Environmental Science: Chapter 4 Review: Evolution and

Biodiversity

I. Origins of Life

· Earth: result of 1 billion years of chemical changes

· 3.7 billion years to form the first cells

Biological evolution: the description of how the earth’s life changes over
time.

Ancient Beliefs

· People still believe the only explanation for earth’s life is God

· People believe that organisms change over time and are descended
from a single common ancestor

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace

· Independently proposed the concept of natural selection: mechanism

to explain biological evolution

· Darwin: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

· Observed that organisms must constantly struggle to obtain enough

food and other resources to survive and reproduce

· Individuals in a population with some edge over other individuals are

more likely to survive, reproduce, and have offspring with similar
survival skills

· Survival traits could become more prevalent in future population of the

species through: natural selection

Scientific Theory

· Biological evolution through natural selection

· It has been doubted as a scientific theory because there are

other ways that new species can form

Earth Evolution
· Chemical evolution: organic molecules, biopolymers, and
systems of the chemical reactions needed to form the first cells.

o it took 1 billion years

o evidence from: chemical analysis and measurements of

radioactive elements in primitive rocks and fossils

o laboratories ducted experiments showing how simple

inorganic compounds (in earth’s atmosphere) might have
reacted to produce amino acids, simple sugars and other
organic molecules as building blocks for the proteins,
complex carbohydrates, RNA, and DNA (needed for life)

o fossils give us physical evidence of earth’s life history

 replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves,

seeds or impressions of such items found in rocks

 compare the DNA of past and current organisms

 fossil record: cumulative body of fossils found

· some forms of life left no fossils, and some

fossils have not decomposed therefore this
record is incomplete. It only represents 1% of
all species.

· biological evolutions (through natural selection): change in a

population’s genetic makeup through successive generations

o populations NOT INDIVIDUALS evolve by becoming

genetically different

o most widely accepted scientific explanation of how life on

earth has developed as a result of natural selection

Steps for biological evolution through natural selection

1) Genetic variability: occurs through mutation-

random changes in the structure or number of
DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited
by an offspring

How does mutation occur?

 o Exposure of DNA to external agents such as
radioactivity, X-rays, and natural and human made
chemicals (called mutagens)

o DNA molecules are copied each time a cell divides

and when an organism reproduces

 Mutation can occur in any cell, but it is only

passed to an offspring in a reproductive cell

 Sometimes mutations are beneficial

 Effect: new genetic traits – better chances for

survival and reproduction under existing
environmental conditions or when such
conditions change

2) Natural Selection: when some individuals of a

population have genetically based traits that
increase their chances of survival and their ability to
produce offspring with the same traits.

o Example: snow and cold  thicker skin

organisms live longer

o When these organisms mate genes for

thicker skin spread throughout the
population and individuals with those
genes increase in number and pass this
helpful trait on to their offspring

· Explains how populations adapt to changes in environmental

conditions

Three conditions for biological evolution through

natural selection

1) There must be enough genetic variability for a

trait to exist in a population

2) Trait must be heritable – meaning that it can be

passed from one generation to another
 3) The trait must lead to differential reproduction: it
must be enable to individuals with the trait to
leave more offspring than other members of the
population

· Acts on INDIVIDUALS, but evolution occurs in populations

 Adaptation trait (adaptive trait) : any inheritable trait that enables

an organism to survive through natural selection and reproduce better
under prevailing environmental conditions.

 Natural Selection tends to preserve beneficial adaptations in

populations and discard harmful ones.

When a population of a species faces change in environmental conditions:

1) Adapt: to new conditions through natural selection

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 Scientists believe that when populations of two different species

interact together for a long time changes in the gene pool of one
specie could lead to the change in the gene pool of the other. – genetic
race to produce the largest number of surviving offsprings

Example: moths and bats

Other Ways to Exchange Genes

1) Hybridization

 Occurs when individuals of two distinct species crossbreed to produce

and individual (hybrid) that in some cases has a better ability to
survive than conventional offspring of the two parent species

2) Horizontal Gene Transfer:

 gene exchange without sexual reproduction

 can occur when one species feed upon, infects or comes into close
contact with another species (bacterium or virus) and transfers bits of
genetic information from one species to the other

 both hybridization and horizontal gene transfer occurs quicker

that the millions of years it takes for the conventional
Darwanian evolution of sexually reproducing species through
natural selection
 Limitations on Adaptation through Natural Selection

1) a change in environmental conditions can lead to adaptation through

conventional natural selection only for genetic traits already present in
a population’s gene pool.

a. You must have genetic dice to play the genetic natural selection
dice game

2) Even if a beneficial heritable trait is present in a population, the

population’s ability to adapt may be limited by its reproductive
capacity.

a. Populations of genetically diverse species that reproduce quickly

–such as weeds, mosquitoes, rats, bacteria or cockroaches –
often adapt to a change in environmental conditions in a short
time. Species that cannot produce large numbers of offspring
rapidly – such as elephants, tigers, sharks and humans – take a
long time *typically thousands or millions of years* to adapt
through natural selection.

 Even when a favorable genetic trait is present in a population, most of

the population would have to die or become sterile so individuals with
the trait could predominate and pass the trait through natural selection
- hardly favorable for the environmental problems we face

o This does not apply to development of new species through

hybridizations and gene exchange

Myths about evolution through natural selection

Clearing the doubt: evolution through natural selection is about

leaving the most descendants; organisms do not develop certain
traits because they need them or want them; and there is no master
plan leading to genetic perfection

Myths

1) Survival of the fittest

a. People believe it is survival of the strongest myth

b. Fitness= a measure of reproductive success, not strength

c. Fittest individuals are those who leave the most descendants

 2) Organisms develop certain traits because they need or want them
myth

a. Giraffes don’t have long necks because they want to eat from tall
trees, it is merely an advantage and a trait passed from earlier
ancestors

3) Evolution from natural selection involves some grand plan of nature in

which species become more perfectly adapted myth

a. No plan or goal of genetic perfection has been identified in the

evolutionary process

II. Geologic Processes, Climate Change, Catastrophes, and

Evolution

Geological Processes and Evolution by Natural Selection

· Huge flows of molten rock within the earth’s interior break the earth’s
surface into a series of gigantic solid plates: tectonic plates

o Plates drift back and forth across the planet’s surface

Effects of tectonic plates on the evolution and location of life on the earth

 Making of the earth’s surface, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes can

wipe out species or help form new ones

1) Locations of continents and oceanic basins greatly influence the

earth’s climate and thus help determine where the plants and
animals can live

2) The movement of continents has allowed species to move, adapt to

new environments and form new species through natural selection.
When continents join together populations can disperse to new
areas and adapt to new environmental conditions. And when
continents spate, populations must evolve under isolated conditions
or become extinct.
 Volcanic eruptions: affect biological evolution by destroying habitats
and reducing or wiping out populations of species, or the lava can yield
solid that can provide habitats for some species

Earthquakes: can separate and isolate populations of species

Can lead to the formation of new species as each isolated

populations changes genetically in response to new environmental
conditions

Climate Change and Natural Selection:

· Climate change has an effect on biological evolution by determining

different types of plants and animals can live and thrive and but
changing the locations of different ecosystems such as deserts,
grasslands, and forests. Some species even become extinct due to
climate change.

Catastrophe and Natural Selection

· Major catastrophes can result in the complete extinction of a species.

· The earth’s four scientific principles of sustainability, especially its

biodiversity have enabled the earth to adapt to drastic changes in
environmental conditions

Ecological Niches

· Nice: species’ way of life or role in a community or ecosystem and

includes everything that affects its survival and reproduction

· Each specie has a distinct niche or role to play in the ecosystem where
it is found.

· Fundamental niche: the full potential or range of physical, chemical,

and biological conditions and resources it could theoretically use if it
could avoid direct competition from other species.

· Different species often compete with one another for the same
resources. In short, the niches of competing species overlap
 · Realized niche: only uses part of its fundamental niche to avoid
competition

Broad and Narrow Niches

· Generalist species: broad niches, they can live in many different

places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range of
environmental conditions

o Flies, cockroaches, rats, white tailed deer, raccoons, coyotes,

copperheads, starlings, humans, and many weeds

· Specialist specie: occupy narrow niches they may be able to live in

only one type of habitat, use one or a few types of foods, or tolerate a
narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions

o Makes them more prone to extinction

o China’s Giant Panda

 Specialists have fewer competitors: therefore when there is an

accurate climate it is better to be a specialist than a generalist.

 Generalists are better off in rapidly changing climates

 Natural Selection may lead to more specialists

 Over time one species may evolve into a variety of species with
different adaptations that reduce competition and allow them to share
limited resources.

Evolutionary divergence: starting from a single ancestor species, and

evolves to other species

Speciation, Extinction, and Biodiversity

How Do New Species Evolve?

* natural selection can lead to a new species

* speciation - two species arise from one

* a new species sis formed in sexually reproductive species when some
members of a population can no longer breed with other members to
produce fertile offspring

* most common mechanism of speciation takes place through geographic

isolation and reproductive isolation

* geographic isolation - different groups of the same population of a species

become isolated from one another for long periods

* species can become isolated by a physical barrier, by an environmental or

climate change, or by the forces of wind or water

* reproductive isolation - mutation and change by natural selection operate

independently in gene pools of isolated populations

* members of a population may become so different in genetic makeup that

they cannot produce live, fertile offspring together and so one species
becomes two

* speciation may occur within hundreds of years for organisms with high
reproduction rates

* speciation may take thousands to millions of years for other organisms,

which makes the appearance of a new species difficult to observe and
document

* some species may accelerate the process of evolution through

hybridization and gene swapping

* geographic isolation may lead to reproductive isolation, divergence of gene

pools and speciation

* the early fox population spread northward and southward and separated;
the different environmental conditions lead to different selective pressures
and evolution the evolution of the early fox population species into two
different species: the arctic fox and the gray fox

Extinction: Lights Out

* a species becomes extinct when its populations cannot adapt to changing

environmental conditions

* extinction - an entire species ceases to exist

* extinction affects the number and types of species on earth

* endemic species - species that are found only in one area, so they are more
vulnerable to extinction

* golden toad of Costa Rica became extinct because of atmospheric warming

that reduced the moisture in its forest habitat

Background Extinction, Mass Extinction, and Mass Depletion

* extinction is the ultimate fate of all species

* 99.9% of all species that ever existed are now extinct

* background extinction - a number of species disappear at a low rate as

environmental conditions change

* annual background extinction rate is 1/5 (one to five) of species for each
million on earth

* mass extinction - significant rise in the extinction rates above the

background level where groups of existing species are wiped out in a period
of up to 5 million years

* earth’s species have experienced 5 mass extinctions during the past 500
million years

* mass depletion - extinction rates are higher than normal but not high
enough to be considered a mass extinction

* mass extinctions leave many organism roles (niches) unoccupied and

create new niches

* adaptive radiations - periods of recovery after mass extinctions, which last

10 million years of longer, where new species evolve to fill new or
unoccupied niches

* scientists believe that we are in the midst of a sixth mass extinction mostly
caused by human activities

Effects of Human Activities on the Earth’s Biodiversity

* human activities are decreasing the earth’s biodiversity

* biodiversity = speciation - extinction

* biodiversity - the planet’s genetic raw material for future evolution in
response to changing environmental conditions

* extinction is a natural process, but humans have become a major force in

premature extinction

* biologists Wilson and Primm say that extinction rates increased by 100 to
1,000 times the natural background extinction rate

*Wilson and Primm believe we are expected to take over a large share of the
earth’s surface and net primary productivity (NPP) and degrade or destroy
more of the planet’s wildlife habitats as human population and resource
consumption increase over the next 50 to 100 years

* Wilson and Primm predict a premature extinction of at least 1/5 of the

earth’s current species by 2030 and up to ½ of those species by the end of
the century, which could constitute a mass depletion and a mass extinction

* Wilson says that if we make an “all-out effort to save the biologically

richest parts of the world, the amount of loss can be cut by a at least half”

* it took millions of years after each of the earth’s mass extinctions and
depletions for live to recover to the previous level of biodiversity

* we are destroying or degrading ecosystems that are centers for future

speciation

* the biological diversity of life on land and in the oceans has increased over
the last 3.5 billion years, but the increase has leveled off during the last 1.8
million years

Genetic Engineering and the Future of Evolution

Artificial Selection and Genetic Engineering

* artificial selection is used to change the genetic characteristics of

populations with similar genes

* artificial selection - we select one or more desirable genetic traits in a

population of a plant or animal and use selective breeding to end up with
populations of these species with the desired traits

* traditional crossbreeding - a slow process that can combine traits only from
species that are close to one another genetically

* genetic engineering is used to speed up our ability to manipulate genes

* genetic engineering or gene splicing - the alteration of an organism’s
genetic material through adding, deleting, or changing segments of its DNA
to produce desirable traits or eliminate negative ones

* genetic engineering enables scientists to transfer genes between different

species that wouldn’t interbreed in nature

* recombinant DNA is a tool used in genetic engineering

* recombinant DNA - DNA that has been altered to contain genes or portions
of genes from organisms of different species

* genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic organisms -

organisms that have been genetically engineered by use of recombinant DNA
technology

* gene splicing takes half as much time to develop a crop or animal and costs
less than traditional crossbreeding

* genetic engineering allows us to transfer traits between different types of

organisms without breeding them

* genetically engineered bacteria have been created to extract minerals from

their underground ores and to clean up oil spills and other toxic pollutants

* bioengineers have developed many beneficial GMOs

* biopharming - the vision of using genetically engineered animals to acts as

biofactories for producing drugs, vaccines, antibodies, hormones, industrial
chemicals and human body organs

Synthetic Biology and Cloning

* genetic engineering is associated with problems and uncertainty

* synthetic biology’s goal is to go beyond conventional genetic engineering,

separate cells into their fundamental components, and use them to build
new organisms

* biologist envision that biological engineers will one day write genetic
instructions for making specific cells

* clone - genetically identical version of an individual in a population

* someday we might be able to clone humans

* researchers hope to use cloning of DNA samples from cells found of extinct
animals to bring vanishes species back from the dead

* cloning experiments on animals have led to problems with miscarriage

rates, rapid aging, shortened life span and organ defects

Some Concerns about the Genetic Revolution

* genetic engineering gas great promise for improving the human condition,
but it raises a number of privacy ethical, legal ,and environmental issues

* genetic engineering is messy and unpredictable

* conventional genetic engineering is a trial-and-error process with many

failures and unexpected results

* the average success rate of current genetic engineering is 1%

* we have the power to detect genetic deficiencies, even before birth

* our genetic engineering prowess could eliminate death and aging

altogether because one’s cells, organs or other body parts could be replaced
with new ones as they wear out or are damaged

* replacement parts might be grown in genetic engineering laboratories or in

biopharms

* people might choose to have a clone available for spare parts

* genetic developments may have environmental impacts

* long-lived people could have an enormous ecological-footprint for perhaps

centuries

Controversy over Genetic Engineering

* arguments have emerged over how much we should regulate genetic

engineering research and development

* people argue that genetically modified crops and animal products and food
containing such components should be labeled as such to give consumers a
more informed choice, but makers of these products oppose labeling
because they say that such products are not harmful and fear that it would
hurt sales
* we have been genetically modifying plants and animals for centuries

* proponents of more careful control of genetic engineering and synthetic

biology counter that most new technologies have had unintended harmful
consequences

* analysts urge caution before rushing into genetic engineering and other
forms of biotechnology without more careful evaluation of the possible
unintended consequences and urge more stringent regulation of these new
technologies

Case Study: How Did We Become Such A Powerful Species So

Quickly?

* we have thrived as a species mostly because of our strong opposable

thumbs, ability to walk upright, and complex brains

* humans have survived and thrived because we have certain traits that
allow us to adapt and modify the environment to increase our survival
chances

* we lack exceptional strength, speed and agility

* we don’t have weapons such as fangs or claws
* we lack a protective shell or body armor
* our senses are unremarkable
* we see only visible light
* we cannot see very far
* we can’t see well in the night
* we cannot hear very high-pitched or low-pitched sounds
* we cannot smell very keenly
* we cannot respond to danger very quickly

* our physical and sensory powers are pitiful, yet we have survived and
flourished for little less than the 3.7 billion years of life’s existence on earth

* analysts attribute the success of our species to our opposable thumbs, our
ability to walk upright, and our complex brain

* those adaptations have helped us develop weapons, protective devices,

and technologies that extend our limited senses and help us make up for
some of our species’ deficiencies

* we have developed powerful technologies to take over much of the earth’s

life-support systems and NPP and meet our basic needs and growing wants

* Homo sapiens sapiens - the doubly wise species

* some say we should be called Homo ignoramus if we keep degrading the
life-support system for us and other species

* we can change our ways

* we can learn to work in harmony with nature by understanding and copying

the ways that nature has sustained itself despite major changes in
environmental conditions

* Aldo Leopold’s call is that we must become earth citizens, not earth rulers