Ovidius University Annals of Mechanical, Industrial and Maritime Engineering Volume X, Tom I, 2010

Water Resistance Force - Pivot Point

Paul D. BUTUŞINĂ¹, Dumitru DINU²
1
Master of DSV Mamola Champion,Promar S.S.Geneva,Switzerland
2
Professor, Constanta Maritime University, Romania

Abstract

Searching by ship handling books we will find, starting from the base knowledge, that moments of
forces applied on a vessel are reported sometimes from her Center of Gravity and more times from her Pivot
Point.
It appears the question what is Pivot Point, how it appears and what is relation between forces acting
upon a vessel and Pivot Point as well as how to use the Pivot Point for practical purposes.
The answer results analysing forces involved in different situations, especially effects of Water
Resistance Force versus other forces.
Thus will result how the vessel will react and how Pivot Point (PP) has to be used.

Keywords: Water Resistance Force; Pivot Point

1. Introduction and definitions
Pivot Point is the point around a ship turns. It
is of special interest for who is involved in handling
of ships. As the vessel turns about the PP, it needs
more space to turn if the PP is not located near mid
ship. For a ship of length L, if the PP is located at
mid ship, the swept path required is about 
(L²/4).It takes four times as large swept path if the
PP is located at the bow [4]. Few distinctions have
to be done in terms which are using to operate with.
We have, from the beginning, to make a
distinction between PP and the Center of Turning
circle.
PP is connected with ship’s rotation, it has
nothing to do with the centers of circles or parts of
circles, of the ship’s track.
Obviously, there is a PP when a vessel is in a
rotation movement only. Theoretically it is used, on
a large scale, to talk about PP as a virtual point
existing all the time inside of the shape of the
vessel. The reality as you will see it is not quite so.
To clarify few things regarding PP we
have to introduce, between well known factors
which react during ship handling, the hydrodynamic
effects, pointing the Center of Water Resistance and
Pressures around the vessel.
During straight fore ward movement,
water-resistance force is applied right on the stem,
somewhere at mid draft, depending of bow shape
(classic or bulbous).In the same time it is recorded
high pressure in front and around the bow.
Same judgment works for straight astern
movement simplifying and do not considering
influence of the propeller and rudder. Shape of
underwater hull is very important for high pressure
repartition.
As soon as, during movement ahead or astern,
due to one of controlled or uncontrolled horizontal
forces acting on the vessel, ship starts to turn and
she will expose to the water flow another section,
larger than going straight along fore-aft axis X-X’,
the pick of water-resistance and pressure will shift
from axe X-X’ to the geometrical center of
underwater hull section area perpendicular on the
new direction of the movement. The maximum of
the ship’s section which can be exposed to the water

ISSN-1223-7221 © 2010 Ovidius University Press

2 Water Resistance Force-Pivot Point / Ovidius University Annals, Tehnonav Conference, (2010)
flow is her longitudinal section for a lateral
movement (drift) on transversal axis Y-Y’.
 The direction of the water-resistance could be
anywhere between axis X-X’ and Y-Y’.
Depending of the direction of the movement,
the vessel’s speed, hull shape, trim and heel, the
application point of the water-resistance force will
be in different points along the vessel.
To analyze the influence of horizontal forces
applied on the vessel (steering force, propeller force,
lateral thrusters, tugs or pushers, wind and currents)
and reducing phenomenon to classical mechanics,
we have to report these forces to the water-
resistance force or high pressure in the area where it
acts. The arm lever of these forces is distance
between their supports and Water-Resistance Force.
The action of a force or resultant of few
forces acting on a vessel will generate two
movements – a rotation and a sideway movement. A
rotation movement has a center of rotation which it
is used to call Pivot Point (PP).
The ship’s PP is the place from where fore and
aft extremities of the vessel are turning with the
same angular speed. This does not mean that PP is
inside of ship’s shape in all situations.
Trying to be more accurate, PP is defined as a
point at distance Xp measured from the center of
gravity of the ship that satisfies the relationship [4]:
ν + Xp · r = 0 (1)
Where:
v - is sway speed at the center of gravity of
the ship;
r - is the yaw rate.
PP is characterized by a zero drift angle. Fore
ward of the PP, inflow appears to come from one
side of the ship while aft of the PP, the inflow
appears to come from the other side of the ship [8].
Specifically, due to combination of side motion and
the rotation, causes the ship to appear to rotate about
PP. An observer changing his position on a vessel in
rotation, can find in most of cases, by sight, a place
from where the horizon seems to rotate with same
speed – it is the PP of the ship at that moment.
It is possible to estimate the pivot point Xp
from Eq.(1) if it can measure the yaw rate r and the
sway speed v. It can be done either using a dual axes
Doppler speed loch in conjunction with a gyro rate
or a GPS receiver placed in Center of Gravity of the
vessel and a compass (gyro/magnetic) either,
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independent of Center of Gravity, using two GPS
receivers placed on ship’s extremities and measuring
tangential speeds.
Keeping in mind that PP is determined by
relation involving water-resistance respectively
water-pressure, another method to find it is to
measure the pressure around the vessel or a testing
model and to find the picks (up and down) of
pressures. This method still needs to be tested by
experiments.
It follows, from Eq.(1) that:
Xp = -v/r (2)
Eq.(2) is ill defined when the yaw rate is zero,
which corresponds to a straight line motion. When
the vessel movies on a straight line ahead or astern
or she is in a pure sway motion, it is reasonable to
consider PP at infinity [4]. In other words saying,
when the vessel moves along axe X-X’ or she drifts
along axe Y-Y’, there are not a PP and it is unfair to
declare that PP is fore or aft function of direction of
ship’s movement, as it is used in present.
2. Water Resistance and Pivot Point of a vessel
stopped
Considering a stopped ship, without movement
through the water and rudder mid ship’s, we can find
a point situated about at its mid length, from where
if a tug will push with a force F (Fig.1), fore and aft
extremities of the ship are moving with V1= V2.
The force F is applied on the same support as water-
resistance force WR. Its center of application is
Center of Water Resistance, CWR. Arm lever of F
and WR is zero.
The ship will be translated from axis a-a’ to b-
b’ (a-a’ II b-b’). In this case there is not rotation, nor
PP, or it is situated at infinity.
If the force is applied closer to mid length but
more to one side of the considered ship, let to say aft
(Fig.2), the arm lever of forces F and WR will be
“d” and the ship will record a side movement and a
 If the ship will start to move ahead
a b
keeping her rudder mid ship’s (fig.4), due to drifting
V2 movement with speed D, vessel will move on the

a
b
F WR
PP

CWR

V1

a’ b’
’ V2

d
Fig.1
W
rotation (V1>V2). The axis a-a’ will be intersected F R
by b-b’ in PP. If the ship would be anchored, PP
would be where the anchor was dropped. In this case CW
PP is outside of ship’s shape. R
Outside ship shape PP is of special interest for
4 points mooring vessels when they deploy or
V1
recover anchors in current or strong winds when
very interesting fenomena are recorded, sometimes b’
putting ships in imposibility to manoeuvre. a’
’ Fig.2
If the tug will push with force F closer to aft (Fig.3),
the arm lever of F and WR , d1 > d (from fig.2) and
rotation of the ship will be faster (V1>>V2) and PP
will be located inside of ship’s shape close to
resultant of propulsion speed P and D, respectively
application point of WR in ship fore part. During
with speed P1 on its direction. Water resistance
action of F, it appears a water flow (WF) around the
force WR increases and it will shift fore ward. The
bow which creates low pressure (LP) responsible for
result is a shift of PP fore ward in the direction of
a slight fore ward movement of the vessel.
movement.
Arm lever of F and WR, d2 > d1 and in
consequence V1 >> V2, it means the vessel will turn
more quickly. Even with a kick ahead, this
3. Water Resistance and Pivot Point of a moving
increasing of rotation speed can be seen. This
vessel
phenomenon is valid for astern movement if the tug
acts fore ward. In such case, due to short distance

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between WF application point and PP, in practice,
by ship handlers, it is used to consider PP as a a’’
reference point for WR application point. In reality b P1
application point of WR depend of underwater shape
of the vessel.
PP
P
Fig.4.a shows the measured sway speed, v and
4.b the yaw rate, r, for a Very Large Crude Oil
Carrier at 35 degrees rudder ,turning maneuver[4]. WR
PP computed with Eq.(2) is shown in Fig. 4.c. It is
observed that during 35 degrees turning maneuver,
V2
the PP moves from midship to about 1/5 ship length
D
aft bow.

d2
CWR

b’
F
V1

a’ a’’’
’
Fig.4

5
 a a’’
b P1

PP
P

WR

V2
D

d2
CWR

b’
F
V1

a’ a’’’
’
Fig.4

Once ship starts to rotate under action of a

force F (Fig.4d), important masses of water WF
move under and along her hull. Due to their inertia
water movement will continue when action of F
ceases and ship will continue to rotate.
To estimate effect of F it has to calculate its
moment. Again, in practice ship handlers use to
calculate this taking arm lever, d, between estimated
PP and position of the tug or thruster. Explanation is
clear. PP can be appreciates by sight but WR
application point can not.

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7 Paul Butuşină, Dumitru Dinu / Ovidius University Annals, Tehnonav Conference, (2010)

a a’’
b

P
WR
PP
V2

CWR
d
WF

V1
b’

a’’’
a’
Fig. 4.a,b,c[4]
’
Fig.4d
8 Paul Butuşină, Dumitru Dinu / Ovidius University Annals, Tehnonav Conference, (2010)

Effects of changing the resistance through

water and position of PP can be seen on a ship
stopped with bow and stern thrusters engaged at
equal power, thrusting in the same direction, let to a b
say to starboard (Fig.5). Rudder is set mid ship.
Vessel is on even keel and no heel. Arm levers of V2
thrusters are equals, d1 = d2 and consequently V1 F1
= V2. Vessel will drift only.As soon as the engine
is engaged, even for a kick ahead (fig.6), the CWR
position of WR will shift in direction of movement
and the ratio between arm levers of the thrusters d
will change, in our case d2 = 0 and d1 reaching its 2
maximum length. V1 become bigger than V2 and
vessel will turn to port, placing her on axis b-b’.
WR
It is important not to overlook the fact that
we are considering only the ship's headway or d
sternway through the water, not over the ground. 1
If the vessel is stationary with respect to the shore,
V1
but is stemming in the current, the PP will be F2
forward,since the vessel has headway with respect
to the water. Likewise, if she is tied to the dock,
with a current from astern, the pivot point will be
aft at the moment the lines are cast off. a’ b’
Changing of arm lever of ship’s thrusters is ’
very well known by ship handlers which use it to
increase efficiency of these controllable forces. If Fig.5
bow thruster is weak it is enough a kick astern to
increase its arm lever and consequently its
efficiency (Fig.6a). propeller, rudder mid ship’s, being in position
along axis a-a’ and just start moving astern (Fig.7).
4. Water Resistance, Pivot Point and particular The wind blows from starboard quarter.
effects Expectation, due to propeller transversal
thrust and wind is movement M1, a turning and
4.1 Coming into wind eventually drifting to port. Due to shifting of WR
application point aft, between wind force W and
Another interesting effect against usual WR appear a couple which will bring ship’s stern
expectation of changing WR application point is in movement M2 on axis b-b’ into the wind, up to
coming into wind. a certain angle when d will become zero.
To be more evident, we will consider a Opposite effect can be obtained if it will try to turn
vessel with accommodation aft and a right hand the vessel using the thruster situated at same level
as WR, in our case stern thruster (Fig.7b). Its
arm lever will be almost zero and the effect will be
the drift of entire vessel only. In this case no PP.

4.2 “Donkey-like” effect

One of the most spectacular effect of

application of an external force upon a vessel and
getting an opposite result (donkey-like) is the
 by inertia its drifting with speed GI. Due to arm
a a’’ lever d between GI and WR, it appears a couple
which will
b

a a’’
V2 WR

b
F1

PP CWR
d

P PP
d
F2 1
PP
CWR

V1 b’
a’ WR
a’’’
Fig.6
P M2
M1
b’
movement of the vessel when a tug is acting on the a’ a’’’
support of water resistance force against it. ’
In fig.8 it was represented only the speed Fig.6a
vectors of the vessel and the tug. If the tug will
start to push in position M1 and vessel has an
appreciable speed fore ward, it can not turn the
vessel. She will keep initial direction as in position
start to turn the vessel towards the tug. PP starts
M2. As soon as the tug will stop pushing in
shifting from fore ward PP1to mid ship PP2
position M3, the vessel will start to turn towards
(Fig.8a, pos.M2).
the tug. She will continue to turn in the same
The masses of water moved during action of
direction a certain time as is shown in position
the tug have their own inertia and will continue to
M4.
generate a water flow (WF) directed to port
Due to reduced arm lever d of forces T and WR
quarter. In the same time, fore of the vessel is
(Fig.8a), tug and vessel will drift and no rotation
passing relatively undisturbed water which will
will be recorded or even a slight rotation towards
keep the bow, amplifying the rotation.
the tug against expected result – pos. M0. When
The effects of water flow and pressures
the tug will stop and will leave the vessel in pos.
around the vessel and how they influences ship’s
M1, her center of gravity G (Fig.8b) will continue

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manoeuvre is still a possible subject of research.
4.3 Sideways manoeuvre
An example of how ship handlers play with
rotation and drift of the vessel is manoeuvre of
a a’’
(Fig.9b). Turning couple of propellers depend of
its arm , d.
In order to increase bow-thruster effect, it
will increase P1 and it will stop P2 which it will
reduce aft turning effect and it will give an astern
movement for the vessel. Effect of astern speed
will be a shift of center of water resistance (CWR)
and the pivot point in PP2.
The arm lever of bow-thruster will increase,
consequently its sideways effect and M2a become
greater than M1a. The result will be astern

b P

a b
W

d
PP1
CWR
T
CWR

WIND d
WR

M1
M2

PP2 b’

a’
P
a’’’ WR
Fig.7
’

sideways, in our example a berthing on port a’ b’

Fig.7b
quarter at an oil rig (Fig.9). We consider a vessel
with limited bow-thruster power. The thruster runs
at constant speed.
To move the vessel sideways to oil rig,
rudders (Rd) will be set hard starboard, starboard
movement for a while and a closer position of the
engine astern (P1), port engine ahead (P2) and
bow to oil rig (Fig.9c). In this moment, it will be
bow-thruster to port at maxim power (Tcst).
reduced starboard engine power and port engine
Usually stern sideway speed is greater than bow
will be set ahead at a greater rate than starboard.
sideways speed, M1>M2 (Fig.9a) and the vessel
Vessel will start, finally, to move fore ward and
will come with aft part closer to berthing place
CWR will come again fore ward and the pivot
point will take position PP3. Arm lever of bow-

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thruster will be reduced and M1b>M2b. Playing in
above described manner, rudders can be kept in
the same position.
For a stopped vessel, starting the engine
ahead and setting rudder hard to one side, during
turning, PP position will shift quickly, in evolution
phase, from a location close to Center of Gravity
and mid of the vessel to fore ward, keeping
stabilization depend of underwater shape. It is a
particularity of each vessel or category of vessels.
Position of PP can be estimated by
calculation even in design stage on basis of model
tests but this is not the subject of this work.

a a’’
CWR b

WR
WR PP2
PP1 T

M4

T M2

M3
P d

M1

M01
TUG b’
a’’’
M2 a’
Fig.8a

SHIP Conclusions

Effect of controllable or uncontrollable

forces upon a vessel is function of the arm lever
between Water Resistance force and resultant of
others forces.
M1 Fig. 8 If effect of the forces has a rotation motion,
this rotation has a center, inside or outside of the
ship’s shape, function of ratio between rotation
and sideways motion, call Pivot Point.

the position of 0.10-0.25 of length between Position of Pivot Point depends of position of
perpendiculars (Lpp) from stem before Water Resistance application point which is
stabilization state of turning. Time of PP setting is function of direction of movement and ship’s
about half of turning stabilization time, shape.
respectively sideways speed and turning rate There are particular positions reported to
stabilization time. PP final position and time of Water Resistance application point where if a
force is applied the effect upon a vessel is special.

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 c b
M2b M2a
M2

b
Tc
PP3 t

CWR CWR

CWR
WR
OIL
T RIG
WR
P T
d
PP2

PP2 P2

G M1
M1b M1a

GI

WF Bibliography and references

M2
[1] - Bertram, Victor “Practical ship
hydrodynamics”, Butterworth Heineman (2000);
b’ [2] - Cauvier, Hugues “Is the Pivot Point
realy a pivot point? A study on the rotation and
Fig.8b sideways motion of ships”, sohu@oricom.com
(2008);
[3] - Chase, G. Andy “The Moving
Pivot Point”, The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du
Nord, IX, July (1999);
[4] - Ching-Yaw Tzeng “Analysis of the
pivot point for a turning ship”, Journal of Marine
Science and Technology, vol.6, no.1 (1998);
[5] - Deboveanu Marin, “Ship,s
manoeuvre tractate” {Tratat de manevra navei}
vol.I-IV (1999-2003);
[6] - Ghose, J.P. and Gokarn, R.P. “Basic
ship propulsion”, Allied Publishers Pvt. Limited
(2004);

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 [7] - House, D.J. “Ship handling”
Elsevier (2007);

[8] - Lewis, E. V. “Principles of Naval

Architecture”, SNAME, NJ (1989);
[9] - Obreja, Dan; Crudu, Liviu;
Pacuraru, Sandita “Ship’s manoeuvring”
{Manevrabilitatea navei}, Galaţi University Press
(2008);
[10] - Port Ravel Ship Handling Training
Center, Course Manual;
[11] - Rawson, K.J. and Tupper, E.C.
“Basic Ship Theory”, Butterworth Heineman
(2001);
[12] - Schneekluth, H. and Bertram,
Volker “Ship Design for Efficiency and
Economy”, Butterworth Heineman (1998);
[13] - Rowe, R.W. “The ship handler’s
guide”, The Nautical Institute, London (1996);
[14] - Zamfir, P.I. and Bela Bartalos
“Manoeuvring of the vessels propelled by
machinery”, course notes, Marine Institute <
Mircea cel Bătrân> (1979).

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