 4 Levels of Organization

1. Cells – basic unit of life

2. Tissues- groups of cells with similar structure
and functions
3. Organs- body structures composed of
several different tissues that for a structural
and functional unit
4. Organ System- group of organs that
function together to carry out major
activities of the body
 Study of the
microstructure of
tissues
 Four major types of tissues
 Each composed of different types of
cells with characteristic shape, size and
arrangement.
 Aggregates of cells with similar structures
and functions
› Cells are bound together forming sheets or
layers except blood
 During early development, 3 germ layers
› Endoderm
› Mesoderm
› Ectoderm

 These germ layers differentiates into cell

types characteristic of a vertebrate
body
 4 Principal Types of Tissues

› Epithelial Tissues
› Connective Tissues
› Muscle Tissues
› Nerve Tissues
 Derived from all germ layers

 Lines surfaces of the body as well as internal

body spaces

 Have important role in homeostasis of the

body

 Cells of the epithelial tissue are tightly

bound together with little space between
them
 Attached firmly on the underlying
connective tissue called the BASAL
LAMINA or BASEMENT MEMBRANE

 Classified according to shape of the cells

and number of cell layer
 Squamous

 Cuboidal

 Columnar
•Irregularlyflattened
cells with tapered
edges

•Clear
cytoplasm and
eccentric oval nucleus

•Found in linings of
lungs, capillary walls
and blood vessels

•Also
in cheek cells
(buccal mucosa)
•Cellsroughly
hexagonal I shape
with nucleus at the
center

•Found in kidney
tubules as well as
lumen of small ducts
such as bile duct
•Resembles
cuboidal cells
when viewed
from the surface

•Appear taller
than broader
(rectangular)
with nucleus
near the base

•Found in
gallbladder,
urinary papilla,
stomach and
intestinal lining
 Simple

 Stratified

 Pseudo
stratified

 Transitional
 Derived from embryonic mesoderm

 Most abundant type of tissue in an

animal body

 3 basic elements
› Cells
› Intercellular substances (ground matrix)
› Fibers
 Binds, anchors and supports body parts

 Consistency ranges from gel-like softness

of areolar connective tissue to hardness
of bones
 Fixed cells – permanent residents of C.T.
› Fibroblasts- principal cells of C.T.
- RESPONSIBLE FOR SECRETION OF ALL CELL
TYPES
› Chondrocytes- matrix-secreting cells of cartilage
› Osteocytes- matrix-secreting cells of bones
› Macropahges- phagocytic cells derived from
monocytes
› Adipocytes- specialized cells to store neutral fat
› Mast cells- granules containing histamine,
heparin, and anaphylactic factors
 Wandering cells- transient migrants who
have entered C.T. from blood in
response to specific stimuli
› Lymphocytes
› Plasma cells
› Neutrophils
› Eosinophils
› Basophils
› Monocytes
 Ground matrix

› Occupies space between cells and fibers of

C.T.

› Has high water content

› Amorphous in appearance
 Collagen fibers

 Reticular fibers

 Elastic fibers
 Most common type

 Flexible with high tensile strength

 Wavy lines of variable width and

indeterminate length

 Made up of thread-like subunits called

collagen fibrils
 Made of type III collagen fibrils
 Fibrils are of narrow diameter
 Do not bundle to form thick fibers
 Given such name due to mesh-like
pattern
 Provide support framework for cellular
constituents of various tissues and organs
 Produced by fibroblasts
 Thinner than collagen
 Arranged in branching pattern to form
3D network
 Gives tissue ability to cope with strength
and distension
 Interwoven with collagen fibers
 Composed of elastin and microfibrils
 Produced by fibroblasts
 Connective Tissue Proper
› Loose or Areolar Connective Tissue
› Dense Connective Tissue
 Dense Regular C.T.
 Dense Irregular C.T.
 Specialiazed Type of Connective Tissue
› Adipose Tissue
› Cartilage
› Bone
› Blood
 Cellular type of C.T.

 Abundant in ground substance with thin

and relatively sparse fibers

 Viscous gel-like consistency

 Located beneath epithelia lining the

internal surfaces of the body

 Initial site at which antigens, bacteria and

other agents that have breached an
epithelial surface can be ddestroyed
 Collagen fibres packed in dense regular
arrays between lie rows of cells

 Found in tendons, ligaments and

aponeuroses
 Collagenous fibres make up bulk of tissue

 Fibroblasts the only cell type present

 Bundles arranged in various directions

which enables the tissue to withstand
various stresses

 Found on the outside of many organs, in

dermis of skin and in submucosa in various
organs
 Adipocytes –specialized to store fats
› When dominant cells, called ADIPOSE TISSUE

› Contains single, large lipid inclusion

› Thin layer of cytoplasm

› “signet ring” appearance

› Stores nutrients, provide insulation and acts

as cushions as well as fill crevices in organs
 Soft and pliable
 Specialized matrix secreted by
chondrocytes
› Housed inside spaces called lacunae
 3 types
› Hyaline Cartilage
› Elastic Cartilage
› Fibrocartilage
•Most common type

•Clear homogenous
matrix

•Covered with dense

C.T. called
perichonrium

•Chondrocytes are
in clusters
•Cartilage cells
housed in lacunae

•Found in cartilage
of trachea
•Similarto hyaline
cartilage but with
abundant elastic
fibres and
lamellae

•Found in external
ear, epiglottis,
eustachean tube
and larynx
•Resembles C.T.
proper

•Chondrocytes +
dense C.T.

•Presence indicates
that resistance to
compresion as well as
to shear forces

•Found in
intervertebral disks,
symphysis pubis,
places where
tendons attach to
bones
 Mineralized extracellular matrix

 Osteocytes

 Consists mainly of mineralized collagen

fibers arranged in lamellae

 For support, protection, movement,

formation of blood cells and reservoir of
calcium
 Fluid C.T. that circulates the body
 Several functions
› Brings nutrients and oxygen throughout the
body
› Removes waste products
› Transports large number of products such as
hormones and immunogenic agents as well
as in maintaining homeostasis
 RBCs (erythrocytes) and WBCs
(leukocytes)
 During
maturation, loses
their nucleus,
mitochondria
and endoplasmic
reticulum
 With iron-
containing
protein called
hemoglobin
 With nuclei and
mitochondria but
lacks red pigment

 Differentiated into
two types
› Agranular WBC
› Granular WBC
 Granulated cytoplasm and multi-
lobulated nucleus whose lobes are
connectd by chromatin material

› EOSINOPHILS

› BASOPHILS

› NEUTROPHILS
 Without granules in their cytoplasm

› LYMPHOCYTES

› MONOCYTES

› PLATELETS
 Motors of the body
 Unique due to presence of actin and
myosin filaments
 Specialized for contraction
 Responsible for movement of the body
and changes in size and shape of
internal organs
 3 types
› Skeletal
› Smooth
› Cardiac
 Muscle
attached to
skeleton
 Controls
movement
and posture
 Striation due to
arrangement
of myosin and
actin filaments
 Nuclei found at
the periphery
 Found in the
heart at the
base of the
venae cavae
 Have one or
two nuclei
which are
centrally
located
 Intrinsic muscle of
internal organs,
blood vessels, iris
and cilliary body of
the eye

 Each bundle is
fusiform in shape
whit thicker central
portion and
tapered at both
ends

 Single nucleus at
central part of fibre
 Consists of nerve cells and associated
supporting cells
 Cells are called NEURONS
› 3 PARTS:
 CELL BODY
 DENDRITES
 AXON