we go to the reailway Station to catch a train scheduled at 2.30 pm, we

assume that the train will arrive on time.
When we see cloud in the sky we assume that it may rain.
Naturally, when the assumption are wrong the actions taken would be wrong and
the expected result would not be achieved. Assumptions can be either stated or unstated,
they are most often unstated.
Types of questions and hints to solve them:
1. Words like ‘all’, ‘best’, ‘certainly’, ‘definitely’, ‘only’, ‘strongest’, are associated with
some statements. So, when they appear in assumption, you must be extra cautious to
determine whether the assumption is implicit or not.
Example:
Statement: The new scheme gives people the opportunity to voluntarily declare their
undisclosed property and legitimize it by paying the lowest ever rate of tax.

Assuptions: (i) The new scheme is the best of all such schemes.
(ii) People may desire to pay less tax and own things legitimately.
Explanation: The fist assumption is not implicit because of the word ‘best’ in it. Based on
the given statement, we cannot assume that this is the best of all such schemes. Also, the
second assumption is not implicit because nothing is known about what people desire.
2. Sometimes, a statement consists of two classes joined by a conjunction. Presence of

some conjunction like ‘because’, ‘so’, ‘therefore’, ‘despire’, ‘inspire of’, ‘ever after’,
‘even through’, ‘although’, ‘as’, ‘as a result of’ help us to detect the hidden assumption
in a statement.
Example:
Statement: There was no outbreak of leptospirosis in city ‘X’ in spite of water-logging in

some areas.
Implicit Assuption: Water-logging usually leads to leptospirosis.
3. In certain cases, when the statement discusses some subject, it can be assumed that
it exists and when the statement mentions somebody’s absence, it follows that it is
non-existent.
Example:
Statement: Pampered children are often arrogant.
Implicit Assuption: (i) children are pampered.
(ii) There are arrogant children.
4. Also, when a statement includes an adjective that describes something

unconditionally, we can assume that the subject described has the quality denoted by
the adjective.
Example:
Statement: A trained dolphin saved the life of a drowning boy.
Implicit Assuption: Dolphins can be trained.
5. Some statements have conjunctions like ‘hence’, ‘therefore’, ‘as’, ‘thus’ indicating
cause-effect relationship. For all these cases, an assumption stating the cause that led
to its effect is valid. This cause-effect relationship is sometimes clearly stated or
sometimes, it is hidden.
Example: As you do not have experience, you cannot be selected.

Implicit Assuption: Experience is necessary for selection.
6. Sometimes, the statement is given in the form of an official or an advertisement of a

product or advertisement given by companies or public interest notices issued by
government bodies. For all these statements, the following assumptions are said to be
implicit:
(i) An advertisement/notice/appeal definitely has some effect.
(ii) People who issue public interest notices are responsible for it and it is their duty to
issue them. Also, what is being advised in these notices is for their benefit and its
noncompliance is risky in some way.
(iii)Implementation of any official notice is beneficial for the organization.

Multiple Choice Questions:
Type 1
Directions: In each question below is given a statement followed by two assumptions

numbered (I) and (II). You have to consider the statement and the following assumptions
and decide which of the assumptions is implicit in the statement.
Give answer
(a) If only assumption (I) is implicit
(b) If only assumption (II) is implicit
(c) If neither (I) nor (II) is implicit
(d) If both (I) and (II) are implicit.
1. Statement: Mankind can get freedom only through revolution.
Assumptions: (I) Revolutions can bring freedom.
(II) Except revolution there is no other method of

getting freedom.
2. Statement: The situation calls for immediate action.
Assumptions: (I) The situation is serious
(II) Immediate action is possible.
3. Statement: Poverty is a symptom as well as a consequence of social

disorder.
Assumptions: (I) Poverty is a type of social order.
(II) Poverty is related to social disorder.
4. Statement: “Educating the users can help control vehicular pollution.”
Assumptions: (I) Users are unaware of their contribution to

vehicular pollution.
(II) It is difficult to curb vehicular pollution.
5. Statement: “The most common forms of cancer can be attributed to heredity to

a much higher degree than previously though,” says the report of a study
published recently.

Assumptions: (I) Heredity was considered to be the main cause of

all cancers previously.
(II) A similar study was conducted some time ago.
6. Statement: “Desirable and qualified candidates should submit their application

form along with the requisite qualifications and their biodata” – An advertisement
for admission.
Assumptions: (I) Merely having qualification and aptitude for the

job does not make a person suitable for the job.
(II) Many candidates will apply because they are

interested in the job.
7. Statement: “Children of women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to
start smoking at a younger age” says the report of a research, conducted by
college of medicine of ‘X’ university.
Assumptions: (I) Foetal exposure to tobacco has a significant

impact on early initiation of tobacco use in
children.
(II) Tobacco exposure damages the developing brain

of a foetus.
8. Statement: Friendship is more necessary for the happy than for the unhappy.
Assumptions: (I) Happpiness is increased by having friends.
(II) Unhappiness is decreased by having friends.
9. Statement: Effective Propaganda is possible when the concerned understands

symbols and their relationship with the things.
Assumptions: (I) Propaganda must be effective.
(II) For propaganda symbols are related with things

they represent.
10. Statement: You cannot be employed, as you do not have expertise.
Assumptions: (I) A person with expertise is needed.
(II) You do not have expertise.

Basic English
Chapter 1
Introduction to grammar
Grammar is a precise study of scientific method providing essential information and

guidance to learn a language.
No one can claim to be a proficient in any language unless he has mastered the rules of
grammar of that language. Grammar also makes one acquainted with the sentence
structure and patterns, it also teaches how words are formed and it defines various parts
of speech, thereby providing adequate information as to when and where these parts of
speech are used in written English. Thus, Grammar is very essential for communication
and correspondence and its importance is indubitably unprecedented. English language is
not difficult to master if you understand the basics of grammar precisely.
More imperatively, sentence correction and sentence completion form an essential part of
CLAT exam. And to master topics like sentence correction and sentence completion we
should be familiar with the nuances of grammar usage so that we can identify the error.
Having realized the significance of English grammar we have designed this book to
enhance your knowledge of functional grammar through practice tasks.This book meets with all
these requirements of learning language. It is more concept based, exam - oriented and
reader friendly. The subject matter of this book is comprehensive, rigorous and yet very
simple. The salient features of this book are that it covers all the pertinent grammar topics
which are asked in CLAT examination and at the end of each chapter a set of practice
papers are given. All these try to test the aspirants’ grasp of English grammar. The book
is an attempt to compile and illustrate the fundamental rules, grammar and usage with
lucid and easy to understand approach. Each rule is followed by necessary explanations.
Explanations are as far as possible, in simple, everyday language. Examples of correct
usage and wherever necessary, examples of typical mistakes are given. The examples
worked out as illustrations have been carefully chosen and judiciously graded.
The purpose of the present book is exclusively meant to help students deal with the
English section in the CLAT with confidence. It aims to familiarize the student with the

wide range of questions usually asked in the entrance tests of most Law Schools and
accelerate your learning process.
As your chosen study partner, in this book we aim to help you as follows:
1. Enhance your knowledge of functional grammar through practice tasks.
2. Train you to spot and use the required tools to solve verbal ability and critical reasoning
problems.
3. A multiflex approach to English Language to make you familiar with the widest verbal usage.
Be resolute. Make up your mind. Set time – bound goals and go for them. Always remember you
are as lucky as the amount of hard work you put into your efforts. Take a plunge and enjoy it.
Grammar Glossary
Noun – A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.
Example: John, Maria, Pune, Table, Computer, etc.
Pronoun – A word used as a substitute for a noun (known as the antecedent).
Example: The pronoun is a lonely word: it must always be paired with an

antecedent.
Adjective – A word or group of words that describe or modify a noun.
Example: The slow, meandering creek sang a gentle song.
Verb – A word that expresses action or being.
Example: A verb is a word that expresses action or being.
Subject – The thing is the sentence that is being discussed. Usually a noun or a noun phrase.
Example: The butterfly had a short but beautiful existence.
Agreement – A singular noun or pronoun must take a singular verb, and a plural noun or
pronoun must take a plural verb.
Active Voice – A sentence style in which the subject performs the action. Usually preferable
to passive voice unless the passive is specifically called for.
Passive Voice – A sentence style in which the action is performed on the subject. Usually
inferior to the active voice unless specifically called for.
Active Voice example: The lightning stuck the tree.
Passive Voice example: The tree was struck by lightning.
Apostrophe – A punctuation mark (’) used to show possession. Also used in contractions,
which should be avoided in formal prose.
Possession example: “That was Nikhil’s favorite coffee mug.”

Contraction example: “You shouldn’t have dropped it.”
Appositive – A noun or pronoun set beside another noun or pronoun to modify it. Usually
accompanied by modifiers.
Example: An experienced backpacker, she left no trace of where she had

camped.
Conjunction – A word that joins words or phrases (i.e. and, but, or).
Example: I’ll pass on the chicken burger, but I’d love some pizza.
Clause – A group of words containing both a subject and a predicate.
Dependent (Subordinate) Clause – A clause that can not stand alone as a sentence and
must be combined with an independent clause.
Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town…..
Independent Clause – A clause that can stand alone as a sentence.
Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed.
Nothing will happen

until you generate the will to
MAKE IT HAPPEN.
-Steve Chandler

Chapter 2
Nouns
1. A Noun is the name of a person, place or thing, e.g.:
i. Ram is a good boy.
ii. Delhi is a big city.
iii A carpenter made this table.
The italicized words in the above sentences are nouns.
2. Nouns are of the following kinds:
(a) Proper Noun
(b) Common Noun
(c) Collective Noun
(d) Material Noun
(c) Abstract Noun
3. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, place

or thing:
i. India is a great country.
iii. Newton was a great scientist.
iii. The Gita is a holy book.
4. Common noun is the name given to the things which are very many of the same class.
Like, a table, chair, pen, pencil, man, woman etc.,
Sometimes, a Proper Noun may be used as a Common Noun, but even in that state, it will
begin with a capital letter, e.g.:
(i) Munshi Prem Chand is the Charles Dickens of India.
(ii) Kalidasa is the Shakespeare of India.
(iii) Ritesh is the Newton of our class.

5. A Collective Noun is the name of the same type of persons or things taken together and
regarded as one entity, e.g.:
(i) A bunch of keys or grapes.
(ii) A gang of bandits.
(iii) A class of students.
(iv) An army of soldiers.
(v) A hive of bees.
(vi) A fleet of ships.
(vii) A constellation or galaxy of stars.
(viii) An archipelago of islands.
(ix) A bevy of girls.
(x) A crowd of people.
(xi) A mob of unorganised people.
(xii) A swarm of flies.
(xiii) A jury of judges.
(xiv) A herd of cattle.
(xv) A flock of sheep.
(xvi) A committee of members.
(xvii) A team of sportsmen.
A Collective Noun comprises a collection of Common Nouns and is in itself used as if it

were a Common Noun, e.g.:
(i) This class consists of fifty students.
(ii) The jury was unanimous in its opinion.
(iii) The crowd was too large to be controlled by the police.
(iv) The mob attacked the police station.
(v) The Indian Army defeated the Pakistan Army.
(vi) The British Cricket Team is scheduled to visit India next month.
(vii) A bevy of girls has just entered the garden.
(viii) I have lost a bunch of keys.
(ix) A fleet of Indian ships is moving towards the Chinese sea.
(x) The bees rear their young ones in the hive.
(xi) Our class has been adjudged the best one in cleanliness in the school.
(xii) A swarm of flies often hovers over uncovered trays of sweets.

(xiii) A crew of sailors controlled the ship in the stormy sea.
6. A Material Noun denotes the original or raw elements or objects existing in nature, e.g.: gold,
iron, cotton, wool, silk, sugar, honey, milk, water, wheat, rice etc.
(a) The Definite Article “the” is often not used before a material noun, e.g.:
(i) Gold is a precious metal.
(ii) Milk is good for health.
(iii) Rice is the staple food of most of the people of the world.
(iv) Honey is sweet when tasted.
(v) We cannot live without air and water.
(b) When a Material Noun is used in a particular sense, the Article “the” is used before it,
e.g.:
(i) The iron imported from China is of inferior quality.
(ii) The water of this well is cool.
(iii) The honey in this hive is of a superior quality.
(iv) The cotton growing in this field has been sprayed with insecticides.
7. An Abstract Noun is impalpable and intangible and indicates any of the following four things:
(a) Quality: truth, honesty, kindness, humility, goodness, cunningness, bravery, softness,
gentleness, wisdom, foolishness, dullness etc.
(b) Action: movements, action, activity, theft, hatred, jugglery, mischief, behaviour etc.
(c) State: infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth, adolescence, freedom, slavery, soundness,
liveliness, sickness, sleep, death, penury, etc.
(d) Names of various arts, sciences and professions: economics, politics, history,
literature, physics, chemistry, botany, music, grammar, anthropology, pharmacy, etc.
Generally we do not use any articles before abstract noun. But when it is particularized definite
article can be used before it.
(i) Childhood is a care-free period.
The childhood of Ram was full of misery.
(ii) Honesty is the best policy.
The honesty of the boy pleased me.
(iii) Unity is strength.

The unity of our country depends on communal harmony.
Now let’s study some of the rules relating to the usage of nouns:
RULES - NOUNS
For the sake of convenience we divide nouns in different groups

and see how they are used:
Rule 1 Numerals preceding nouns: See following

examples:
Ten thousand rupees and not ten thousands rupees
30 head of cattle and not 30 heads of cattle
Two dozen eggs and not two dozens eggs
Two pair of shoes and not two pairs of shoes
But-
Dozens of pencils
Thousands of men and women
Hundreds of people
Scores of years
Many pairs of gloves
Rule 2 Hyphenation:
Three-way Street and not three-ways Street
Ten-rupee note and not ten-rupees note
A three-foot ruler and not a three-feet rules.
A 20-year old boy and not a 20-years old boy
Ten-kilo weight and ten-kilo weight
a four-man committee and not a four-men committee
6-mile race and not a six-miles race

five-year plan and not five-years plan
5-foot deep well and not 5-feet deep well
Rule 3 A collective noun usually takes a singular verb and is substituted by a singular
pronoun if it is taken as one whole:
The committee has given its decision.
The jury has given its opinion.
The Parliament has supported this issue with one accord
But-
The jury were divided in their opinion.
Team were wearing different colour shirts.
The parliament were divided in their support to the bill.
The ship sank and the crew were also drowned.
Rule 4 If the same noun is repeated before and after a preposition, the noun is used in
singular form each time and the verb used is also singular:
(i) Truck after truck is bringing people to the venue.
(ii) Mistake after mistake was committed by him.
(iii) Chance after chance was lost by our team to level the score.
(iv) Wave upon wave was rising, but he controlled the boat.
(v) Attempt after attempt was made, but no success could be achieved.
Rule 5 If two or more than two adjectives are connected with ‘and’ and the article has
been used only before the first adjective, the noun used after them will be in the
plural number and if the article is used before each adjective, the noun will be in
the singular:
(i) This art form was very popular in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
(ii) This art form was very popular in the thirteenth and the fourteenth century.
(iii) He has a office each at the seventh and eighth floors of this building.
(iv) He has a office each at the seventh and the eighth floor of this building.
(v) A number of historical incidents took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
(vi) A number of historical incidents took place in the seventeenth and the eighteenth
century.
Rule 6 A material noun does not take an article before it and not used in plural form:
(i) A book is made of paper and not papers.

(ii) Give me a paper is wrong, say give me a piece of paper.
(iii) Cotton is a cash crop.
(iv) The house is built of stone and brick, and not stones and bricks.
(v) Iron is a heavy metal.
(vi) Gold is a precious metal.
Rule 7 Young children and lower animals are referred to as of the neuter gender:
(i) The baby is playing with its toys.
(ii) The mouse lost its tail when a cat pounced on it.

Verbal Ability
Chapter - 1
Verbal Analogy
Direction: In each of the following questions, you are given a related pair of words or
phrases in capital letters. Each capitalized pair is followed by four lettered pairs of words or
phrases. Choose the pair which best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed by
the original pair.
ANALGESIC: PAIN::
1. Expenses: audit 2. Truss: suspension
3. Durability: hardware 4. Lubricant: friction
The relationship between the capitalized pair of words can be summarized as: An
ANALGESIC helps to reduce PAIN. The correct answer is (4), lubricant helps to reduce
friction.
What is an analogy?
Analogies are all about relationships. They test your ability to see a relationship between two
words and to recognize a similar relationship between two other words. The key to analogy success
is being able to express the relationship between the words in a pair e.g.
SCRIBBLE: WRITE::
1. Inform: supply 2. Mutter: listen 3. Nuzzle: feel 4. Stagger: walk
Here, the answer is (4) and the relationship that exists between them is that one word is a
spurious form of the other word. Scribbling is bad kind of writing and staggering is a bad kind of
walking.
Steps to solve such questions:
1. Find out how the capitalized words are related and even check their order.
2. Create a sentence that expresses that connection.
3. Test the choice with your sentence and eliminate the ones that don’t work.

4. if you are left with more than one answer or no answer at all- go back and refine your
sentence.
5. Choose the best answer. If none of the choices fits exactly, choose the one that works best.
Now let’s try out these five steps on an analogy question.
CONDEMNATION: DISAPPROVAL::
1. Ignorance: patience 2. Blasphemy: irreverence
3. Optimism: insight 4. Sorrow: intention
1. By definition, the relationship is one of “defining characteristic”.
2. A sentence that expresses this connection is “Disapproval is the defining characteristic of

condemnation”.
3. Test the choice with the sentence. Answer is (2) because “Irreverence is the defining
characteristic of blasphemy”. There is no need to go back and refine the sentence, so skip
steps 4 & 5 and mark your answer.
NOTE: The most important tip to get your analogies right is to have a good vocabulary because
until and unless you know the meanings of the words, you can’t express relationship between them.
So, start working on your word power now, e.g.
GRAIN: SILO::
1. Pilot: plane 2. Judge: courtroom 3. Water: reservoir 4. Clock: time
Now, if you know a silo is a place where grain is stored then it becomes extremely easy to gauge the
relationship. The answer is (3) because a reservoir is a place where water is stored.
There are various types of relationships that exist between words. They are:
S.
Types of Relationship Examples Explanation
No.
AGGRESSION: BELLICOSITY
“Part of the definition of’ One word is part of the
1. RIDDICULE: BURLESQUE
analogies definition of another word.
FAMOUS: CELEBRITY
POVERTY: FUNDS
“Lack of something is part One word lacks in the
2. TRAITOR: LOYALTY
of the definition” Analogies definition of the other word.
AMNESIA: MEMORY
STUMBLE: WALK One word is the spurious or

“This is a spurious form of
3. BRAVADO: COURAGE distorted form of the other
that” analogies
QUACK: PHYSICIAN word.

DRIZZLE: POUR
One word is more powerful
4. “Degree” analogies PROTEST: REVOLUTION
than the other word.
BREEZE: GALE
MOVEMENT: SONATA
One word is a part of the
5. “Part of Whole” analogies PAGE: BOOK
other word.
VERSE: SONG
BALLAD: SONG
One word is a type of the
6. “Type of” analogies CARDIOLIGIST: PHYSICIAN
other word.
SWORD: WEAPON
FOREWORD: APPENDIX
One word precedes the other
7. “Sequence” analogies REHEARSAL: PERFORMANCE
word.
INFECTION: ILLNESS
PAINTBRUSH: ARTIST
One word is a tool used by a
8. “Tool” analogies SCALPEL: SURGEON
particular person.
TELESCOPE: ASTRONOMER
WITNESS: COURTROOM
One word serves as a place
9. “A place for” analogies FARMER: FIELD
for a particular person.
DOCTOR: HOSPITAL
RETIREMENT: SERVICE One word marks an
10. “Interruption” analogies DISMISSAL: EMPLOYMENT interruption to the other
DIVORCE: MARRIAGE word.
GRIMACE: PAIN
One word is a sign of the
11. “Sigh of” analogies SIGH: RELIEF
other word.
FIDGET: RESTLESSNESS
BAROMETER: PRESSURE A particular instrument in
“Instrument and
12. ALTIMETER: ALTITUDE used to measure particular
measurement”
LACTOMETER: MILK PURITY quantities.
BUTTER: MILK One word is a raw material

“Product and raw material
13. SMETAL: ORE used in the manufacture of
relationship”
WINE: GRAPES the other word.
BOTANY: PLANTS
“Study and Topic” ICTHYOLOGY: FISHES One word is used for the
14.
relationship SEISMOLOGY: study of particular topic.
EARTHQUAKES
CURRENT: AMPERE
“Quantity and units A particular quantity is
15. PRESSURE: PASCAL
relationship” measured in particular units.
RESISTANCE: OHM

BUTTERFLY: CATERPILLAR A particular word is used for

“Animal and young ones”
16. HORSE: PONY the young one of a particular
relationship”
LION: CUB animal.
AUGER: BORE
“Tool and Action A particular tool is used for
17. CHISEL: CARVE
relationship” doing particular action.
NEEDLE: STITCH
AUTHOR: BOOK
“Worker and product” A particular product is made
18. TAILOR: CLOTHES
relationship by a particular person.
SCULPTOR: SCULPTURE
AUSTRIA: VIENNA A particular place is the
“Country and Capital
19. INDIA: NEW DELHI capital of a particular
relationship
U.S.A.: WASHINGTON D.C. country.
INDIA: ASIA
“Country and Continent” A particular country is in a
20. ARGENTINA: SOUTH
relationship particular continent.
AMERICA
AMAZON: AMERICA
“Rivers and country” A particular river flows
21. BRAHMPUTRA: INDIA
relationship through a particular country.
HUDSON: AMERICA
GREECE: GREEK A particular language is
“Country and Language
22. IRAQ: ARABIC spoken in a particular
relationship
COLOMBIA: SPANISH country.
CLEAR: CRYSTAL
“Relationship of One word can be compared
23. BUSY: BEE
“Comparison” to the other word.
CHEERFUL: LARK
PACK: HOUNDS
“Group and Unit” CHOIR: SINGERS A particular word is used to
24.
relationship CONGREGATION: name a particular group.
WORSHIPPERS
ARSENAL: WEAPONS
“Home and object” Particular objects are kept in
25. BARRACKS: SOLDIER
relationship a particular place.
DOCKYARD: SHIP
BIRDS: TWITTER
“Animal – Sound” Particular animals produce
26. APES: GIBBER
relationship particular sounds.
CATTLE: LOW
BOY: GIRL
Both words are of opposite
27. “Sex” relationship NEPHEW: NIECE
sex.
GENTLEMAN: LADY
NAN: BOY Different terms are used for

28. “Age” relationship
CALF: COW different ages of same type.

COLT: HORSE
INTELLIGENTSIA: ELITIST
RABBLE: PLEBEIAN One word is a characteristic
29. “Characteristic” relationship
GENEROSITY:PHILANTHROP of a particular person.
IST
LOTUS TEMPLE: DELHI
JAIPUR: RAJASTHAN
30. “Location” relationship First is located in the other
HANGING GARDEN:
BABYONIA
SOLICIT: REQUEST
31. “Synonyms” relationship FALLACY: ILLUSION Both are similar in meaning.
HACYNEYED: BANAL
ABDUCT: LIBERATE
32. “Antonyms” relationship CONTUMACIOUS: OBEDIENT Both are similar in meaning.
EPHEMERAL: PERMANENT
TRUCK: TRANSPORT
A particular item has a
33. “Utilitarian” relationship ARTICLE: PURPOSE
particular use.
PAINTING: DECORATION
GERMS: DISEASE
“Cause and Effect” One is the cause and other is
34. STORM: HAVOC
relationship the effect.
SCANDAL: IGNOMINY
BROTHER: SISTER
35. “Blood/family” relationship FATHER: MOTHER Both belong to same family.
UNCLE: AUNT
Analogies are basically a test of vocabulary. The given pair of words has a certain relationship
which needs to be identified and then pick the correct alternative on the basis of the instructions
given.
While it is essential that one’s vocabulary be very good, it is more important to be able to spot the
relationship between the given words. If you are in doubt about the basic relationship it is advisable
to not waste any further time and progress to the next analogy. A good understanding of usage,
knowledge of commonly used phrases and idioms go a long way in cracking analogies. These are the
least time consuming questions in the English secton and with practice you should be able to
average 6-8 questions per minute.
What Is An Analogy?
In general, an analogy is a parallel that is drawn between two different, but sufficiently similar,
events, situations, or circumstances. A verbal analogy draws a parallel between one pair of words
and another pair of words.

Directions: Each of the following items consists of a related pair of words or phrases presented in
capital letters, followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases presented in lower case letters. For
each question, choose the lettered pair that expresses the same relationship as that expressed in
the capitalized pair.
EXAMPLE:
UNFETTERED: PINIONED::?
1. recite: practiced 2. sully: impure
3. enlighten: ignorant 4. rever: unrecognized 5. adore: cordial
The single and double colons punctuate the analogy, telling where the comparison has been made.
The answer is 3. To be unfettered is to be free, to be pinioned is to be chained down. Antonyms. So
are to be enlightened and to be ignorant.
Relationships
A few analogies are not based upon actual dictionary definitions, but there is nonetheless a tight
connection between the two words. With a tight connection, you don’t need to know anything about
the particular facts of the case to understand the connection. All you have to do is think about the
meanings of words. To illustrate the point, contrast the following sentences:
This spinster is not married
This teacher is not married
The first sentence is necessarily true because part of the meaning of spinster is “unmarried”. The
second sentence may or may not be true, depending on the teacher’s marital status.
For this reason, you would never find a capitalized pair of words such as TEACHER: MARRIED.
SPINSTER: MARRIED, however, could be the basis for an analogy because of the tight connection
between the words. Knowing that the connections you are looking for must be tight can help you to
attack analogies.
EXAMPLE:
DAMP: VIBRATION::
1. drench: moisture 2. concentrate: extraction
3. boil: liquid 4. seal: perforation 5. stanch: flow
At first glance, you might think that the damp in the above analogy means “Moist”. You can try to
say something like “I vibrate when I am damp”, but there is no tight connection between damp and
vibration, so that cannot be the meaning intended in the analogy. Damping also refers to the
process of reducing vibrations, and that is the meaning intended here. Using this meaning, there is
a tight connection between the words. The answer therefore is 5. Damp stops vibrations. Stanch
checks the flow of blood in a wound.

What makes for difficult analogies?
1. Level of Vocabulary
Some analogies are difficult because they contain difficult vocabulary words.
EXAMPLES:
URGE: REQUEST::?
1. pry: inquiry 2. balk: obstacle
3. ruminate: silence 4. discountenance: plea
5. vitiate: punishment
IMPORTUNE: REQUEST::?
1. pry: inquiry 2. balk: obstacle
3. ruminate: silence 4. discountenance: plea
5. vitiate: punishment
The answer to both the questions is 1. The justification too is the same in both the cases. To urge is
a more intrusive form of a request. To pry is to inquire inquisitively.
Similarly importune is to make persistent or pressing requests. The second analogy is more difficult
because importune is not as well known as urge is.
2. A second reason that some analogies are more difficult concerns the type of relationship
involved. Some analogy relationships are concrete. The relationship just discussed (“is more
intrusive form of”) is quite familiar and very concrete. The following analogy is more abstract.
EXAMPLE:
ZEALOUS: ENTHUSIASTIC::?
1. pedantic: educated 2. flamboyant: stylish
3. cautious: prudent 4. pious: virtuous 5. idolatrous:

devoted
The best answer to this more difficult analogy is 5. Zealous is to be ardent, enthusiastic idolatrous is
to be a devoted admirer or worshipper of idols.
3. All analogies are constructed using nouns, adjectives, and occasionally verbs. The answer
choices will reflect the grammatical structure of the capitalized pair of words. One common
grammatical form is:
NOUN: NOUN::?

(A) noun: noun (B) noun: noun
(C) noun: noun (D) noun: noun (E) noun: noun
Another possibility is:
AJECTIVE: NOUN::?
(A) Adjective: noun (B) adjective: noun
(C) Adjective: noun (D) adjective: noun (E) adjective: noun
Since the first capitalized word is an adjective the first word of each answer choice will also be an
adjective. And since the second capitalized word is a noun, the second word of each answer choice
will also be a noun.
There are other possibilities such as VERB: NOUN and so on, but there is not need to memorize the
possibilities, just remember that the parts of speech of the choices will always reflect those of the
capitalized words. This feature of analogies is important because some words are ambiguous with
respect to part of speech.
EXAMPLE:
TENDER: ACCEPTANCE::?
1. Publish: wisdom 2. Exhibit: inspection
3. Scrutinize: foresight 4. Authorize: approval 5. Declare:

observation
Tender floated to award a contract is accepted after evaluation. An exhibit is inspected before the
final order is placed.
One way of looking at the capitalized pair of words is to say that “you TENDER something and then
you give it ACCEPTANCE”. But there is no answer choice that corresponds to this relationship. For
example, it makes no sense to say “you rose something and then you give it a thorn”. What has
happened? The word TENDER is ambiguous. It can be either a verb (meaning “to give in, as in to
tender an apology”) or a noun (as in a financial document when you bid for a contract). In this
analogy the word TENDER is meant to be a noun, not a verb. If you treat TENDER as a noun, then
you might describe the connection between the two capitalized words in this way: “A TENDER has to
have an ACCEPTANCE after evaluation” and “An exhibit is inspected before the final order is placed”.
But how do you know what part of speech is intended? You can resolve any ambiguity about part of
speech by looking at the answer choices. The parts of speech of the answer choices must be parallel
to those of the capitalized words. If you are in doubt as to whether TENDER is intended to be a verb
or a noun, look at the first word in some of the answer choices. You will find some word that can be
only one part of speech.

4. Wrong answer choices are carefully prepared. They must be wrong, but they are not supposed
to be so obviously wrong that the analogy is a dead giveaway. – An answer choice will be wrong
for one of two reasons. Either
1) it expresses a relationship that is not parallel to the connection between the capitalized words, or
2) it expresses not tight relationship at all. The next analogy contains both kinds of wrong answers.
EXAMPLE:
FRAGILE: BREAK::?
1. Invisible: see 2. Erratic: control
3. Flammable: burn 4. Noxious: escape 5. Industrial:

manufacture
The best answer to this analogy is 3. Fragile means brittle or delicate tending to break easily. The
same relationship is with flammable tending to burn on ignition. What is wrong with the incorrect
choices? First, a choice may be wrong because it expresses a wrong relationship. This is the case
with (1). There is a perfectly good relationship between invisible and see, What is invisible cannot be
seen, but that is not the connection between the capitalized words. In option 5, ‘industrial’ is related
to manufacture but the relationship is not a tight one.

Reading Comprehension
Reading Comprehension : Theory Notes
This is the age of ‘information’ and we must read extensively to keep up with the latest
advances. Those who can read quickly and accurately gain immense pleasure from doing
so and improve their chances of advancement in their career or studies. The better you
can read the more you want to read.
A classical liberal arts education used to guarantee that as a result one could read. This
appears to be no longer the case, except perhaps at the most prestigious schools.
Exposure to the writings of the great thinkers, philosophers, and writers used to assure
that one was exposed to complexity of thought and expression. Today, study is mostly
from second-hand sources, from predigested textbooks that are written, apparently, to
make the material accessible to a wider audience. Therefore, the typical student is at a
disadvantage when confronted with complex reading comprehension passages. What to
do? Exposure to many areas of written thought allows one to get attuned to the inherent
patterns. The result is that, when taking the test, there will be a ring of familiarity to the
material.
 Benchmarking Reading Speed

To start with, let us get an idea of your reading speed. Please time yourself on the
passage below and find out how much time you took to read it.
It has been a wonderful year for Hindi movies – suddenly, everybody is talking about the
need for something called a ‘script’. Even the producer, who would spend Rs 30 lakh on
one song and would gladly spend another Rs 2 crore on action sequences but would
grudge paying the writer even Rs 2 lakhs, has begun to realize that great song sequences,
great music, great action and even great stars cannot save his film, if it does not contain a
‘story’.
I think it was Hitchcock who, in his inimitable style, talked about three most important
elements necessary to make a successful movie: script, script and ……………… script! And it
was none other than Steven Spielberg who acknowledged that if the writers didn’t write,
everybody in Hollywood would be out of their jobs. And Robert Evans, the producer of

such blockbusters as The Godfather would rather have the next five commitments from
Robert Towne, (the legendary Hollywood script doctor who wrote ‘Chinatown’, arguably
the greatest American screenplay) than the next five commitments from Robert Redford.
Now compare this with the status of Bollywood writers. Where does a Bollywood writer
stand today?
Answer: Fifth from the left in the fourth row in any ‘mahurat’ photograph; somewhere
below the knee of the star, sucking up to him, narrating a dhansu introduction scene just
right for his ego; begging for his 50 per cent balance remuneration from a producer who
claims to have suddenly gone bankrupt; begging the director not to steal his credit;
hustling a successful director in the corridor of a 5- star hotel to narrate him six stories in
five minutes flat!
Bollywood which produces the maximum number of films in the world has, may be, three
thousand writers registered with its Film Writers Association out of which barely a dozen
get regular work, and not more than six are actually busy. The busiest, however, are not
even members of the Film Writers Association – Ms Laser Disc and Mr VCR Swamy. Now
compare this to Hollywood where every University has a film course, every city has film
schools and dozens of regular script workshops organised to teach script writing, which
produce, on an average, may be three thousand writers every year!
So is it a wonder that even the biggest blockbuster of the year can be best remembered
only for its tolerable music and interior decoration? Is it a wonder that the boxoffice has
proved to be the graveyard of most visual stylists? Is it a wonder that the audience seems
to have graduated but the film makers are still stuck in the fourth grade? Is it a wonder
that the most ‘agonising’ moral choice our heroes are burdened with is whether to pick up
an AK-47 or an AK-56? And what about dilemmas? Well, there is no dilemma too big for a
portable stereo and a Ganesha to solve!
Whatever ails Hindi movies, I hope it gets worse. Because things change only when they
reach the extreme-water turns to steam only at 100 degree C, not even at 99.99 degree
C. And because I love Hindi moview. Because I love being a writer of Hindi films. Because
I believe a writer is the first star of a film, not its last priority.
STOP: NOW NOTE DOWN THE TIME YOU TOOK TO READ THE PASSAGE
Refer to the table below to calculate your reading speed in words per minute (WPM)
Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM

30 s 1090 2 min 40 s 204 4 min 40 s 117

45 s 727 2 min 50 s 192 4 min 50 s 113
1 min 545 3 min 182 5 min 109
1 min 10 s 467 3 min 10 s 172 5 min 10 s 105
1 min 20 s 409 3 min 20 s 164 5 min 20 s 102
1 min 30 s 363 3 min 30 s 156 5 min 30 s 99
1 min 40 s 327 3 min 40 s 149 5 min 40 s 96
1 min 50 s 297 3 min 50 s 142 5 min 50 s 93
2 min 273 4 min 136 6 min 91
2 min 10 s 252 4 min 10 s 131 6 min 10 s 88
2 min 20 s 234 4 min 20 s 126 6 min 20 s 86
2 min 30 s 218 4 min 30 s 121 6 min 30 s 84
Now that you have a benchmark make it a point to calculate your reading speed by
approximating the number of words and dividing it by the time taken in minutes to read
the passage. This passage had 545 words in all.

 Speed Breakers in Reading

You: can become a faster and more accurate reader. The three curses of a slow reader
are: sub-vocalization, skip back, and ocular slaving. Sub-vocalization is when you read
out syllables or words to yourself as you read. Skip back is where you jump back a few
words every now and then to reread them. Ocular slaving is where your eyes fixate on
each letter or syllable in a word in order to read that word. These things slow you down,
reduce your comprehension, interrupt your concentration and wear you out. If you have
observed these things about yourself then your reading speed and comprehension is likely
to be 20% of your true capacity.
You can significantly increase reading speed by breaking what is termed the “sub-
vocalization barrier”. This barrier limits most readers to around 300 words per minute as
the reader reads each word or each syllable with a simple eye movement.
“The average person reads only 250 words a minute, endures eye fatigue, daydreaming,
poor memory and recall. Improvement is easy it starts with decisions to move forward”
The stages in which you will improve skills are – learn speed reading, mind mapping,
improved memory, comprehension, recall, used with books, magazines, research,
study, casual reading.
In the conventional speed-reading methods, which have you run your finger across the
page, Another suggested way is in what we call to get in “the zone”. The biggest Problem
Intelligent People Have When They Read Is, They Are Thinking Of 5 or 10 Other Things
While They Read”. That’s right, your head is pointed at the book but your mind is
somewhere else. You got to the bottom of the page and ask yourself “what did I just
read?” and you can’t answer yourself!
You should experience your eyes absorbing entire sections. Words on the page seem to
jump out. Your focus is sharp and unshakable. Your memory becomes impressed
permanently with what you read. You’re speeding through chapters with acute
comprehension and indelible recall. The skill is permanent. And it can be applied to many
important areas in your life besides reading. It all happens because of the focus, the
relaxation, the confidence.
 Comprehension
Now just to check your comprehension, without going back to the passage, take a minute
to jot down the main things that you remember about the passage above in the space
below:

Ideas discussed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Having jotted down the ideas, try answering the questions below. Remember no going
back to the passage.
1. The author is using the words ‘script’ and ‘story’ as
1. Synonyms 2. Antonyms
3. Supplements 4. Complements
2. Robert Redford is a
1. Producer 2. Writer
3. Doctor 4. None of the above
3. The number three thousand refers to
1. Number of films Bollywood produces.
2. Number of writers registered with the Film Writers’ Association.
3. Number of busy film writers of Bollywood.
4. Number of script writers registered with Hollywood.
4. It has been a wonderful year for Hindi movies, because
1. The biggest block buster of the year is remembered for its music.
2. The audience have graduated.
3. Our heroes are burdened with AK-47 / AK-56.
4. Everybody is talking about the need for script.
5. Which one of the below is not true?

1. Producers grudge paying Hindi writers.
2. If writers didn’t write, everybody in Hollywood would be out of their jobs.
3. China town is the greatest American screen play.
4. The busiest writers are members of the film writers association.
The answers are given at the end of the article. How did you fare? Did your score reflect
the number of ideas you could scribble down in the space provided for doing so. Had you
been able to concentrate during the initial reading of the passage in order to be able to
COMPREHEND and at least remember the key ideas.
 Eye movements and eye span

Another issue that speed – readers occasionally talk of is eye span. Have you noticed that
your eyes do not cover the entire line in a continuous motion from left to right. Rather the
eyeball moves 2-5 times as you cover the span of words from the beginning of a line to
the end of a line. Remember that any physical movement takes time, and so the more the
eyeball movement that happens the slower you read. This is also one of the reasons that
newspapers have articles written which are only 5 cm wide. One of the reasons why you
read a newspaper faster than your textbooks. The aim is to train the eye and the brain to
accurately read a single sentence or line of information with a single eye
movement. This technique has been advocated by many successful speed reading books
and seminars. The technique changes the way that the eye and the brain work together to
read sentences. This allows sentences to be scanned as a complete unit by the eye and
the brain is taught to read each word from the mind’s eye.
Now below we present an article similar in nature to the one in the first passage, but in
the newspaper format. Let us see how much time you take to read the article below.
Historians and scientists will try to recover critical pieces of the Titanic this week in an
underwater expedition that might lead to a better understanding of the oceanliner’s
demise.
A team of about 100 people are gathered off the coast of Newfoundland, where the Titanic
hit an iceberg and sank in 1912, resting four km below on the ocean floor.
They plan to bring to the surface a part of the ship’s hull and analyse the underwater
micro-organisms that are steadily eating away at the once – mighty vessel.

“I’m very confident they will get up the big piece,” David Livingstone, chief naval architect
of Harland and Wolff Technical Services, said from Boston before boarding a ship bound
for the wreck.
“It’s better co-ordinated than it was the last time.”
In 1996, efforts to raise the piece which measures 6.5 x 4 metres failed when scientists
raised it to the surface but could not hoist it onto a ship, sending it back down to the
bottom.
Livingstone said this expedition, which runs from August 5 to August 8 will attempt to
clarify what happened underwater when the ship sank and how certain marine processes
were destroying it. “I think all the reputable or serious engineers now accept what
happened to the ship on the surface.
“What we’re a little less sure (about), because we haven’t looked before, is what
happened to the ship under the surface.”
Speculation includes theories that certain air pockets may have caused rooms to implode
from water pressure after the sinking and that weaker steel was as much to blame as
human arrogance.
The 1996 expedition brought back pictures of the ship’s interior, but a tangle of pipes and
cables prevented explorers from going very far, said Livingstone.
Despite the public fascination with the doomed ship, the expedition is not without its
critics.
STOP: NOW NOTE DOWN THE TIME YOU TOOK TO READ THE PASSAGE
Refer to the table below to calculate your reading speed in words per minute (WPM):
Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM

15 s 1220 1 min 15 s 244 3 min 10 s 96
20 s 915 1 min 20 s 229 3 min 20 s 92
25 s 732 1 min 30 s 203 3 min 30 s 87
30 s 610 1 min 40 s 183 3 min 40 s 83
35 s 523 1 min 50 s 166 3 min 50 s 80
40 s 458 2 min 153 4 min 76
45 s 407 2 min 10 s 141 4 min 10 s 73

50 s 366 2 min 20 s 131 4 min 20 s 70

55 s 333 2 min 30 s 122 4 min 30 s 68
1 min 305 2 min 40 s 114 4 min 40 s 65
1 min 5 s 282 2 min 50 s 108 4 min 50 s 63
1 min 10 s 261 3 min 102 5 min 61
Now compare your speed with the earlier one. Did the reduction in eyeball movement
have any impact? The trick here is to be able to read as many words in a single movement
of the eyeball. In fact the attempt should be made to have the eyeball focused on the
centre of the page and to move down vertically. As an aid to do so draw a vertical line
with a pencil in the middle of the reading material and try to focus your eyeball on that
line and move down the page.
We do hope that you also tried to use some of the concentration techniques that we had
talked of at the end of the earlier passage. Let us check if you have done so. Answer the
questions that follow – except that this time we will allow you to go back to the passage.
The answers are given at the end of the article.
6. What might lead to a better understanding of the oceanliner’s

demise?
1. Detailed analysis of the pipes and cables in the interior of the ship.
2. An analysis of the underwater micro-organisms that are steadily eating away

the Titanic.
3. Bringing to the surface a part of the ship’s hull
4. All of the above
7. The chief naval architect is confident that
1. The investigation of Titanic’s demise will be a success
2. The analyses will be successful in identifying the under water micro organisms
that are steadily eating away at the once – mighty vessel
3. They will get up the big piece
4. This expedition is better co-ordinated than it was the last time.
8. The piece to be hoisted onto a ship will have to be raised in the

ocean by
1. about 4 kilometers

2. about 4 miles
3. about 6.5 x 4 metres
4. unknown height
9. The primary purpose of the expedition is to attempt to
1. Recover critical pieces of the Titanic
2. Clarify what happened under water when the ship sank.
3. Analyse the under water micro-organisms that are destroying the vessel
4. All of the above
10. Which of the following is not supported by the text?
1. We’re little less sure about what happened to the ship under the surface
2. Air pockets may have caused rooms to implode from water pressure after the
sinking
3. Weaker steel and human arrogance were to be blamed for the tragedy
4. The expedition has public support.
After you have finished evaluation, we would like you to reflect on how many times did
you have to refer back to the article. The phenomenon of going back again and again is
called REGRESSION. This is the enemy of the speed – reader. Needless to say, it slows
down your answering rate tremendously.
 Authoring techniques
Psychologists tell us that it is very difficult for even the most skilled reader to assimilate
and retain random bits of information. According to research pertaining to reading, when
information in the text is presented at random, the reader is disoriented. Research
indicates that readers actively look for a principle of regularity that organizes the text that
they are reading into a meaningful whole.
An understanding of writing styles can help one anticipate what the structure of a
particular passage could be. Major ways to organize an argument are –
Chronological – When the focus in the text is change or transformation, chronological
order is usually the pattern. In fact questions on the structure would typically address

issues like “When did event X take place? What was the duration? What precedes or
follows X?”
spatial – Here location, orientation or distance art critical. For example describing a
progression over a geographic area. A typical example would be an army’s invasion of a
territory.
Hierarchical – arranging some attribute in ascending / descending order of importance.

Understanding this particular structure will make you realize where the relatively more
important points are located.
Categorical – General to Specific and vice versa.
The topics for RC’s come from 4 areas:
1. Social Sciences – History, anthropology, sociology, government.
2. Natural Sciences – Bio, Physics, Chemistry, Astonomy, Botany.
3. Humanities – art, music, literature, philosophy,
4. Business – Economics, Marketing, Human Resources (only for CAT and GMAT)
The test writer starts with some previously published material, usually an article from an
academic journal or research work. The source material is edited, not to make it clearer,
but to make it less accessible. In this summarization, a lot of questions are actually asked
about material that has faced the axe in the editing process. For example, I would delete
some thing that is actually an author’s opinion and then ask you about the same. Or I
could ask you to define terms whose definitions were there in the original version, but
have been edited out.
A general cocktail would go something like this
- One main idea
- A few key concepts
- Some examples
- One or more undefined phrases
- Two or more competing theories

 Comprehension Techniques
Before you begin reading the paragraph, preview it. Read key sentences that are likely to
express the most important ideas and are key in the development of the argument. Key
sentences usually are: The first sentence of every paragraph, The last sentence of the last
paragraph. The first sentence of the first para is likely to outline the theme of the
passage. The first sentences of other paras will probably tell you what those paras are
about. The last sentence of the last para will hint about what the conclusion of the author
is. You can modify this to suit circumstances. If a key sentence is short, try, the next
sentence. If it is too long, just read the first half.
One thing that works for a lot of people is to read only once, (the passage should not be
skimmed and re-read,) but that it be very slowly and carefully read. Count on answering
the questions based upon this one reading. The reasons are:
* A slow, thoughtful reading of the passage allows the mind to form

unconscious, subtle connections between parts of the material. Answers to
many of the difficult questions will depend upon picking up on these subtle
connections. A reading speed of 300 words a minute is quite adequate to
get through the material. Repeated re-reading, hunting for the obvious
answers – which simply are not there – is what wastes time.
Passages can often be stereotyped into those that
- Argue a position (often social sciences)

- Discuss something specific within a field of study
- Explain some significant new finding or research (often science)
One’s job is to actively seek out such structures as you begin to read the passage. This
search for the structure should make you think about the “big picture” that the author is
trying to show you.
“How” the big picture is shown is the author’s tone. Taking the example of a passage that
is dealing with a new finding, the author is likely to be clinical in her description. Similarly
when the passage takes a position the style is argumentative. Or if the author is simply
describing the strongly held positions of others, the tone is factual or descriptive.
 Dialogue with the material

Understanding the Big Idea: First describe the logical development of the passage with a
single word like: explaining, proving, illustrating, refuting, reconciling, outlining. Then in a
few well-chosen words, summarize the content of the passage. Also outline the structure
of the passage in the margin.

More often than not the “big idea” is mentioned in the first third of the passage. The best
thing to do is as soon as you see the main idea “jot it down on paper”. Before you move
on to answering the questions, you should have done this. For one thing, the purpose of
the passage is to support the main idea. Also, many of the questions are much simpler to
handle once the main idea is clear. Always look for choices that are consistent with the
“big idea”. Wrong options usually are not consistent with the “big idea”.
While reading a paragraph, try to find the gist of the para. Writing styles usually mean
that the new para is started when we have just finished the discussion of one idea and are
moving on to another. So typically each para will be communicating a single idea. Also
mentally try to relate the para back to the passage as a whole.
Typically for university exams you would have always read with the idea of memorizing
what you read for subsequent reproduction in the examination. What makes aptitude tests
different is that the passage is available for reference – an open book test with the stress
on short term retention. So do not waste your time in going through details. If you have a
good idea of the structure of the passage you should not face nay problems in going back
to the relevant part of the passage.
* What’s the author trying to say?
* Is it true?
* Is it someone else’s opinion?
* Is the author going to rebut?
* Does the content agree with what I know?
* Am I supposed to take content seriously?
* I don’t get it. Is it meant to be nonsense?
An interactive reading will prepare the applicant to answer such questions without further
re-reading.
* The answers to the very subtle questions will depend on faint resonance in the
mind. The in – depth reading has the best chance of creating such resonance.
Consciously, there will be just a faint sense as to which answer is correct. In my
experience, it is the ability to pick up on those faint resonance which is being
tested.
* It is expected that the subject matter of some of the passages will be unfamiliar to
you. That may be the point. MBAs are expected to become instant experts on the

material in their cases. The ability to have quick insight into the unfamiliar may be
a valid subject for testing on the CAT. In – depth reading helps in this regard.
* Words are included in the passage that applicant is not expected to be familiar
with e.g., words as ‘homunculus’ or ‘halcyon’. Questions are then asked about
such words. The point is that the applicant is expected to decipher the meaning
from the CONTEXT, i.e., the implication of the words connected to it.
The first third of a RC passage usually introduces its topic, scope, the main idea and the
tone. The scope is important in the sense that while framing options the author will
attempt to generate some options related to the topic, but outside the scope of the
passage. For example, we might be doing a passage on “Poverty”. Now poverty is too
broad a topic to be covered in a 1-page passage – so probably the passage only deals with
a certain aspect of it-say that in a region of India. Any options that talk of things other
than India will be outside the scope of the passage. In identifying the scope, we are also
enlightened about why the author has particularly frozen in on only a particular aspect.
This reason is the objective or the main idea of the passage.

 Question setting techniques

The aptitude tests used for getting admissions to the top schools are very sophisticated
tests. The Schools need to make differentiations among applicants in the 95 percentile
range. Therefore the answers to very difficult questions must rely on some meaningful
distinctions grounded in the applicant’s knowledge, in logic, or the applicant’s ability to
draw inferences.
There are usually two types of questions – the factuals and the thematics. The answer to
the thematic questions in the Reading Comprehension passages are found not in what the
passage STATES, but in what is IMPLIED. This differentiates them from the factual
questions. The consequences are that some of the techniques useful for factual questions
may be less so on the thematic ones.
* Reading the questions before reading the passage. If the answers will not be
immediately apparent on a first normal reading, carrying unanswered questions in
short-term memory may just serve to confuse, without other benefit.
* Underlining and circling key words when reading, while useful for easier questions,
will have less effect because the answers are not in WORDS but in their
IMPLICATIONS.
Using outside knowledge may be beneficial to cracking a passage, but beware, the
passage tests you on the author’s opinions not yours. In case there is a difference of
opinions, you might end up egg-faced.
Reading comprehension questions measure your ability to understand, analyze and apply
information and concepts presented in written form. All questions are to be answered on
the basis of what is stated or implied in the reading material, and no specific knowledge of
the material is required.
RC questions therefore evaluate your ability to
- Understand words and statements in the reading passage (Questions of this type
are not vocabulary questions. These test your understanding and ability to use
specialized terms as well as your understanding of the English language.)
- Understand the logical relationships between significant points and concepts in

the reading passages (e.g. To determine the strong and weak points of an
argument or to evaluate the importance of ideas and arguments in the passage.
- Draw inferences from facts and statements in the reading passage (reach a
general conclusion based on specific facts)

- Understand and follow the development of quantitative concepts as they are

presented in the verbal material (This may involve the interpretation of numerical
data or the use of simple arithmetic to reach conclusions about the material in
the passage)
Here it would also be interesting to understand how the questions setter sets wrong
options. There are a number of tricks that she employs. Some of them are:
Contradict the main idea
Distort the main idea
Mention true points not relevant to the question
Raise a topic not mentioned in the passage
 Types of questions
We will conclude this part of the note with a small discussion on the Question Types:
Main idea – Already dealt with in the earlier part of the Note.
Title – A title, in effect, is the main idea summed up in a brief, catchy way. Be sure not to
go with a choice that aptly describes only the later half of the passage. A valid title, like a
main idea, must cover the entire passage.
Structure – “Which of the following choices best describe the organization of the
passage?” – Answer options to these questions are worded very generally, forcing you to
recognize the broad layout of the passage as opposed to specific content. Social Science
structures: - Make comparisons; Describe cause and effect relationships; opinionate or
reason; Science: - problem solving, cause and effect, classification of things and events;
experimentation; Literature: - Create moods, Narrate events, describe settings and
characters. Possible ways are: A hypothesis is stated and then analyzed; A proposal is
evaluated and alternatives are explored; A viewpoint is set forth and then subsequently
defended. These terms sound very similar but they are different things. Once you realize
that, such questions are a cakewalk.
Tone – Here please do not confuse the nature of the content with the tone in which the
author has presented her idea. A social science passage on violence in society may be
presented in a descriptive manner! Some examples of tone could be:
* Argumentative * Factual

* Ironic * Censorious
* Conjectural * Authoritative * Didactic
Inferential – An inference is something that is certainly true based on the passage.

Inferences require ‘reading between the lines”. The author hints at some things without
explicitly stating them. So here you have to translate the information in the passage to a
situation presented in the question.
Factual – Often the questions provide a clue as to where the answer may be found
(caveat when the question specifies a certain line number, be sure to check out the 5 lines
preceding and following that line number) It could be in the form of some text that links
up in the passage structure.
 Overall Strategy
1. Answer passages with familiar subject matter first.
2. Attack the key sentences of the passage first; viz: The first sentence of every
paragraph, The last sentence of the last paragraph.
3. Skim through the rest.
4. Attempt questions in an efficient order. - The thematics first, then the factuals,
save the inferentials for the last. Read the question, and not the answer
alternatives, then read the passage and try to frame an answer. Reading the
passage is time consuming. If you skip questions and move on to another passage,
you’ll spend a lot of time in re-reading it. So answer all the questions that you
want to answer without leaving anything for later – take those educated guesses
right away.
Answer Key to Exercise
1-1, 2-4, 3-2, 4-5, 5-4, 6-3, 7-3, 8-1, 9-2, 10-4

Speed Reading Practice Exercise-01

A Happy Anniversary Lunch, and Then…
Start timing  I won’t soon forget my fourth wedding anniversary. Four years earlier, a
woman had entered my life and changed it. On that fourth anniversary day, another
woman entered my life – and my courtroom and changed my perceptions a bit.
That day for me blended the ingredients of successful marriage with something that is
usually unrelated contempt of court. Much has been written of the first; the second tends
to be briefly noted in the newspaper and then consigned to the law books.
Judges contempt powers are awesome. When these powers must be used, the judicial
officers become not only judge and executioner, but also witness because, inmost
instances, the courtroom is where the contemptuous act occurs. It is the judge who,
based on his standards of seemly conduct, determines what a contemptuous act is, and it
is the judge who, based on the facts, decides if a contemptuous act has been committed.
If he so rules, it is the judge who punishes by imposing sentence.
Because he has such powers, a judge must be slow anger and quick to forgive; otherwise
my risk abusing these powers.
But to return to the events of my fourth anniversary:
On this special day I planned to launch at home with my wife. But before I could leave the
courthouse I had to deal with three cases – all scheduled to begin at 11:30. I hoped to get
one set up for trial in the afternoon, then postpone the others. It was 11:45, however,
before all three defendants were in the courtroom and I was studying the complaints
against them: One was charged with assault, another with driving under the influence,
and the third with theft.
I had to decide which to hear first, and that day my choice was not so much conscious as
random. I simply picked up one of the three pink complaint slips and called the name
typed on it. Up stepped a woman in her 40s, a lawyer at her side.
“You, ma’am,” I told the woman, “are charged with violating Section 23102a of the
Vehicle Code – operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor
and while under the combined influence of intoxicating liquor and a drug. The offense is
alleged to have occurred on or about…………”
“Drugs?” she shrieked. “What are you trying to pull?”
“Ma’am, I am only telling you what the complaint sets out as the charge; I don’t know
anything at all about the facts of the case.”

“What kind of kangaroo court is this?” she screamed.
“Please stop talking,” I said. “Not one more word. I expect male who comes to the
courtroom to act like a gentleman and each female to act like a lady. Leave now you are
ordered to come back at 1:30 PM. I will expect you to act like a lady at that time or you
will face problems totally unrelated to the charge which brought you to court.”
Defendants and witnesses in the remaining cases bristled. I bristled. The courtroom
personnel bristled. The others cases, however, went routinely it was a few minutes past
noon when I gaveled the session to a close.
On the 15- minute drive home, I was preoccupied with pleasant reveries about my
wedding day four years earlier and the lunch I would soon have with my wife. The baby
would already have been fed, so there would by just my wife and me to share memories.
Our time together, however, was much too brief. At 1 pm., it was time to leave, for a
pressing court calendar awaited me. Worse yet, I would have to deal with the bitter –
tongued woman of my morning session whose case I’d held over. Driving back to the
courthouse, I ran through a scenario in my head: I’ll start by explaining that I, as a judge,
had nothing to do with filing the original charge against her – its content (which had
prompted her outburst) is strictly the prosecutor’s responsibility.
Back in court, the spectators settled in their seats as I asked the woman to step forward.
For 10 minutes I drove home my point, taking care to be fair and thorough. The woman
smiled and nodded, so I thought things were going smoothly.
Then I asked: “Do you understand the nature of the charges lodged against you?”
“When do I genuflect?” she said sarcastically.
My response was immediate. “For making that statement you are held in contempt of
court. The sentence is three days in jail. Take her away.”
I stepped down quickly from the bench. It was now 1:45 p.m. and there was no time to
lose. Preparation of contempt commitment, fully describing what had transpired, was
needed to explain why the woman should be jailed. Should my contempt order be tested
in a higher court, my action would stand or fall on its content.
When my secretary arrived. I rushed through a first draft. Time was of the essence: Until
that paper was prepared in its final form and signed by me, all female prisoners in the
court complex faced delays in being transported to the County Jail.
After dictating the draft, I realized I had done nothing about the charges that had brought
the woman into my court. All I had one was react with anger on hearing the word
“genuflect.” Now it was too late – she was gone. There was no way to rectify my error,

and after the incident I knew I shouldn’t try. I returned her case to the calendar court for
reassignment to another judge.
By 4 p.m. I had signed the final contempt order in accordance with the California Code of
Civil Procedure. Then, after presiding at another trial, I headed home with some relief.
At the wheel, I reflected on the day’s meaning. I was not the first time in six years as a
judge that I had encountered erratic behavior, nor will it be the last. Almost always I give
the offenders a chance to think things over, to retract their statement or retreat from their
positions. Almost always they do.
Why was today different? One lesson it taught was that judges, just like defendants, are
individuals with complex hopes, aspirations, and expectations. Judges are human. They
live in communities. They have wedding anniversaries. They react to events both without
the courtroom.
On occasion, people overreact – on both sides of the bench. On occasion these facts of life
are forgotten by judges and non – judges alike. Surely, from time to time, it is a good
thing for judges to be reminded of their frailties, the better to wield their enormous power
over those in trouble.
My reflective mood was broken when, on arriving home, I entered the kitchen to my wife’s
greeting, “Hi, dear,” she said. “Happy anniversary – again. Did you have a good
afternoon?”
 End timing
Record here the time required on this selection: ___________ minutes

________ seconds
Test your Comprehension
DIRECTIONS: Which one of the following statements most accurately

summarizes the main idea of the selection you have just finished?
1. Judge America’s fourth wedding anniversary was a combination of a successful

marriage and contempt - of – court citation.
2. A judge should be slow to anger and quick of forgive.
3. The first defendant that morning was very discourteous woman.
4. The judge’s wedding anniversary was spoiled by the extra work demanded by the
contempt citation.

5. There are times when judges, like other people, may overreact, and judges should
remind themselves of their weaknesses in order to exercise their enormous power
more judiciously.
6. Judges, like other humans, have complex hopes and expectations.
Key: The answer is given in somewhat cryptic from so that you will not inadvertently
discover the correct response before making your own choice. The number of the
statement that best summarizes the main idea can be found by subtracting six from seven
and adding four.
(If you checked the incorrect response, reread the selection to discover why you
erred in thinking one of the details or one of the contributing ideas was the main
message of the selection. Much of your Speed Reading training will help you
understand the structure of writing so that you can more accurately and more
quickly grasp main ideas and see details and supporting points in their proper
perspective.)

Compute Your Rate
(Approximate Number of Words: 1100)
(If you have a calculator, divide 1100 by the minutes and seconds expressed as a whole
number and a decimal. Thus, for 1 minute 15 seconds, 1100 is divided by 1.25; for 1
minute 30 seconds, 1100 is divided by 1.50; and so on. If you are not using a calculator,
read your rate to the closest time from the following table.)
Time WPM Time WPM

1 min 1100 3 min. 45 sec. 293
1 min. 10 sec. 943 4 min. 275
1 min. 15 sec. 880 4 min. 15 sec. 259
1 min. 20 sec. 825 4 min. 30 sec. 244
1 min. 30 sec. 733 4 min. 45 sec. 238
1 min. 45 sec. 629 5 min. 220
2 min. 550 5 min. 15 sec. 210
2 min. 15 sec. 489 5 min. 30 sec. 200
2 min. 30 sec. 440 5 min. 45 sec. 191
2 min. 45 sec. 400 6 min. 183
3 min. 367 6 min. 15 sec. 176
3 min. 15 sec. 338 6 min. 30 sec. 169
3 min. 30 sec. 314 6 min. 45 sec. 163
7 min. 157
Your present rate Reading: WPM

Word List
Learning Vocabulary
How to go About it?
Vocabulary is an essential study if you have to appear in any competitive examination. Students find
learning words quite difficult, so ways have to be found that are both interesting and aid learning. It
is also worthwhile to remember that not only the words but also the usage is very important. These
days in CAT mere meanings are not asked. Instead, for each word, four sentences will be given and
the student will be asked to tick the one in which the usage is inappropriate. Only if you are aware
of the usage will you be able to spot out the wrong usage. This section describes how to remember
words and also how to use them.
Everyone has his own way of learning vocabulary. For some people random word lists will seem to
be the most appropriate, usually with a translation into the mother tongue. Other will favour some
kind of organisation, perhaps organizing their vocabulary through topic, word category or word
frequency. Some learners will find it effective to use vocabulary exercise in order to acquire new
vocabulary, while others will use vocabulary cards and regularly test themselves to check whether
new items have been learnt. All of these methods are effective in their own right and will suit
different individuals in different ways. It is also useful to know the relationships between words
themselves. Exploiting such relationship can be a very effective additional method of organising and
storing items of vocabulary and may help learners to learn and remember new items. Examples of
such relationships are:
Hyponymy: Chair, bench, armchair, bar-stool, pew, rocking-chair and deck- chair are all types of
seat. Thus, they are related to each other as examples of a type and have a one-way relationship
with the head-word, seat (a chair is a seat, a bench is a seat and so on, whereas a seat is not
necessarily a chair). Similarly, car, bus, van, tram, lorry, motor-cycle and taxi are all types of
vehicle. Learners may find it productive to store items of vocabulary under head words like these in
the form of simple diagrams.
Antonym: Associating words through their opposites appears to be quite a powerful relationship.
When asked what word they associate with ‘hot’, many people will immediately answer ‘cold’, rather
than, say, ‘desert’, ‘sun’ or ‘weather’. Learners may find it useful to store words with words that
convey an opposing concept.
Clines: Many adjectives, though close in meaning, are not synonyms but are related through
degree, with their meaning expressing a greater or lesser degree of a particular concept. Once
again, learners may find it helpful to store words in this way.

Collocation: It is clearly useful to learn words which typically “go together”, as in ‘perform a
task’, ‘make a suggestion’ and ‘do one’s homework’. Words can also be stored in this way in the
form of diagrams or mind maps and this may aid recall and memorization.
It is worthwhile to store items of vocabulary in the above ways. Using diagrams and mind maps will
appeal to the more visual type of learner (particularly if different colours are also used) but storing
items of vocabulary in a more systematic way should be of benefit to most learners.
How to learn Words?
First, it is often helpful to have some kind of “hook” (i.e., mnemonic or memory-device) to help you
to retrieve the word or meaning that you want to remember.
Second, you need practice in recalling the word. Third, you need to hear, see, and understand the
word repeatedly in its various forms and in its most typical contexts.
The following points, or some combination of them, may help you find your own best way to learn
vocabulary.
1. Use Flash Cards
Flash-card technology is still better than the most expensive educational computer gear that you can
buy. It is the quickest way to get just the repetition that you need on just the words that you need
to repeat. It is tried and true. And it is inexpensive.
Using index cards or a pack of blank business cards, write the target words and phrases on the
cards, putting one language one the front and the other on the back. As you review the words,
proceeding through the stack, separate the words into two piles: those you understand immediately,
and those you do not. Keep going through the yet-unlearned words until you attain a speedy
mastery of them.
2. Think of Cognates and Usages
Think of words directly related to the word in question (cognates) or of phrases that use the word.
For example, Semper fidelis (“Always faithful”) is the motto of the Marines. Therefore you may
actually have already begun to learn these words. Also, remember that a cognate of fidelis is
fidelity.
CAUTION: The cognate is rarely the exact equivalent of the meaning of the original word. For
example, fidelis (an adjective) does not mean fidelity (a noun).
3. Visualize and Vocalize
Meditate on an image that the word represents or suggests as you say it aloud. If you are walking
outside, look up at the sky and say “pristine”, “pure”, “spotless”.
4. Practice the Key-word or Key-sound or Key-letter Technique

Think of a word (called the key-word) Based on the first (or very prominent) syllable of the word (or
on the sound of the whole word) and then make up a story or an image involving both this key-word
and the meaning of the original word.
Stories are easier to remember than individual words, so this key-word will get you back to the word
if you are going from your language to the other one.
5. Read, Write, and Recite phrases
Discover, create, and review many comprehensible phrases using the word to be remembered. This
helps you to deep-process the word by working it into a whole web of meanings.
6. Repeat, Repeat, and Repeat
Especially for memorizing important parts and forms of words, sometimes only “brute” repetition will
secure your memory for certain hard-to-retain items. Frequent vocal repetition impresses the forms
on your “mental ear.” This auditory dimension will help you recognize and recall the words later.
7. Attend, Echo, and Associate
We forget words because sometimes we are thinking of something else when it is spoken. (We need
to ATTEND to what is said and really hear it.). At other times we hear the word, but we fail to
refresh our memory immediately by repeating the new word to ourselves or to others in
conversation. (We need to ECHO the word shortly after hearing it). Finally even if we do these
things, we might still quickly lose the word if we leave ourselves without some “hook” back to it. We
have no hook if we do not connect the word with something or someone else we know. (We need to
ASSOCIATE the name with something that is already meaningful to us. This practice helps us note
similarities and differences and deepens our original ATTENTION.)
8. Read Freely and Abundantly
We can increase our vocabulary through free voluntary reading. However some linguists claim that
we must have first acquire about 3000 to 5000 word-families, so that we will be able to know
enough of the context to begin to construct accurate meanings for the words that we do not know.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
a) Mnemonic Techniques:-
“Mnemonic” means “aiding memory.” Often referred to as “memory trick,” mnemonics work by
developing a retrieval plan during encoding so that a word can be recalled through verbal and visual
clues. Mnemonics help learners because they aid the integration of new material into existing
cognitive structures and because they provide retrieval clues. Learners need to experiment with
different kinds of mnemonic techniques to see which ones work best for them.
b) Linguistic Mnemonics:-

The Peg Method: This method allows unrelated items, such as words in a word list, to be recalled
by linking them with a set of memorized “pegs” or “hooks”. Learners associate words to be
memorized with these “pegs” to form composite images.
The keyword Method: It calls for the establishment of an acoustic and image link between a word
to be learned and a word that sounds similar. For example, the German word Ei “egg” can be
learned by first establishing an acoustic link with the English word eye then conjuring up an
interactive image of an egg with an eye in the middle of it. Similarly, the Spanish word pan “bread”
can be learned by imagining a loaf of bread in a pan.
c) Spatial Mnemonics:-
The Loci Method: To use this ancient technique, one imagines a familiar location, such as a room.
Then one mentally places the first item to be remembered in the first location, the second item in
second location, and so forth. To recall the items, one takes an imaginary walk along the landmarks
in the room and retrieves the items that were “put” there.
Spatial Grouping: Rearrange words on a page to form different kinds of patterns such as triangles,
squares, columns and so on.
d) Visual Mnemonics:-
Pictures: Pair pictures with words you need to learn. Studies have shown that this is an effective
and efficient way to memorize vocabulary.
Visualization: Instead of using real pictures, visualize a word you need to remember. This is much
more effective than merely repeating the word.
e) Physical Mnemonics:-
Physically enacting the information in a word or a sentence results in better recall than simple
repetition. Several teaching techniques are based on physical reenactment. Among them Total
Physical Response use of melodrama, and the Silent Way.
The Narrative Chain: Link words in a list together into a sentence or a story. By using the words
and associating them with each other you create a firmer connection between the new words and
those already stored in your memory.
Semantic Mapping: Arrange the words into a diagram with the key word at the top and related
words as branches linked to the key word and to each other. You can practice this technique in a
group.
Self-Assessment: Practicing retrieval can improve long-term recall. In addition, you can find out
what percentage of the material you retained with your study method and timing. If you are not
satisfied with the result, try new techniques and/or spend more time on task.
Personalization: No two people in the world have the same vocabulary because everyone has
different interests and experiences. In adding to the vocabulary contained in your learning
materials, you should make an effort to learn words that occur in newspapers and magazines.

Since you need to learn many thousands of words, it is a good idea to develop a plan for learning
new words every day besides those included in your wordlist. If you are a beginner, set up a
schedule for learning the vocabulary in your wordlist.
Review: Even though your self-test revealed perfect recall, chances are that by the next day you
will have forgotten part of the words. Unlike computers, human beings tend to forget over time.
Therefore, one of the keys to successful language study is regular reviewing of previously learned
words.
Real-Life Practice: When material learned in one context is retrieved in another, memory
performance tends to suffer. Military training, therefore, always includes practice under conditions
that simulate those in the battle field. Language skills learned in the highly familiar and safe cocoon
of the classroom tend to disintegrate in the more stressful real-life communication conditions.
Participation in real-life communicative situations during language training is a must. Seek out as
many opportunities for real-life practice as you can possibly find. Try to use the words you have
learned in real-life situations.
Retaining It All
One of the biggest problems with vocabulary learning is the what’s ‘learned’ today is often forgotten
tomorrow! We’ve all experienced this problem: what can be done about it?
There are three main ways of learning vocabulary:
1. Memorizing
Here are some strategies for memorizing that you can try:
 Say or write the words you are learning – this can help remember them.
 Record the words/phrases you are learning on tape, or as audio files, and play them to yourself
whenever you have some spare time (e.g. when traveling) – this way you will get used to the
spoken form of the word as well as the written form. If you record them on an MD player, you
can access each word easily.
 Play audiotapes or videotapes repeatedly (e.g. songs or part of a movie) – after a while you will
find that you remember the words.
 Write the words you are learning on pieces of paper/stick-it notes and put them round room or
home.
 Write the words on cards, with the meanings on separate cards. You can then play games such
as ‘Memory’ or ‘Snap’ with a partner (or on your own) by matching words to meanings.
‘Memory’ works like this (if you have a Nokia mobile phone, you’ll know it!). You turn all the
cards (words and meanings) face down, so that the blank sides of the cards are facing upwards.
You then turn over two of the cards at random. If the cards match, than you have ‘a pair’ (a
score for you) and you remove them. You or your partner then turns over two more cards. If the
cards do not match, then you do not score anything, and you return the cards (face down) to
their places. The winner is the person with the most ‘pairs.’

2. Using
Here are some strategies for using what you have learned (especially if you are learning vocabulary
for speaking or writing). Using vocabulary in speech or writing helps it to stay learned. As they say:
“Use it or lose it.” For example, you can:
 Create sentences of your own for the words you are learning, related them to your own
situation.
 Write a story that includes all the words you have learned.
 Learn words for a certain topic/situation. And then write about the topic using the vocabulary
learned, or have a discussion or conversation with a partner or partners, trying to use the words
appropriately.
3. Recycling
Here are some strategies for recycling what you have learned.
If you try to read, listen to, speak about or write about the same topic over a number of weeks, you
will find that the same vocabulary keeps occurring. If you follow the same topic over several weeks,
it is likely that you will meet some of the words you have tried to learn earlier. Meeting the words in
context will help you remember them naturally without having to ‘study’ them.
For example, you can:
 Follow a news story that is printed or broadcast every day for several weeks. These are not
always available, but look out for ongoing natural disasters (e.g. floods in China, earthquakes in
Taiwan), war (e.g. Iraq, Israel/ Palestine), ongoing political event (e.g. elections).
 Focus on one type of news story that occurs almost every day (e.g. Crime, Disasters, Sports,
Weather).
 Watch movies or read books or magazines on particular topics (e.g. Astronomy, Business,
Crime, Romance, Technology, Travel).
 Read books at particular vocabulary levels. You have a high chance of meeting repeated
vocabulary in simplified readers.
 Read several books by the same author (e.g. Jane Austen)
 Read several books featuring the same characters (e.g. Dilbert, Peanuts, Sherlock Holmes, The
Simpsons, Tintin)
Here are some suggested methods for reducing the ‘forgetting problem’.
 Learn words repeatedly, with increasing intervals between learning sessions. We all know that if
learning is not repeated, we will forget the words the words we have learned. But research in
Psychology shows that we do not forget things gradually. Instead, most of our forgetting occurs
within 20 minutes after we have first ‘learned’ something. More is forgotten within one hour, and
still more within 8 hours – but after 8 hours, the rate of forgetting stays surprisingly steady.

 Have the words you want to learn with you wherever you go, so that you can use any ‘dead’
time, e.g. traveling to university. Word cards or vocabulary notebooks are useful. So is an
Electronic dictionary (Mini Office) which allows you to select the words you want to learn and
test yourself on them, in random order.
 Set aside a regular time for vocabulary learning or memorizing – e.g. just before you go to bed,
or when traveling to and from university.
 Spend more time on the words that you find difficult.
Often, when learning vocabulary, people create a list with the target words on one side and
meanings on the other, and go down the list from the first word to the last, trying to memories each
one. This method can have two problems: Firstly, the words at the top of the list tend to be
remembered better than those further down; and secondly, time is wasted going over words that
the learner has already learned. One way of overcoming these problems is to spend more time on
the words that you find difficult. A simple way of doing this is to delete the words you know from the
list. If you sort in word, you can also change the order of the list, so that it’s not the same every
time. An alternative is to post words onto a wall or board, and take them down when you know
them.
Let’s say you are trying to learn the following 10 words (from an article on a fire which killed 170
people on board an Austrian ski train): asphyxiated, blast furnace, blazing, catastrophe, evacuated,
fumes, expressed condolences, fumes, inferno, mourning, victims. You write these words on cards
or type them into a computer document. You also create three small boxes, or sections on a notice
board, or tables in a computer document labelled ‘Daily’, ‘Weekly’ and ‘Monthly’. As all ten words are
new to you, you put them into the ‘Daily’ box first, as shown here:
 Asphyxiated
 Blast furnace
 Blazing
 Catastrophe
 Evacuated
 Expressed condolences
 Fumes
 Inferno
 Mourning
 Victims
A day later, you test yourself on all 10 words, and find that have remembered six of them. So you
move these six to the ‘Weekly’ box.
You continue testing yourself on the remaining four words each day and soon them all, and move
them to the ‘Weekly” box. One week after you started, you test yourself on the words in the

‘Weekly’ box. This time, let’s say you remember eight, but get two wrong. The forgotten words are
moved back to the ‘Daily’ schedule, whereas the remembered words can now be moved to ‘Monthly’
checking only.
After a month, any of the ‘Monthly’ words not remembered will return to ‘Weekly’ checking. And so
on. As you can see, words are moved in either direction from one box to the next, depending on
whether they have been remembered or forgotten. The method may sound complicated, but it
combines two principles that seem to be important in vocabulary learning:
A. Learn words repeatedly and frequently (which increases your learning load)
B. Spend more time on the words you find difficult, less on the words you find easy (which reduces
your learning load)
New vocabulary
When you come across a new word in reading, listening or seminar work don’t rush straight for the
dictionary.
A. Try to deduce its meaning from the context: Keep a record of the whole sentence in which
you encountered it.
B. Try to deduce its meaning from the structure of the word – it may contain familiar elements.
C. Try to find other sentences or phrases containing the same word: does its meaning change
in different contexts?
D. Notice what part of speech it is, and how it behaves grammatically – a range of sentences
will help this.
E. Note the other words around it (some verbs take specific prepositions for example): can you
read the word in isolation or does it have regular ‘collocations’?
F. Note who is using the word and in what style or register of discourse (spoken, written,
formal, informal, vocabulary pertaining to a particular age group or social context etc.)
G. Check its pronunciation (using a dictionary, asking a native speaker, listening to it in use on
a tape) and for longer words mark its stress point to remind you.
You’re more likely to remember something you’ve worked out for yourself.
Summing It Up
 You’ll remember words better when you’ve used them in context or, preferably, a variety of
contexts!
 Try the Internet – there are vocabulary tests and other language learning tools to be found.
 Choose yourself a ‘word of the day’ every day and think up as many ways of using it as possible.
 Try to use it with your friends, in class or in open access activities.
 Repetition is the best way to remember – copy sentences containing the word, write your own

out, tape yourself repeating words rhythmically e.g. write your own raps – then play the tape
back. Concentrate on using the words rather than mugging up the meaning only.

Types of vocabulary questions asked in CLAT
A brief discussion on the various types of questions related to vocabulary that have been
part of CLAT over the years follows.
Synonyms
Q. Which one of the following is closet in meaning to the word “Authentic?”
a) strive
b) original
c) genuine
d) spurious
e)
Argument:
The correct answer is {c}
Genuine means: not false, not an imitation
 The court declared the document as genuine
Strive means: great effort
 The minister said that the region must now strive for economic development as well as
peace.
Spurious means: seems genuine but actually false.
 The manager was suspended on spurious forgery charge.
Original means: innovative, inventive
 The inhabitants have voted over whelmingly to restore the city’s original name “Bombay”
instead “Mumbai”.
Antonyms
Q. Which of the following options are nearly opposite in meaning to the word “Perplexity?”
a) Bewilderment
b) Confound
c) Confusion
d) Certainty
Argument:
The right answer is (d)
Certainty means: definite, no doubts.

 He said with certainty that pets can help children develop friendship skill.
The options a, b, c are synonyms and therefore can be ruled out for the question is asking about the
opposite in meaning and not similar to the meaning of word Perplexity.
III. Odd Man Out
Q. Which of the following option which does not belong to the group?
a) Scarcity
b) Paucity
c) dearth
d) Dwindle.
Argument:
The right answer is: D
Dwindle it means- to grow less, to become degenerate. Other words are related to fewness;
deficiency.
IV. Idea based questions:
Q. Which of the following statement does not belong to the group?
a) Pray before you eat.
b) God bless you! The priest said.
c) Thank you for your advice.
d) Heartiest best wishes on your birthday.
Argument:
The right answer is: a
The options b, c, d includes greetings which is missing in option ‘a’.
V. Analogies
Q. Select the option that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the
original pair.
RACKET: TENNIS
a) Ball: football
b) board: chess
c) cock: badminton
d) bat: cricket
Argument:
The right answer is: d

As racket is used to strike a ball in the game of tennis, similarly a bat is used to strike a ball in the
game of cricket.
Q. Select the option that best expresses a relationship dissimilar to that expressed in the
original pair.
Cow: ox
a) Bitch: Dog
b) Tadpole: Frog
c) Mice: mouse
d) lioness: lion
Argument:
The right answer is: b
Bitch, mice, lioness are females whereas tadpole is the young of a frog.
VI. Fill in the blanks in a sentence
Q. What is the ___________ of this watch?
a) charge
b) price
c) amount
d) assessment
Argument:
The right answer is: b
Charge means that one has to pay for a service or goods, amount means how much there is or how
much one have, need, get, assessment means consideration of someone or something and a
judgment about them or estimation of amount. Price means cost, value.

Alphabetical Word list

Crack CLAT...Gateway to Law Schools Sample Study
Material
A
1. ABACK adj.
Backwards; hence taken aback means taken by surprise.
Roland was taken aback by our strength of feeling.
2. ABATE v.
To lessen, to nullify, to decrease, moderate, Slacken, wane.
Syn. lessen, shrink
Ant. Increase, augment, swell, grow
The storms had abated by the time they rounded Cape Horn.
3. ABDUCT v. ABDUCTION n.
To forcefully take away.
Syn. Kidnap, carry off, steal, nab
Ant. Deliver, rescue, salvage, liberate
His car was held up and he was abducted by four gunmen.
4. ABOLISH v.
To put an end to, to do away with.
Syn. Eliminate, stop, eradicate, annul
Ant. Establish, found, start, create
The following year Parliament voted to abolish the death penalty for murder.
5. ABOMINABLE adj. ABOMINATE v

Detestable, extremely unpleasant, very bad
Syn. Repulsive, monstrous, detestable
The President described the killing as an abominable crime.
6. ABORT v.
To fail to go forward or develop as expected. To miscarry, to terminate early
Syn. End, abandon, stop midstream
The decision was made to abort the mission.
7. ABSTEMIOUS adj.
Sparing in food, drink or enjoyment, moderate, temperate
Syn. Self-denying, ascetic, sober
Ant. Wild, abandoned, unreserved
It is eccentric to see the bulging bellies of purported abstemious saints.
8. ABSTAIN v. ABSTINENCE n.
To refrain deliberately.
Do you drink alcohol, smoke, or abstain?

Material
9. ABUNDANT adj.
Ample, copious, luxuriant, overflowing.
Syn. Plentiful, copious, rich, profuse
Ant. Meager, scarce, inadequate
There is an abundant supply of cheap labour in India.
10. ACCLAIM n, v.
Commendation, citation, eulogy, applaud, Announce with great approval
Syn. Applause, cheer, encomium
Ant. Disapprove, odium, boycott
She has been acclaimed for the TV drama ‘Surbhi’.
11. ACCOMPLICE n.
Conspirator, companion, coworker, associate in a crime.
Syn. Accessory, co-conspirator
The gunman escaped on a motorcycle being ridden by an accomplice.
12. ACERBIC adj. ACERBITY n.

Bitter and sour, corrosive
Syn. Acidulous, cutting caustic, mordant
Ant. Mild, gentle, meek, placid, calm.
He was acclaimed for his acerbic wit and repartee.
13. ACOUSTIC adj. ACOUSTICS pl (n.)

Related to theory of sound or hearing, quality that makes a room easy or hard to hear in.
Syn. Audio, aural, auditory, sound.
The church is acoustically perfect.
14. ACUITY n.
Keenness of perception; sharpness.
We work on improving visual acuity.
15. ACRID adj.

Bitter, pungent, sarcastic, acerbic, vitriolic, caustic, sharp, biting.
Syn. Choking, unpleasant, harsh.
Ant. Savoury, delectable.
The room filled with the acrid smell of tobacco.
16. ACRIMONIOUS adj. ACRIMONY n.

Full of bitterness in words or manner.
Syn. Spiteful, rancorous, hostile.
Ant. Musical, congruent, cordial.
The council’s first meeting ended in acrimony.
17. ACROBAT n.
Gymnast, tumbler.
Syn. Trapeze artist, circus performer.

Material
Generally children are captivated by the performance of acrobats at the circus.
18. ACRONYM n.
A word formed from the initial letters of other words.
Syn. Short form, contraction, ellipsis.
An example of an acronym is NATO which is made up of the first letters of the ‘North
Atlantic Treaty Organization’.
19. ACTUARY n. ACTUARIAL adj.

A statistician who compotes insurance risks and premiums.
The company’s actuarial report is available on demand.
20. ADDLE v.
Become rotten, confuse
Suppose the shock had addled his poor old brain.
21. ADIEU n.
A farewell.
Syn. Goodbye, bon voyage, sayonara
Ant. Salutation, welcome, greet.
The senior students were given adieu party by their juniors.
22. ADJURE v.
To charge on oath or to command solemnly under
Syn. Swear in, entreat, beseech.
The witness was adjured on holy book Geeta to speak the truth.
23. ADORN v.
Decorate, beautify, garnish,
Syn. Embellish, polish, glamorize
Ant. Blemish, disfigure, distort.
His watercolour designs adorn a wide range of books.
24. ADVERSARY n.
Opponent, hostile rival, enemy.
Syn. Challenger, rival.
Ant. Supporter, follower, fan, backer
His political adversaries were creating a certain amount of trouble for him.
25. AFFECT v.
To act on, to influence, to move.
Syn. Involve, shape, touch, disturb
Nicotine adversely affects the functioning of the heart and arteries.

Material
26. AFFLICTION n.
The cause of persistent pain or distress; great suffering.
Syn. Ordeal, tribulation.
Ant. Consolation, solace.
Hay fever is an affliction which arrives at an early age.
27. AFTERMATH n.
Consequence, result, events following
In the aftermath of the coup, the troops opened fire on the demonstrators.
28. AGAPE adj.

Wide open, open-mouthed
Syn. Astonished, amazed.
She stood looking at Carmen with her mouth agape.
29. AGGRAVATE v.
To worsen, to make more grievous, intensify, to exacerbate, burden, irritate.
Syn. Worsen, exaggerate, intensify
Ant. Calm, pacify, quiet, appease
Stress and lack of sleep can aggravate the situation.
30. AGOG adj.

Full of intense interest or excitement.
Syn. Eager, anxious, keen
Ant. Aloof.
Young generations are all agog over latest technologies.

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Gateway to Law Schools Sample Study Material

Sample Study Material

There are three modules designed for the legal studies:

Module 1: Law of Torts

Module 2: Law of Contract & Crime

Module 3: Legal G.k.

How to refer the modules?

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 1

Now question arises: How to develop legal skills?

To be more clear refer the following explanations:

FACTS: Imaginative incidents are put up to which principle has to be applied.

The following symbols symbolize:

: Note : Recall important points : Question

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 2

Certain entities are explained with the help of following table:

Entity Literal Meaning Explanation

CLAT : Common law It is a competitive exam that testifies the examinee

Quantitative Problem based on It represents any situation where student needs to

Student: A person in pursuit of It represents a person who has certain goals to

Time: A non-renewable It could be understood by famous saying, “Time once

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 3

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 4

Examples of torts could include:

Why do we need tort

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 5

Who is Plaintiff / Complainant

a) Plaintiff is the person who files the plaint.

c) He is the one who denies the accusation of the plaintiff.

If defendant is proved to be at fault shall be made liable to pay damages.

Comparing Civil and Criminal:

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 6

In brief, the differences between the two terms are as following:-

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 7

Now what do we mean by term damages

How many kinds of damages can be awarded to injured party?

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 8

property repair or replacement costs or loss of money due on a contract.

3. Exemplary/punitive damages, which combines punishment and the setting of public

a) When damage is caused by oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional action of govt. or its

d) Seduction of one's daughter, wife etc.

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 9

Role of Guilty mind in tort

It strikes in one mind:

Does guilty mind plays important role in wrongs committed in torts

Role of Malice/ Evil motive in tort

While studying the law of torts a question erupts in mind:

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 10

Does malice plays same role in tort law as in crime

Is it Law of Tort or Law of Torts?

In other words, the question is:

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 11

I. Personal wrongs: Torts may relate to:

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 12

To constitute a tort, it is essential that the following two conditions be satisfied:

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 13

i. The owner is not responsible because he holds no responsibility towards the

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 14

iv. None of the above.

i. Cynamide company would be liable only to the extent of contamination caused ;

iii. Cynamide is not liable for unexpected leakage.

© Crack CLAT Tutorials 15

i. His will not succeed because he has sustained no injury.