Methods of cultivating rice is not the same for all localities.

It differs greatly in different

localities. However, but in most Asian countries like India, the traditional hand methods of
cultivating and harvesting rice are still practiced. The fields are prepared by

• Plowing (typically with simple plows drawn by buffalo)

• Fertilizing (usually with dung or sewage), and smoothing (by dragging a log over them).
The seedlings are started in seedling beds and, after 30 to 50 days, are transplanted by
hand to the fields, which have been flooded by rain or river water. During the growing
season, irrigation is maintained in some areas. The fields are allowed to drain before
cutting.
• Rice when it is still covered by the brown hull is known as paddy; rice fields are also
called paddy fields or rice paddies.
• Before marketing, the rice is threshed to loosen the hulls-mainly by flailing, treading, or
working in a mortar-and winnowed free of chaff by tossing it in the air above a sheet or
mat.

India is a large country. The wide variety of terrain leads to a wide variety of climatic conditions.
These range from permanent snowfields to tropical coast lands; from areas of virtual desert in the
north-west to fertile, intensively cultivated rice fields in the north-east. Generally, we consider
India to lie between 8° and 35° N latitude, with a tropical and sub-tropical climate. The
subcontinent has eight climatic zones all of which only have the monsoon rains in common. But
even the monsoon comes to different parts of the country at different times.

Different Climatic Factors Affecting Rice Cultivation in India

There are many varieties of rice which are cultivated with differential response to climatic
factors, such as :

Rainfall
Rainfall is the most important weather element for successful cultivation of rice. The distribution
of rainfall in different regions of the country is greatly influenced by the physical features of the
terrain, the situation of the mountains and plateau. The regions experiencing very heavy rainfall
in the country are :

• Western Ghats (the western slopes and the coastal region)

• In the Assam region.
• The sub-mountain Himalayan region, Deccan plateau, Eastern Ghats with coastal plains
and the vast Gangetic plains.

Temperature
Temperature is another climatic factor which has a favorable and in some cases unfavorable
influence on the development, growth and yield of rice. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical
plant, requires a fairly high temperature, ranging from 20° to 40°C. The optimum temperature of
30°C during day time and 20°C during night time seems to be more favorable for the
development and growth of rice crop.
Day length or Sunshine
Sunlight is very essential for the development and growth of the plants. In fact, sunlight is the
source of energy for plant life. The yield of rice is influenced by the solar radiation particularly
during the last 35 to 45 days of its ripening period. The effect of solar radiation is more profound
where water, temperature and nitrogenous nutrients are not limiting factors. Bright sunshine with
low temperature during ripening period of the crop helps in the development of carbohydrates in
the grains.

The systems of rice cultivation in various rice-growing areas of the country are
largely dependent upon the rice-growing conditions prevalent in the respective
regions. The method of cultivation of rice in a particular region depends largely on
factors such as situation of land, type of soils, irrigation facilities, availability of
labourers intensity and distribution of rainfalls. The principal systems followed in
India are : he dry and semi-dry systems
of cultivation are mainly confined to tracts which depend on rains and do not have
supplementary irrigation facilities.

The fields are ploughed and harrowed in summer for achieving the required-tilth. Farmyard
manure is uniformly distributed 2-3 weeks before sowing. The seed is sown directly with the
onset of the monsoon showers, either by

1. Broadcasting the seed

2. Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling

Line-sowing is preferable, as it ensures an adequate stand establishment and facilitates easy

weeding and interculture. The reduced seed-rate requirement is another advantage. The row
spacing may be suitably adjusted from 20 to 25 cm. Under the semi-dry system, the rain-water is
impounded when the crop is about 1½-2 months old and thereafter it is converted into a wetland
crop.

By that time, major operations, such as weeding, interculturing and fertilizer application might have
been completed. 'Beushening' still prevalent in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh under this system
helps to control weeds and adjust population. The latest thinking is to promote line-sowing using
a higher seed-rate so as to have a uniformly higher population density for effective competition
from weeds and to use effective methods of interculture to solve the weed problem.
The wet system is practiced in areas with assured and adequate supply of water, either by way of
rainfall or by irrigation.

In Wet or Lowland Cultivation, the distinguishing factors are :

1. Transplanting in puddled fields

2. Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields
Under Wet or Lowland Cultivation, the land is ploughed thoroughly and puddled with 3-5 cm of
standing water in the field. The optimum depth of puddling is found to be around 10 cm in the
clay and clay-loam types of soils. The primary objective is to obtain a soft seedbed for the
seedlings to establish themselves faster, to minimize the leaching losses of nutrients and thereby
increase the availability of plant nutrients by achieving a reduced soil conditions which
facilitates a better availability of nutrient elements, to incorporate the weeds and stubble into the
soil and to minimize the weed problem. Puddling can be done with ploughs, tillers or tractors,
depending upon their availability and soil conditions. The land is leveled after puddling to
facilitate a uniform distribution of water and fertilizers
Rice cropping pattern in India vary widely from region to region and to a lesser extent from one
year to another year depending on a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.

Some of the rice based cropping patterns being followed in the country are as follows :

• Rice-Rice-Rice
• Rice-Rice-Cereals (other than rice)
• Rice-Rice-Pulses
• Rice-Groundnut
• Rice-Wheat
• Rice-Wheat-Pulses
• Rice-Toria-Wheat
• Rice-Fish farming system

Rice-Rice-Rice
This is most suitable for areas having high rainfall and assured irrigation facilities in summer
months, particularly, in soils which have high water holding capacity and low rate of infiltration.
In some canal irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu, a cropping pattern of 300% intensity is followed. In
such areas three crops of rice are grown in a year.

Rice-Rice-Cereals (other than rice)

This cropping pattern is being followed in the areas where the water is not adequate for taking
rice crop in summer. The alternate cereal crops to rice being grown are Ragi, Maize and Jowar.

Rice-Rice-Pulses
In the areas where, there is a water scarcity to take up cereal crops other than rice in summer, the
short duration pulse crops are being raised.

Rice-Groundnut
This cropping pattern is being followed by the farmers of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala. After harvesting of rice crop, groundnut is grown in summer.

Rice-Wheat
This crop rotation has become dominant cropping pattern in the Northern parts of the country.

Rice-Wheat-Pulses
In this sequence of cropping pattern, after harvesting of wheat green gram and cowpea as fodder
are grown in the alluvial soil belt of Northern states. Besides, cowpea is grown in red and yellow
soils of Orissa and black gram is grown in the black soils.

Rice-Toria-Wheat
Rice-wheat cropping pattern is the most common and largest one. The Rice-wheat cropping
pattern is being practiced in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India since long time.

Rice-Fish farming system

The field with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period and free from heavy flooding
are suitable for rice-fish farming system. This system is being followed by the small and
marginal poor farmers in rain fed lowland rice areas.
Rice cropping pattern in India vary widely from region to region and to a lesser extent from one
year to another year depending on a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.

Some of the rice based cropping patterns being followed in the country are as follows :

• Rice-Rice-Rice
• Rice-Rice-Cereals (other than rice)
• Rice-Rice-Pulses
• Rice-Groundnut
• Rice-Wheat
• Rice-Wheat-Pulses
• Rice-Toria-Wheat
• Rice-Fish farming system

Rice-Rice-Rice
This is most suitable for areas having high rainfall and assured irrigation facilities in summer
months, particularly, in soils which have high water holding capacity and low rate of infiltration.
In some canal irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu, a cropping pattern of 300% intensity is followed. In
such areas three crops of rice are grown in a year.

Rice-Rice-Cereals (other than rice)

This cropping pattern is being followed in the areas where the water is not adequate for taking
rice crop in summer. The alternate cereal crops to rice being grown are Ragi, Maize and Jowar.

Rice-Rice-Pulses
In the areas where, there is a water scarcity to take up cereal crops other than rice in summer, the
short duration pulse crops are being raised.

Rice-Groundnut
This cropping pattern is being followed by the farmers of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala. After harvesting of rice crop, groundnut is grown in summer.

Rice-Wheat
This crop rotation has become dominant cropping pattern in the Northern parts of the country.
Rice-Wheat-Pulses
In this sequence of cropping pattern, after harvesting of wheat green gram and cowpea as fodder
are grown in the alluvial soil belt of Northern states. Besides, cowpea is grown in red and yellow
soils of Orissa and black gram is grown in the black soils.

Rice-Toria-Wheat
Rice-wheat cropping pattern is the most common and largest one. The Rice-wheat cropping
pattern is being practiced in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India since long time.

Rice-Fish farming system

The field with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period and free from heavy flooding
are suitable for rice-fish farming system. This system is being followed by the small and
marginal poor farmers in rain fed lowland rice areas.
Rice farming is practiced in several agro ecological zones in India. No other country in the world
has such diversity in rice ecosystems than India. Because cultivation is so widespread,
development of four distinct types of ecosystems has occurred in India, such as:

• Irrigated Rice Eco System

• Rainfed Upland Rice Eco System
• Rainfed Lowland Rice Eco System
• Flood Prone Rice Eco System

Irrigated Rice Eco System

• Irrigated ecosystems are the primary type found in East Asia.

• Irrigated ecosystems provide 75% of global rice production.
• In India, the total area under irrigated rice is about 22.00 million hectares, which accounts
about 49.5% of the total area under rice crop in the country.
• Rice is grown under irrigated conditions in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh
and Gujarat.
• Irrigated rice is grown in bunded (embanked), paddy fields.

Rainfed Upland Rice Eco System

• Upland zones are found in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

• In India, the total area under upland rain fed rice in the country is about 6.00 million
hectares, which accounts13.5% of the total area under rice crop in the country.
• Upland rice areas lies in eastern zone comprising of Assam, Bihar, Eastern M.P., Orissa,
Eastern U.P., West Bengal and North-Eastern Hill region.
• Upland rice fields are generally dry, unbunded, and directly seeded.
• Land utilized in upland rice production can be low lying, drought-prone, rolling, or steep
sloping.

Rainfed Lowland Rice Eco System

 • Rainfed low-land rice is grown in such areas as East India, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Philippines, and Thailand, and is 25% of total rice area used worldwide.
• In India, low land rice area is about 14.4 million hectares, which accounts 32.4 % of the
total area under rice crop in the country.
• Production is variable because of the lack of technology used in rice production.
• Rainfed lowland farmers are typically challenged by poor soil quality, drought/flood
conditions, and erratic yields

Flood Prone Rice Eco System

Flood-prone ecosystems are prevalent in South and Southeast Asia, and are characterized by
periods of extreme flooding and drought. Yields are low and variable. Flooding occurs during the
wet season from June to November, and rice varieties are chosen for their level of tolerance to
submersion.

Rice ecosystems in India represent 24% of irrigated areas, 34% of rainfed lowlands, 26% of
flood-prone areas and 37% of rainfed uplands cultivated to rice in the entire world.
In India, rice is grown under widely varying conditions of altitude and climate. The climate of
India is difficult to lay due to the country's large geographic size and varied topography. Many
regions have their own micro climates (e.g. in mountain tops), and the mean climatic conditions
in Kashmir (extreme north) are very different from those in the extreme south. India's climate is
strongly influenced by The Himalaya and the Thar Desert. The Himalaya ensure, by acting as a
barrier to the cold north winds from Central Asia
, that northern India is warm or mildly cool during winter and hot during summer. So, India as a
whole is considered to be a tropical country.

Therefore, the rice growing seasons vary in different parts of the country, depending upon
temperature, rainfall, soil types, water availability and other climatic conditions. In eastern and
southern regions of the country, the mean temperature is found favourable for rice cultivation
through out the year. Hence, two or three crops of rice are grown in a year in eastern and
southern states. In northern and western parts of the country, where rainfall is high and winter
temperature is fairly low, only one crop of rice is grown during the month from May to
November.

Three Seasons for Rice Cultivation in India

There are three seasons for growing rice in India. These three seasons are named according to the
season of harvest of the crop.

Autumn Rice/Pre-Kharif Rice

Summer Rice/Rabi Rice
Winter Rice/Kharif Rice
Autumn is that part of the season in the year when the rain is gone and the winter is on its way.
Generally, the Autumn or Pre-Kharif season lasts from March-May to June-October. The rise
that is grown in Autumn is called Autumn rice or pre-kharif rice. About 7% crop is grown in this
season. The varieties grown during this season are mostly varieties of short duration ranging
from 90 to 110 days.

Autumn Rice or Pre-Kharif rice is sown during May to August. However, the time of sowing
slightly differs from state to state according to weather condition and rainfall pattern. Harvesting
of rice is done in September-October.

Autumn rice crop is known by different names in different parts of India. For example: it is know
as 'Aus' in West Bengal, 'Ahu' in Assam, 'Beali' in Orissa, 'Bhadai' in Bihar, 'Virippu' in Kerala and
'Kuruvai/kar/ Sornavari' in Tamil Nadu.

• The Rabi season in India starts from November-February to March-June. The rice that is
grown during this period is called Rabi rice or Summer Rice.
• Summer rice is known by different names in different parts of our country. For example:
it is also known as known as 'Boro' in Assam

and West Bengal, 'Dalua' in Orissa, 'Dalwa' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Punja' in Kerala and
'Navarai' in Tamil Nadu and 'Garma' in Bihar.

• The sowing time of summer rice is November to February and harvesting time is March
to June.
• The area under summer rice is only 9% and early maturing varieties are mostly grown in
this season.
• After the harvest of kharif rice, the land will be either left fallow or cultivated with a
suitable crop in the following rabi season.
• The time gap between the harvest of the kharif rice and the cultivation of the rabi crop
depends upon the suitability of the prevailing weather, availability of water, etc.
• Sowing of Rabi rice has gained momentum in the Southern Peninsula in recent times. As
per reports in 2004, about 35 lakh hectare area has been covered against 32 lakh hectares
sown last year in the corresponding period. Reported area sown under Rabi rice in West
Bengal is about 13.5 lakh hectares which is ahead by about 2 lakh hectares as compared
to last year's coverage.
• The normal area under Rabi rice is about 42 lakh hectares in 2004. West Bengal and
Andhra Pradesh account for two thirds of the area and it is mostly irrigated.

Statewise Production of Rabi Rice in India.

Production of Rabi Rice in '000 tonnes
State 1974-74 1984-85 1994-95 1999-00
Andhra Pradesh 1,817.7 2,051.5 3,288.0 3,443.6
Assam 47.2 55.1 55.1 653.8
Bihar 87.2 74.9 204.4 300.0
Karnataka 304.5 434.6 832.0 1031.0
Kerala 196.2 167.0 147.8 144.6
Maharashtra 22.3 43.3 67.6 60.0
 Orissa 199.0 322.2 522.2 912.0
Tamil Nadu 63.6 52.0 809.0 1,446.7
Uttar Pradesh 3.4 3.8 10.2 14.0
West Bengal 856.4 1,270.0 3,013.0 4,660.0
Source : Directorate of Rice Development, Patna.

Yearwise Production of Rabi Rice in India

Year Production ('000 tonnes) Year Production ('000 tonnes)
1974-75 3,653.1 1987-88 7,813.2
1975-76 3,995.0 1988-89 7,112.4
1976-77 2,651.3 1989-90 7,694.8
1977-78 3,723.4 1990-91 7,974.3
1978-79 4,436.7 1991-92 8,309.8
1979-80 3,844.0 1992-93 7,624.9
1980-81 3,541.9 1993-94 9,574.5
1981-82 4,003.3 1994-95 9,211.3
1982-83 3,951.4 1995-96 9,096.5
1983-84 5,045.1 1996-97 10,414.1
1984-85 4,554.9 1997-98 10,014.6
1985-86 4,432.8 1998-99 13,358.9
1986-87 6,995.9 1999-00 12,769.9
Source : Directorate of Rice Development, Patna.

• India

ranks second in the production and consumption of rice in the global market. The
most of the production comes from kharif crops. The rainfed kharif crops are to a great
extent depends on South West Monsoon.

• Kharif or Winter is the main rice growing season in the country. It is known as
Winter Rice or Kharif Rice as per the harvesting time.
• The winter crop sowing takes place between June and October and harvesting is between
November and April.
• This indicates the high dependence of the rice crop on the south-west monsoon which is
occurs over the subcontinent from June through September.
• About 84% of the country's rice crop is grown in this season and generally, medium to
long duration varieties are grown in this season.
• The normal area under kharif rice is about 403 lakh hectares till 2002.
• Winter rice is known by various names in India. For example: it is known as 'Aman' in
West Bengal, 'Sali' in Assam, 'Sarrad' in Orissa, 'Agahani' in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,
'Sarava' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Mundakan' in Kerala and 'Samba/Thaladi' in Tamil Nadu.
 • Kharif rice production typically accounts for 87 to 88 percent of India's total production.
The 2003 monsoon favored most of the Kharif rice areas.
• The Kharif rice crop is sown around the beginning of the Southwest Monsoon and
harvested in the autumn months.

Statewise Production of Kharif Rice in India

Production of Kharif Rice in India in '000 tonnes
State 1974-74 1984-85 1994-95 1999-00
Andhra Pradesh 3,882.6 4,857.6 5,988.7 7,046.0
Assam 1,936.5 2,382.9 3,096.3 3,206.9
Bihar 4,452.2 5,301.6 6,093.5 7,441.6
Gujrat 177.8 838.1 942.1 984.9
Haryana 393.0 1,363.0 2,227.0 2,594.0
Himachal Pradesh 96.8 117.2 112.2 120.9
Jammu and Kashmir 456.0 569.0 584.7 2,335.5
Karnataka 1,681.0 1,940.3 391.1 2,604.0
Kerala 1,137.7 1,088.9 827.3 6,463.0
Madhya Pradesh 2,421.4 3,761.2 626.2 6,376.5
Maharashtra 1,376.6 2,131.9 2,329.5 2,475.9
Manipur 274.7 332.5 478.3 365.0
Orissa 2,967 3,850 5,831 4,275
Punjab 1,179.0 5,052.0 7,703.0 8,716.0
Rajasthan 100.2 212.8 173.2 252.6
Tamil Nadu 3,511.1 5,309.6 6,753.8 5,778.6
Uttar Pradesh 3,520.0 7,153.1 10,354.8 12,898.0
West Bengal 5,687.0 6,822.6 9,222.9 9,291.0

Yearwise Production of Kharif Rice in India

Year Production (in '000 tonnes) Year Production (in '000 tonnes)
1974-75 35,925.8 1987-88 49,049.3
1975-76 44,744.8 1988-89 63,376.3
1976-77 39,265.5 1989-90 65,877.8
1977-78 48,947.0 1990-91 66,317.1
1978-79 49,336.7 1991-92 66,367.8
1979-80 38,486.3 1992-93 65,242.8
 1980-81 50,089.5 1993-94 70,723.8
1981-82 49,244.7 1994-95 72,602.7
1982-83 43,164.4 1995-96 67,878.8
1983-84 55,052.2 1996-97 71,322.6
1984-85 53,781.7 1997-98 72,519.9
1985-86 59,392.2 1998-99 72,665.9
1986-87 53,560.9 1999-00 76,705.7
Seed is an important and basic input for achieving higher crop yield and increasing a country's
agricultural economy. Thus it is very important to maintain seed quality by understanding the
right mechanism. Seed markets are generally built around hybrid varieties, which do not
reproduce and so force farmers to purchase new seeds every season. Rice, however, is a self-
pollinating crop, making hybrid rice seed production costly and difficult, and nearly all rice in
Asia is still grown with farmer-saved seeds.

We can study
this category under the following heads :

Different methods of Seeding

Methods of Nursery raising
Selection of Seeds
Sowing of Seeds
Seeding is done in three different ways. They are as follows:

Drilling
Sowing in the furrow behind a plough.

Dibbling
Sowing seed by making holes in soil with a pointed implement.

Broadcasting
To sow seed over a wide area, especially by hand.

Seeding with drilling method has got a greater advantage over other methods, because of the
uniformity of the stand and the control of the population of the plants per unit area. Heavy soils
which do not come in conditions quickly, other methods except broadcasting are not feasible. It
has been found that drilling or dibbling always gives considerably better yields than broadcasting
system.
There are three major methods of raising nursery in India. They are :

• The Wet Nursery

• The Dry Nursery
• The Dapog Method
The Wet Nursery
The general practice in India is to go in for wet nurseries. Wet nursery is that where sprouted
seed is sown on the moist puddled soil. Wet nurseries are preferred under irrigated condition.
Young, healthy and vigorous seedlings establish themselves faster and grow better and the major
objective of nursery management should be aimed at obtaining such seedlings.

The Dry Nursery

In regions of non-assured water-supply, where wet-bed nurseries cannot be raised, dry nursery-
raising is practiced. The dry nursery where the dry seed is sown in dry soil. The seedlings
obtained from the dry nurseries are generally hardy and establish themselves very fast when
transplanted.

The Dapog Method

Dapog method is commonly prevalent in Philippines, which is also practiced in India. The essential
feature of this method is to have a very thick stand of the nursery seedlings without any contact
with the soil. Generally, this method is used especially in places where there is assured water-
supply and when early transplanting is needed. Seedlings become ready for transplanting in 12 to
14 days. This method of nursery is useful for raising a post-flood rice crop in Assam and West
Bengal.
Seed selection is a complex and sometimes misunderstood process. Some farmers assess
individual entire plant's performance through the season when selecting seed, while other
farmers select seed post-harvest from threshed crops in their storage. Seed of rice varieties are
harvested, processed and stored separately, while the grain is often harvested and sold/consumed
in variety mixtures.

The use of quality seeds in cultivation of rice is an important factor to get better crop yield.
Therefore, proper care has to be taken in selecting seeds of the best quality. Much of the success
in raising the healthy seedlings depends on the quality of seed.

Seeds intended for sowing should satisfy the following requirements :

• The seed should belong to the proper variety, which is proposed to be grown.
• The seed should be clean and free from mixtures of other seeds.
• The seed should be mature, well developed and plump in size.
• The seed should be free from obvious signs of age or bad storage
• The seed should have a high germinating capacity.

Before sowing, the seed should be treated with fungicides which protects the seed against soil-
born fungi and also give a boost to the seedlings.
Seeds are dynamic instruments for change, not just another agricultural input. Volumes of seeds
produced hasten the spread of new varieties to farmers' fields, provide enough supply to seed
growers and increase availability of high quality seeds at reasonable cost. The seeds also serve as
"buffer" or reserve stock when natural calamities like typhoons destroy standing crops in the
field. The Indian seed programme adheres to the following stages of seed multiplication :

NUCLEUS SEED: Nucleus seed is the seed produced by the breeder to develop the particular
variety and is directly used for multiplication as breeder seed.

BREEDER SEED: Breeder seed is the seed material directly controlled by the originating or the
sponsoring breeder or Institution for the initial and recurring production of foundation seed.

FOUNDATION SEED (FS): Progeny of Breeder seed production is supervised by certification

agency. Foundation seed is produced by the National Seeds Corporation (NSC), State Farm
Corporation of India (SFCI) and all States Seeds Development Corporations.

CERTIFIED SEED (CS): Certified seed is the last stage in the seed multiplication process and
is generally produced from foundation seed. This seed is certified by the State Seed Certification
Agency established under the State Governments. Certified seed is produced by the National
Seeds Corporation, State Farm Corporation of India and State Seeds Development Corporations
under the supervision of State Seed Certification Agencies.

Throughout these stages, the seeds planted in the field undergo seed selection, isolation and
quarantine to maintain their superior qualities like high genetic purity, viability, vigor, and free
from pests and diseases.
Seeds may be sown after sprouting them or the seedlings be transplanted. Transplanting should
be done with proper age of seedlings. Transplanting in a puddled field has the following
advantages :

• A good leveling of the land is ensured.

• The weeds are buried at the time of puddling and the weed problem is reduced.
• The population of plants becomes more uniform.
• The availability of most of the plant nutrients, such as phosphorus, iron and potassium, is
increased and nitrogen is conserved better.
• The seedlings transplanted in a soft puddle are able to establish themselves faster and
start early tillering and growth.
• Nurseries occupy only 10% of the main field area and the cost of maintaining them
(irrigation and plant protection) is reduced considerably as compared with a crop sown
broadcast.
• Plant-protection measures can be effectively used in the nursery.
• Community nurseries facilitate timely transplanting.
• The treatment of seedlings for nutrient deficiencies and for protection against pests and
diseases of facilitated before transplanting.

The seedlings are ready for transplanting in kharif within 20 to 25 days (4-5-leaf stage), where as
in rabi it may take 30 to 40 days. Two to three seedlings are planted at 20 X 10 cm or 20 X 15
cm spacing in leveled fields. In regions of low fertility, and for late planting, closer planting is
advocated.
Rice is grown in many regions across India. India alone has about 45 million hectares of area, and
it produces on an average 93 million metric tons of rice since 2001 onwards. Rice cultivation has
been carried into all regions having the necessary warmth and abundant moisture favorable to its
growth, mainly subtropical rather than hot or cold.
In India, rice is grown in different types of soils. Experts point out that in India, rice is grown
in such varied soil conditions that it is difficult to point out the soil on which it cannot be grown.
However, soils having

• Good water retention capacity.

• Good amount of clay and organic matter are considered ideal for rice cultivation.

It grows well in soils having a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5. The classification of soils has been
done depending upon the soil texture, colour of the soil etc.

Classification of Soil Types in India

Distribution of Rice Soils in India
The Soils in India for Rice Cultivation can be classified into the following categories :

• Sub-montane soils
• Hill Soils
• Tarai Soils
• Calcareous Alluvial soils
• Riverine Alluvium Soil
• Laterite Soils
• Saline and Alkaline soils
• Red Yellow loamy soil
• Red Soil
• Black soils
• Mixed Red and Black Soil
• Deltaic Alluvium Soil
• Coastal Alluvium Soil

1) Sub-montane soils
These soils are formed from the alluvium deposited in the valley floor by the
Jhelum and the Indus rivers. They are silty loam to clay loam and are neutral to
alkaline.

2) Hill Soils

These soils are shallow with fragments of rock occurring according to the
elevations and have been categorized as red loam, brown forest soil, meadow soil
and podzolic soil.

3) Tarai Soils

These soils are always saturated because of sufficient rainfall and high ground
water table. These soils have been formed from transported materials by different
rivers originating from the Himalayas. The tarai soils are very productive and
responding well to fertilizer application.

4) Calcareous Alluvial soils

The alluvial soils are rich in potash and calcium but are deficient in organic
matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. Alluvial soils cover about 24% of the total land
and occur in the great Indo-Gangetic Plains, in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti
in Madhya Pradesh and the Cauvery in Tamil Nadu.

5) Riverine Alluvium Soil

Seen along the banks of rivers. Shows wide variation in physico-chemical

properties depending on the nature of alluvium and the characteristic of the
catchment area through which the river flows. Organic Matter, N and K are
moderate.

6) Laterite Soils

These soils are red but they differ from red soils. Such soils are found in heavy
rainfall and high temperature areas. These soils are acidic, pH ranging from 4.0 to
5.0.

7) Saline and Alkaline soils

The soils are highly alkaline and have below hard pan which obstruct the
downward movement of water.

8) Red Yellow loamy soil

These soils are encountered over extensive nonalluvial tracts of peninsular India.
They develop in areas in which rainfall leaches soluble minerals out of the ground
and results in a loss of chemically basic constituents.

9) Red Soil

The red color in soil usually indicates a high amount of iron, in the form of iron
oxide, that coats the particles of the soil. These soil are acidic. These soils are rich
in potassium and poor in phosphorus.

10) Black soils

 Black soils are spread mostly across the Deccan Lava Plateau, the Malwa Plateau,
and interior Gujarat, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic
rock. These soils contain sufficient lime and pH ranges from 7.0 to 8.5 . These
soils are also deficient in phosphorus and low in organic matter and nitrogen.
Black Soil can be classified as : Medium black soil, Shallow Black Soil and Deep
Black Soil.

11) Mixed Red and Black Soil

Sometimes black soils are also found in isolated pockets along with the red soils.

12) Deltaic Alluvium Soil

The coastal belt is rich with highly fertile deltaic soil, giving it the reputation of
being the rice granary of the country. The alluvial soils of the deltas are very deep
and well drained. These soils are very fertile.

13) Coastal Alluvium Soil

Seen in the coastal tracts along the west. They have been developed from recent
marine deposits. Permeability is more. Low organic matter content. Low CEC.
Water Holding Capacity is less.
• India has been broadly classified into the following eight agro-climatic zones. The
distribution of various kinds of rice soils in the country are as follows :

The Arid Western Plains

The Humid Bengal-Assam Basin
The Humid Eastern Himalayan Region
The Humid to Semi-Arid Western Ghats and Karnataka Plateau
The Humid Western Himalayan Region
The Semi-Arid Lava Plateau and Central Highlands
The Sub-Humid Sutlej-Ganga Alluvial Plains
The Sub-Humid to Humid Eastern and South-Eastern Uplands
The Arid Western plains include the following states :

• Haryana
• Rajasthan
• Gujarat
• Dadra and Nagar Haveli
The major soil groups are as follows:

• Alluvial soils
• Red-yellow soils
• Medium to deep black soils

The Humid Bengal-Assam basin includes

• West Bengal
• Assam

The major soil groups are as follows :

• Riverine alluvium
• Terai soils
• Lateritic soils
• Red-yellow loams
• Red sandy soils

One of the most limiting factor in this region is the availability of water. The crop is
grown in this region on flat lands to facilitate the water supply requirement. The
alluvial soils deposited by the rivers mostly occupy the major part of the wetland rice
soils in this region. These soils are formed from the silt deposition by the numerous
tributaries of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers. The water table is high and
drainage is poor in the wetland rice soil