Dkrcov,e7z;?

rfiomthe Space Program

S~ien~e
OBIGIWAC FaaGE
PHOTOGRAPH

.,.y.r*;lngfw9.
..!;.,;;. 2:.. .QC. . . .$.2.~ ...
.~ 4 s9s :1~.......... . .:.......
: ..... ..*:;
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. .
.:4-:.>:..': .
. . .

ORIGINAL is
OF POOR QUAb149%
Couer:Spetacular rings. Dramatic d@w-
aces in Saturn's rings are revealed by
computer&nced colors. The picture was
generatedJCromtwo images transmitted by
the interplanetary spacecraf Voyager 2 on
August 1 7,1981.

Overleq)?Solar bursts. Violenceat the Sun's

limb wasphotogmphedfmm a Naval Research
Labmatory rockt on November 4,1969. Since
then,NASA satellites have watched events
as the 11-year sunspot cycle bottomed-out,
then rose to a notablepeak.

Overkap D w d w M o m t St. Hekm. Huge

eruption on lo, moon ofJupiter, outckyses the
vokames of Earth. Tht?ment was photo-
graphed by Voyager 1.

Frontispiece: The Sun in mtion.A great

eruption mz the Sun, here imaged in color by
a computer, was observed by the Solar Maxi-
mum Mission satellite in 1980. The Sun influ-
ences the Earth by means of its visible light
and other radiation, outward streaming
atomic and subatomic particles, and mag-
mtic phenomena.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
LO" ?' '?TOGRAPH

. . . . Edited by .... .
. . ,.. .. . . . . ... ... ... . . .. .. .. ... . .
:

.-
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.
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.
.'. . .. .. . . : .. .. .. . . .*., . . . . .. . .. . . ; <..
. . . .... .
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NASA m-177
THE E.
Contributors
Eriq-G?
.
. ... tfi*
Chipmma.isSt@S&ntisst.in the Solar
'~,*4&%.i;:S..iz'.iz'iz'm~.... *
.....
:

. 9 .
..
Hea&uu?-tem. : . . .
. . ...
.
. .
'

. ..i .. .. . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . .
DonaldL. ~e'vin&eraii isPrngra& ~ a i u ~ e r. , ' ,

Planetary Biology?in the Lge S-es Di-,

. N ~ H . . ~ u . ::'z* . ~. : ..::.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -.. .: . i.
s :

emM. French isD & c i p i i n e . ~ t i sfw

t . . . . . ,

Planetary Materials in the Planetary D i d o n , NASA

Headquu*.
David GilrnunisStaflscientist, High E w g y
Astrophysics, in theAstrophysicsDidon7NRSA
Headqua-.
Stephen P. Maran isSendwSta_(Scientistin the
LaboratoryforAstronomy and Solar Physics, NRSA-
Goddard Space might Center.
Paul C. Rambaut isProgram Manager, Biomedical
Research, in the Lge Scthwes Division, NNASA
he^^.

Dedicated to
ThomasA. Mutch (1982-1980)
NASA Associate Administrator for Space Science
(1979-1980).

ORlG1NAf. PRGE
COLOR P H ~ ~ ~ P H
 Preface
... . . . ..; p . -. * . .
....
. . :. .
eople of our generation are par- our Stin with kincrease hclarity
ticipating in one of the greatest coinparable only to that a&&
. . .

.i., ;.... :..:... ..:

events in human history. Life has by Galilee! with his &st telescope. .: .
C . . .
52, v,:.

;; . . ;;.<-: ./.
S..,;.
VC...

begun to expand its habitat, this We are now studying the interac- ;. ........
:'..*;...
..-.
,
:
:
-3..

time beyond the Earth. The last

ii'.

tions that link our world-and its .>:!-. .:.'fZ: .

d..
tb.. .<>..

c. \." '.:.:.
such expansion occurred hundreds future-to this star. Ekyond the c..:.:,.;.~.
. .:.:.: ,...,
.+:;. .c -.;

of millions of years ago, when life Sun, we see a strange new universe ..
!-:..::.*..:.- :

came out of the sea to occupy the of incredible, unexplainable ener- .. ... .. . .
...
land. Humans have left footprints gies, and we have heard the barely . . .

., ,, . :. . ...
.
' . . ,

...
.+.

. .
:,,. ... ;. .<:

. . . . . . ... :.
(

. .
. .
o ~ . t & g . ~ ~ . ~ 4 r9cbi L ~ $ aq@b?ei~bis~.rJe%5u,m..tJ1e
c!ji~
. . . . : .intheir labomtor-s.Oljf a a c b e s .+ .Bank that $tartedSf*&:$V& have
- have'probed the'surf&e of Mars,
'

. : while othef.spajxicraft have:sh&%?n:. to sewhfor koiiipqiii6ns

'

tis giant Jupit&.and ' a g e d Satm: .' . . .

' '
. .
. . .. ......
. Big. *. :. .,.?.. .,: . .

begun to widerstand o q ortgin and. . .. .-.. :.\.:.

'
,"*:
. . . ..:. .

.
hthe ': ;.....' . . . :. ...:.. .-
.....

'

..._. -( . ..
-
ly
?-j.:':;

1
.

. . :. . In past exploratiorrs;a few . ' - . . . . A Meeting with.the Un$-e

; is. . . ,':;. ......
. ... . . . . . .*. .
.... ~ .
I ; .hardy&ulgven.tu.r&.~ut~
, . . . .while ;: .the&&$y *f+hat.rn ~ e ~ & d . & ~ ............ o u t ..:'-:
. . . . the rest waited for months or years. '. the i m i v e ~and e -ourselvesby go? . . ., . ' . .. .
. . -:. . . . - .. ... .to hew what they hadl.fomd.:In . .: .in%irito space. It i,s ngt atextbobk* .... . . " . .. : .

. :. .. . . . . . ,. the space Age we are'all explorers. forscientists,~tis written for every- , .;:. . - ~ %
,:. - ,
,
-,
. ' I

. ~'uph
:
:;'; : ;.oh&w hz8hd th'eeeexcitementt.d .
.......I...

, ,, Cles .

. . . . . . . . . : comrnunieationswe have.watched. "wonderof the lastfew years-. . . -. '.. . . . .

. . . . . . . . .: ..togetheras these new Worlds have
:
students; tea',chers,scientists; en& . . . . . .
been revealed. Simultaneously neers, other professional people,.
around the world, we have seen the and curious citizens of all kinds.
volcanoes of 10,counted the many It is not a NASA history. It is a . . .. .
. . .
rings of Saturn, and learned of history of space exploration-by . .
Titan's cold, unworldly landscape. NASA, by universities, by other
The Space Age .isan era of ex- government agencies, and by in- . -. .
pl~ration,~discovery, and scientific . dustries-all of whom have played - ..: . .. . .. .
achievement without parallel in major ro1es:We have not attempted . . .',.'.. . ,
,.,.: .,., ..:; ,.. . . .
. . %
.., .%. histo.ry?..Weh,aye-reached.;eot*.e+; :. ~appo~&-~editber.e:spa.cehw :?.: . ,*--.+:&.
. . . . .:. . -.
but more than a dozen riew worlds. been studied by many, and the dis-
.
...
We have observed an invisible coveries belong to us all.
universe with our X-ray and inh- The book itself is a novel ex- ... .... .

red telescopes. We are observing periment in writing about science . .

... ..,.,... . ..
. .
 . . . . . . . . . . . .
for nonlscientific readers. It was of bur siecies.
not produced by science writers Other important questions are
or journalists, but written and edit- taking form in scientific discus-
ed entirely by a group of NASA sions and in public debates. What
scientists,all of whom are deeply shall we do with our new domain
involved in space science activities of space? When will we establish
and many of whom actively par- permanent, self-sustaininghuman
ticipated in the discoveries they habitations on the Moon, on Mars,
describe. The success of the exper- or in space itself? How will we
-....:.
- ..
-.
. .
.. .. ..
l
b e n t
~*.~-~gBTddOQQ
b p~oducbgar-rj3~b.1.eim4..
.
... d%
eeh& ,W&#@QI@?:
.r=8w.h:&99.g Whaei;'.e':. ;
.it ,
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.: .: .=..' ,... :.,;'::.';""
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.;t . ?
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:
.
,

. . .
a .: .
e.,4;.t3-.-:...'
&'
-
.
spective, dedication; anddon& will humans play?-Whenwillwillwe
. . ... . . . .. . . . .
. ., ..<

. .right enthusiasm of the a'nd begin'to use.extrdtehektrid re- :

.*. ' . .
editors. Special t h a n k s ' ~ also
e due. sources in space and on Earth? We . .
. .
to the reviewers:' Kathleen Roedder ~e.acquiring the information ,and . . .
-: . . (Public Libra~y?of.Me .Disticcof . . '
' the teehnology to diseum these. . 1- . '-..:. . *.'.. .
>-!
. \. : . , , ,

.. Columbia), Janet. Wolfe (National.. - questions in detail and to develop . . . . . .

Air and Space Museum), and Mary-. plans formoving.ahead-when we' . '. . .
*

Hill French. . . . . . . . . . _ . %.. choose to. ..... _. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...* . . . . . . _. . .. .

We are now at a watershed in
space. After 20 years of challeng-
ing and exciting activity, we have
done most of the easy things and
made most of the obvious discover-
ies. What do we do next? How do
we tackle the many new questions
that have arisen about the Sun,
the Earth, the other worlds, the
universe around us, and ourselves?
These are not just scientific ques-
tions. Their answers involve the
understanding of the Earth's geol-
ogy, its weather, and its climate-
factors that will affect the survival
of our civilization,perhaps even
"Whergthere is no'iision, the
'
people perish," says the Bible.
Although we have only begun
our movement into space, we have
already traveled far and seen
much. We have a shining vision of
the universe and our future in it.
Without that vision, without the
will to follow it, something impor-
tant in us-perhaps we ourselves-
will perish.
Dr. John E. Naugk
ChiefScientist
NASA
... . .. . THE CLIMB INTO SPACE. . . . . . . . :. ..:

Chapter1

3 The&uestforAnsu~ers
5 The Unfolding Universe

- . wpter B'. -:
3 . : . . . _ . .. .
. .. $. . ._ . .
. . . ./ _ _.. . . . . . . . . ...: . : ....... . . .
.: . ..... ,,.r;;.,:.

. . . . .
.' :_ -" .. 2 2 .; x ~ S o l a r s Y & , :;. :;. . . . . . . . . .. .

. . . f5 ...Them .&t.. l P l a n e t S .
.,
. . ".. . . ".; ' ' -. ,'..

. '28: 'm hnts . .

, .
..
.:.
......

51 Minor Objects in the Solar System

58 The Planetary Connections

: . a
- .-"..............IN...-SPACE: .:
. ......... EARTH
THE SUNAND
.............. ....f.z........-.C...t:..G..!T~;.I...t. ...: . .
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.
_

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. 6
,

ORIGINAL PAGE -
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
66 Thesunand Us
68 TheNature of the Sun
75 The Sun in Space: Magnetic Fields and the Solar W;ind
80 TheMagnetosphe: Our Shield in Space
84 The Sun-Weather Connection
86 Where Do We &fiomH&
 Chapter 4

-1NAC P'A'dRh
90 New Windows in the Sky PHOTOGRAPH
91 TheScale of the Universe
. . .
3 % N m & ~ ~:,.q: <
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.
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. . .
. : . . . . . ' .
. . . . .....
100 The End 0f~tars::DeathandlYarnfluraat$&. . ' ..
. '

1.05
;.,. . "Empty"Space:
," .:......:....
Biehppluceof :. . -. . .....
...'.. .............Stars . . ..
. ,...Z...:....., . . ... . . . .
'... . :.. ..... ; . :". . . .
>. ....>I .i. ...*.
..
108 The Galaxies:Ishnds .of9tamrS . . . . . . . . .. : . . . . . ..... .
...
,
.. .. :. :. .. . . . .. _ . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . .
.

. .114
. . . . . &uasars.and the X-Ray Backgrend .
.,
. i ...
. . i .. .
. . , . . . .. . ._.:.j ..

11 7 The Edge of the Universe ..

. . . . . . . . . .
120 What's Corning

THE HUMAN ELEMENT

Chapter 5

124 OurNmDomain
126 Wdghtlesswss
137 Ionizing Radiation
138 Conclusion: We Can Go On

vii
 ORlGlNAC PAdF
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

184 Lunar Exploration

188 Planetary Exploration
204 Solar-Terrestrial Physics
208 Astrophysics
 "Weearn ipapwefir ceBBMamkbd "Thi?
centuries-old "impossibledreamnofhumanitg
: . W ~ " g ~ . I i t g r n . J $:l.Q699.
~Zo~e n 4 -.
bei~sjkm thephmt Earth$& setfoot
another world-our Moon. The landing'of
A p U o 11, a@ the miwiqm thtfollowed it,
man a erdin hunwzn explorat@@;we
.'coul&now study nai,worlds close up and .
bring bqck samples of them.to study in our '
;laboratories.Here Apollo 17 a s t - m u t .
Eugene .Cemiawstaq&in .thaM m B Mttm%p.
Valky,jlanked by an Americanflag and by
the radio of the astro?muts'&una~
.:>
Rdving Vehicle:' .
 The QuestforAnswers
. .
uestions, questions, questions.. .Human beings
don't accept things as they find them. They ask
questions, and they search for answers. What am I?
Where am I? What is my past? What is my future?
From earliest childhood, people want to know things.
Why is the sky blue? What makes the Sun shine? What
is the Moon made of? What are the stars?
Curiosity drives us to explore our surroundings.
We want to see the unseen and to learn what lies over
";,
*, -
*.$,*
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'
y: .*- i.. .-:-<
=
d<&emapmk&emhd;andtheyhaire .
. . studied and worked and striven and sometimes died
to fiil them in:Qver the centuries, the urge to explore. .
. . &as taken hum.& beings into unknown and unreach-.
.. * ..!,.... :. *. . ".. ;'... * .'.. ..'. able places: t o the New World,:the,Sp~th..Pole~~Mount :. ... , . .
. . . " ' Eve'rest, arid the Moon The sank urge'has [carried
' "

- .
. . . , . . ... . the kuqan-mind outward intbthe realm of the, ..
.' galaxies and into the microscopic domain of sub-
'

- - . - . - - . .-.- -atomicparticles. . -
These explorations have always been profitable.
They have produced tangible riches: gold, new lands,
beneficial trade, and profitable technological ad-
vances. More important is the knowledge gleaned: a
better understanding of our world, its mechanisms
and processes, and the basic natural laws that govern
them. It is knowledge, much more than riches, that
makes modern civilization possible.
When we think of exploration, we think of indi-
viduals: Marco Polo, Columbus, Lewis and Clark,
Lindbergh, Neil &strong. But great explorations
have @so been an irri~ortantpart of the character of
nations. To search for something new is an expression
of a nation's confidence and enthusiasm, of its ability
to organize and its willingness to innovate. It is no co-
O m m d bound to the stars.In thisartist's incidence that the New World was discovered at the
VigW lo,laUWhedfrazEarth in height of the Renaissance, nor that the colonization of
1972, the spac- makes a close pussage of
M- as itfollows a path m a d the giant North America accompanied the rise of Elizabethan
- p h ~Jupiter. t me blue, c ~ - c ~Earth e ~ England.
d In our own time, the Apollo Program manned
: Is in ure bacmndnd mkvisw the
: MoonS heavily crateredfar side, highlighted landings and exploration of the Moon were the Ameri-
i by the darkcrater mi~ucovs~cy. Pioneer 10 can response to the challenge of competition in the
: will m e r return. After its encounter with new ocean of space.
i
'
Jupiter in 1973, Pioneer 10zuas movingfast
enough to escapeflom the solar system en-
tirely. It is thefirst human art@itsent out to
roam among the stars, a calling card an-
nouncing our existence to any other intelli-
gences in the universe.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

The exploration of space 6e o& the latest . '

episode in the long human history of wondering and

seeking, but the sudden explosions of travel, new
sights, and scientific discovery exceed g that
preceded them. New worlds have been discov~red,
not one by one, but by the dozen. Human beings have
explored and sampled the Moon. Robot laboratories
have dug into and analyzed the surface of Mars. The
video eyes of our spacecraft are providing close-up
- .viewsflp?aneUqeyexigeen,bsmew ~ ~ * . q,dqme..
than a dozen maons have emerged in our consdous-'
.. mysterious,
ness from tiny points of light to unique, .
and changing worlds,
rea at asthese steps have bgen, theyhave occurred
in a remarkably short h e . Only a single generation
sepixratesthe':flight ofS'tn&.l'from the fiPStspace-:*
craft pictures of Saturn's moons; the first geologist to
explore the Antamtic-isstill around to talk with. t h e '
first geologist to go to the Mo.on! Thanks to m ~ d e r n
communicati6ns,all of us have shared in these voy:
ages to an extent never possible before. Less than 100
people witnessed Columbus' landfall in the New World;
half a billion watched on television as Armstrong and
Aldrin stepped onto the Moon.
We have flown into space, but from this high van-
tage point we still feel as curious as an earthbound
child. How did the universe form? How will it end?
How was the solar system created? What are the other
planets really like?What lies in deep space beyond .
the Sun? How dicl life originate?Is there other life
-.outthere?dh&he.].bst ge~emtion~ .we .have~ae.a.:::;. .:
long way toward the answers. But we still have farther
to reach, more questions to ask, and much more to
learn. Like earlier explorers, we have painfully strug-
gled to a high plateau from which we see new mom-
tains and valleys beyond. The answers to our ques-
tions, the benefits from the new knowledge, still lie
ahead, out of sight, but no longer out of reach.

..
uLmm. We hahave l@oflVADelta rocket slowly risesfmm its
launchpad to carry yet anoth.erpayload into space. 172eda,eLopment
of rocket b o o s t e r s p m ~enough
l to overcome thegravity of our own
planet was a critical step i n the scienti* exploration of space. This
launch i n 1975placed a n Orbiting Solar Observatory spacecrclft
(OSO-8) i n orbit above the Earth to make scientzfk observations of
the Sun.
 The UnfoktingUiiverse
:
-
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.
n& 500'yeai-s ago, the''Gi+erie s h e ~ ~ d . $ i m ~ l e , '
orderly,peaceful, and well-understood. The
Earth stood motionless at the center. The Sun, Moon,
and planets circled it at no great distance. Slightly
fbther away, the fixed stars were tiny points of light
mounted on a sphere of pure crystal. It was a small,
comfortable, and reassuring universe, and Man was at
the center of everything.
In only a few centuries, the scale of the solar
srspm W~-Q[
.fy&uf.eS)f tbeIWvgrswqpwdec!
m*smevte& kp.aF199 "-,-, e-.
the Copexdcan theory replaced the ~ a r t with h the
S d ' a t the center of tXle solar system: The five wan- .
dering lights f called planetes by the.Greeks) became
individual.worlds. New discuveries in physics and ' '

sptxtro_scopy'madeit.pbsibie toagpdpe.and*even~. -
weigh the distant stars. Still larger telescopes moved-
the Sim from the center of thiitgs 'ta the friages of the
Milky Way galaxy, a huge system of 10O'billion or
'more s b . m e n the Milky Way became only one of
billions of galaxies in an expanding universe, New
telescapes, sensitive to radio waves, probed the uni-.
verse, discovering strange objects and powerful
sources of energy that our eyes could never see.
When we suddenly entered the Space Age with
the launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4,1957, we broke
through the last two barriers to our exploration of the
universe: gravity and air. We now could escape from
the pull of Earth's gravity, in which we had spent all
of history, and reach other worlds. Astronauts and
machines could stand on other planets, study them at
close range, and bring back samples to analyze on
Earth. Robot spacecraft could fly past other worlds,
sending back closeup video pictures that brought dis-
tant planets closer to us than our own Moon.
With the Space Age, a second barrier fell away:
the blurring and dimming caused by the Earth's atmo-
sphere as we look outward from the ground. Out in
space, instruments and human eyes could see the
universe directly in all of its incredible violence,
immensity, and variety.
ORIGINAL' PKGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPI
 Looking back at the launch of Sputnik 1, we real-
ize how much that we take for ted now-only a
generation later-was ratknown and in many cases
.not . even
. ... . . In the qiverse
. . suspected *en. ..
of 1.957; .
* '&e Sun seemed a basically stable, steadily shining
star.
Mercury and Vmuswerejust blurs in the telescope;
there was no i n f m t i o n on tdteir remarkable geo-
logicfeatures.
No one lmew that the Earth was surrounded by belts
of trapped radiation.
Mars, s m etronomers thought, had "canub~per-

. . .. . . . . . . .
when he,dis~oy+ed
them in 1610. . . . . .
~+nongthe planets, d y §at& wai hmmm tb hait+. '
rings. . .. .. .
.

.'-.~zuto.hatl.~ & n iat d . :-:.. . . .

k G o ~ rnr ~ ~ ~ n . j t h ~~sias
massw e e hardly w e than wtters'of conjecture:.
TTw only h& volcahoes were those.t%.the Earth.. . .
No one ~stuc$.;ied
'tow:hed kmuj whatone.'":
a moon rock. . . . . was
. like; no. .one
. . had

-
a

Chemists had found traces of the &gin of the solar

system ;iiz mktecup-ites,but no clues to eiarlier events.
Black holes and neutron stars were creatures of the
phgskkt 3 imagination.
No one had even speculated that such objects as
Quasars and pulsars might exist.
* The "BigBangnwasjust one of several theo.P.iesfor
the origin of the universe; it seemed unlilcely that evi-
dence to clearly discriminate between them would be
found.

-
* No one had gone into space.
It was widely doubted that human beings could sur-
vive and work in space, given the dangers of radia-
tion, weightlessness, and meteorites.
Among schceJ"ictionwriters,few predicted that
there would be a man on the &f00nbefore, scey, the
1990's.
An earfor the unheme. The dish antenna of a large NMA radio
telescope located at Madrid, Spain is outlined against the sunset sky.
The antenna is 64 meters (210feet) in diameter. It is used to track
interplanetary spacem-afi, to send commands to them, and to receive
jknn them the radio signals that carry scientim information and
pictures of otherworlds. Other, even larger, radio telescopesanalyze
,radiowavesfiom distant stars and galaxies. Radio telescopeshave
even detected a whisper of noise+ the edge of the universe, an echo
of the Big Bang thatf m d the universe 15 to 20 billion years ago.
Radio telescopes like this one could also be used to detect
extraterrestrial life-by listeningfor the communicatio.nsof other
civili.zatim in space.
 a single genemion, astronome~ md
space scientists have compned a remarkable list of
accomplishents and discoverries. Other planets have
become individud mrlds that we can see
and touch, at least aid ofremotely-controU4.
inshments. We
violence of the
new "ligkt9"-%-rays and rP1bviolet- and have g h e d
new insights into the chmcter ofthis star that makes
life possible. We have the huge,
violent universe b s and fm-
tastic objects such as quasars, pdsars, and black
. a . ;h0@ .Weshijlv8~ V @ R : ~ U @
.+ . a e* w & ~ &m8s~411;.'.;.
F
the tiny echo of.microwaveradiation from the. -
moment, billions of years ago, when the new ymiverse
was just eqar~dixmgfrom the Big Bag: .. .
We have also gained &newbiewpoint on o&-
sdves md'the E&h. We have fdund our 0% origins
:~ b c6mpbhnds
6 ~ hm'eWon"itei,o r g ~ ' c
interstellar sp
b
5
ini our' bodies that canie &oh
the Sun wits born. We.have a
small, blue, habihble island in a vast, forbidhg
blackness. By s t u d w gthe life-styles of other worlds;
ore about our own: its history,
,alI the circumstances and conditions
not only to science, but
In a single generation, we have learned more
about the cosmos than we did in all the centuries that
went before. It seems almost unbelievable that we
have been able to discover so much.about objects so
huge, so ancient, so complex, and so far away. Yet
. --...-~aU.th'as b8w.]Ied$e;isjmt~&cebasis f o newex#lm-.
~ :.+.
tions, discoveries, and mderst%nhg. Our cunrent
view of the universe probably is no more permanent
than were the ideas people had five centuries ago. It
will changejust as as did the old concepts,
as we do more a d see er. All that we have done
is yet a be a d futwe genemtions may regmd
OW view of the verse with the same amused
tolerance that we reserve today for the ancients'
crystal sphere.

MIGINAI- PAGE
@LOR PHOTOGRAPH
i 2Tae B@ B1w M w b k . Earth, the home planet of humanitg, rises above the s m M and
watered sug'iie of the Moon in this photograph takenfmm the Apollo 11 spacecrafi OR181NAL PAGE
shortly before the astronauts setjoot on the ilhnz. In addition to making it possible for us to COLOR P'-i'9TOGZAP?=!
see nau worlds, the Space Age gave us a new view of our ownplanet. Astronauts, poets,
writers, and average people alike were struck by the image of the Earth as a tiny, blue,
hospitable, life-bearing world,.Jbating in a vast uncaring blacIcness, ssid-@-side with the
battered and lifeless Moon.
 &vmMe rnmh

Kina oft& PP-&. 8.nt Jupiter, with its

this wiew taken & the voyager-1spacecrap

:from a h t 20 million kilomeWs.[lZ million
miles) away! The moons, emhabout the e e .
of Earth's iWoori;are dwdded by the pla'mt, '
which is W g e aozlgh to contain mpre than a.
thm.sand.,Eart&. E w ' M this d+tance,'&- '
taiGrofJzdfiW3tB7&& atWsp&%+e d.r@' :
visible. lo,.!& moon at tlee2ep;is in~Tantof .
';
v&
Jupite?:cSRedSpot+ moon3 orange c*
may be due.td ti,szsl@rcompounds erupted .
;

from its active..~okanoes, d,iscmeredm,.Voy- I

;

'kgerjkwp&t Eumpa (at center)is a whit-

ish moon.Its sudme is probably a thick icy
wust qverlying a r q k g core. - .. .
. .
 ANm SolarSystem
l o me ancients,the solar system.
consisted of a fewworlds wan-
dering through a limited region of
'
Even current plans involving definite
missions include only a possible Voy- .
ager 2 flyby of Uranus in 1986. To
I
.b
I-
empty space. To us, it is a huge region return inward to survey Mercury in *-
containing uncountable bits of solid greater detail than heretofore, or to go s
matter and filledwith great magnetic outward to study the outermost plan- . _.. . -,
fields and streams of electrically- ets, we will need-morepowerful space- ::-,- -.
charged atomic particles from the Sun. craft than exist today. . ,
One of the most visible and exciting According to current theory, the
activities of the Space Age has been Sun and planets formed together in
+

. .
the detailed exploration of this aston- the collapse of a vast cloud of inter-
. . . , ,...-.:-., ...:r .,- ..F-~~..-: .-P:-: ~ l . . . . , b h i n g @ U e c t i ~ n p E ~st~aicd&st~.d
~ ~ d ~ ~ . < gas@ . h e ~ & d i ~ f +,U. ?
axiurid.theSun. The inventory of soEd - cloud) about.5 billion.years.ago. The .
.; . .
t.ei: q.;.

,. bodies in the solar family is impres- - central part-of the cloud collapsed to .
sive: n e e plane&, at legt thirty-nine ' fonn the Sun,and the pladets con-
fioons, thousands of tiny asterdids, densed in orhits'around it. One tea-
.. billions of comets, and vast numbers ture of the solar system that z d the . . .
. .. .. . .*. . .. . ,.~ f : m e ~ r o iand
' d s sm@.fimc@~ af . theories-haveto take.iato accounti s ...: - - -... + A

cosmicdust. . . that there are two basically different

. 'Inrecent years9m$nyspa~ecraft. ::kindso6planets: thesolid t a r r e s 4 .
have explored the planets and their ' planets, like the Earth, and gasghnts,
' .
.>- - A - . - mans:over twodmenoItheseworldg like hpiter and Saitun. . -.*; = ... . .., -
have been studied at close range. This The terrestrial planets (Mercury,
expl~rati~n is not a random process. .Venus,E*, aadMars)'lie iri the . . .. .
It proceeds in systematic stages, each inner solar system,close to the Sun. '

stage built on the results of earlier They take from almost three months
ones. First, there are the reconnais- to almost two years to orbit around it.
sance or "flyby" missions such as They are relatively small, from less
those to Mercury, Jupiter, and Saturn. than 5000 kilometers to almost 13,000
Next come exploration missions, car- kilometers (less than 3100 miles to
ried out by orbiters and landers on almost 8100 miles) in diameter, and
the Moon, Mars, and Venus. Finally, . they are solid and rocky, as if they '

there is a stage of intensive study, had formed in a hotter part of the '

. .... invo1-g astronaut landings and . origipd dust cloud fromw u ..most .. :. -;:I-:-*
fs
'

,..... . .. . .., ..c ..:.*s&Dfk.fw;.&.ch

<% .*Qs. hi$.&...: - . /,.&.Ge&/....?&.rGgt;m-e.& .+$Ibi .
>
..
t

been accomplished only on the Moon. have from the Earth, the Moon, and
As of now, we have made inten- meteorites suggest that all the terres-
sive studies of only the closer worlds. trial planets are composed largely of
Our spacecraft have not been power- fairly heavy elements such as silicon,
ful enough to push us very far out aluminum,calcium,magnesium, iron,
from Earth or very far inward toward and others, combined with oxygen to
the Sun. For this reason, most of our make solid minerals and rocks.
missions, especially the earliest ones, Despite their common composi-
have involved the nearest worlds: the tion, the t e r r e s a planets are very
Moon, Venus, and Mars. We have only different. Consider their atmospheres:
briefly surveyed Mercury, Jupiter, and Mercury has none, the Earth and Mars
Saturn. Although one interplanetary have modest atmospheres, and Venus
probe,Pbneer 10,has passed the orbit has air so thick, dense, and cloud-
of Uranus, the outer planets beyond filled that it forever conceals the
Saturn are completely untouched. planetary surface. The magnetism of

terrestrial planets aim varies sftik- .
ingly. The Earth has a fairly strong
magnetic field, Mercury has a weaker
one, and Venus and Mars apparently
have none at all. Even more curious,
the rates of rotation vary widely: Earth
and Mars each spin on their axes in
about one day, but Mercury takes two
months to rotate once and Venus
takes a full eight months. (Venus also
w6rr"*me
rotates opposi$e
*- to the directi~n
;&&$r&?2.:+. .of:
;"i?',: .
The critical chemicd water (Hd)
varies greatly among the terrestrial
worids. The Earth has vast quanti-
ties of liquid water, so much so that it
.ocen is referred to as "the water .
planet."k&has a muchsmaller
amount,piesent aS ice. Veius may .
have h o s t none; only a trace of
water has been found so fm in its ,
atmosphere. No water has been found
on the Moon or in its rocks, although
some scientists speculate that frozen
water may exist in permanently shad-
owed regions near the lunar poles. A
final mystery is that life, so far as we
know, exists and has existed only on
the Earth.
Further out in the solar system
are the gas-giant planets: Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Great
globes of dense gas, with little or no
rocky material, they formed in cooler
parts of the protosolar cloud, so gases
and ices were preserved. These plan-
ets take from almost 12years to al-
most 165 years to circle the Sun, but
they spin on their axes remarkably
rapidly, in 10to 16 hours, rather than
in days or months.
The giant planets are virtually all
atmosphere. On Jupiter and Saturn,
we see spectacularbanded patterns
of swirling,brilliantly colored clouds.
At high altitudes, the clouds probably
are composed of frozen ammonia crys-
tals; in effect, there is a high layer of
ammonia clouds like the hgh-altitude
cirrus clouds of Earth. At lower alti-
. ........)
. :. .
tudes Jupiter's cloud's are probably. - .
made of water and complex mole-
cules. The atmospheres of far-off Ura-
nus and Neptune are hard to study,
but show faint traces of clouds as well.
We can only make informed con-
jectures about the interiors of the gas
giants. They may have small rocky
cores; if so, the cores are surrounded
by layers of solid ice. Around this ice,
. . . . .
reduced the molec&r hydrogen - gas
- . *.
(which makes up most of the atmos- . '
.
phere) to a liquid state in which the
hydrogen behaves electrically like a .
$
mqtaa.. Ip U w u s and Neptune, the ..*.I*. . .
a.
hydrogen ii'dedse but may not gach
*
the metallic condition. Current+circu- . '
lating in h e metallic fluids of Jupiter
and.Saturn generate powerfhl mag.- . . . * . \ .... .
netic fields that surround the two
planets in space and trap atomic
particIes from the "solar wind" that
streams outward from the Sun.
The gas giants have solid moons
orbiting around them. Not just one or
two moons, like Earth and Mars, but
whole families; Jupiter and Saturn
have more than a dozen moons apiece.
Their moons, recently photographed
by the Voyagers 1and 2 spacecraft,
have been revealed as an astonishing
collection of distinct individuals: large
irregular rocks, worlds of cratered ice,
and one moon of incessant glowing
volcanic eruptions. The largest of
Saturn's moons, Titan, is covered by
a dense brownish atmosphereof nitro-
gen and methane,with minor amounts
of other organic molecules.
Within each of the two planetary
groups-the terrestrial planets and
the gas giants-our space probes have
reveaied tremendous diversity. Each
world is unique, but each also has
somethingin common with the others,
so that by studying one, it is possible
to discover basic truths that relate to
them all.
 OWlGlNAL PAGE
m e Moon a L Q R P ,T3GRAF
. . ...., . '. . *: .. .
~s the MOO; a ~echnicallyno,
for it revolves around the Earth rather
Lhan directly around the Sun. But the
Moon is a large world, comparable in
size to the planet Mercury. In compo-
sition, origin, and history, the Moon is
like a terrestrial planet, resembling
the Earth in many ways, different in
others. These similaritiesand differ-
*epees m%e the Moon an important
t;.f6$*jgi'I%&$dij&&;..,:.-2s-i
'won'lIcls.. .
' . ' . '

Because it is c1ose.t~
tbe.Earth, :

:'the'Moonis.ouPmost intensely stud- . .

iegi "n@w"'wofld.It h& been reached .
, b y ' m w spaceepft from b6th the . . .
7JniitMS@t"eiai.ld.the! U S R b Onleach ... ' +-

' of six missions, two American astro- . .

biaut~ landed'ahd studied the'lunar .:
surface..Mqnned and,unmmed
.korbit asoddthe~satel- ~ * b
have made detailed photographs a . d ..
.mapped'thelgravity,magnetism, and . ..
chemical composition over much of
its surface. Instruments placed by our
astronauts on the surface have inves-
tigated the once wholly inaccessible
r of the Moon. Especially im-
t has been the return of actual
I u m samples from nine sites (six
American, three Russian) on the
Moon. By analyzing these samples in
laboratories on Earth, we have meas-
ured the Moon's precise composition,
deduced its history, and inferred the
nature and variations of the space
enviffoment mound the Moon over
long intern& of ancient time.

A m w mrM &a o w h d e ApoUo 17 astro-

naut Harrison Schmitt uses a special rake to
collect rock and soil s a m p l e s theR4oon
~ B
Lithmv V a w .Pieces of the M m , brought
back to Earth, yield a detailed picture of the
nature and history of our nearest neighbor
world. SamplesfWm the lunar m e m e also
bea~clw to the history of the Sun: trapped
gas atoms that have been sprayed outporn
the Sun over billions of years.
 The composition of the Moon is highlands,which still covers 80 per- i
. . . .
much like that of the Earth. Its rocks cent of the Moon. . . . .
. .
are similartd Earth rocks and contain.-.. The hewly io&ed l&ar c h i t
'

but not all ofthe same miner- was subjected to ldng-tenn cata-
als. However, the Moon has no atrno- strophic bombardment by meteoroids
sphere,it shows no trace of past or and asteroids,some as large as Rhode
';:.
&.".?. . i-' :.
$....
.:;.: :. :- ..-::.
. ' .

_:..
....
Island or Delaware. These violent h- . Y.,;,.. . -:
:,
-. :"
present life, and its rocks contain no a
.
:
.:
.
; . -..:;.<.-.
-
water. pacts formed overlapping craters and ? .,:., :.-. -.:.. ...
........... .- !

The Moon rocks show that the huge circular basins that can still be -- . :
.
a. . : ,
,<.:..., . . . ..... ..
:' ,

c::- - . .- . -
;.:,:

lunar surface is very ancient. Its rocks seen on the Moon. Then, when the . ...,. ... . . . .
.
. . . . .
1.

are older than most ofthe rocks now bombardment subsided, about 4 bil- . . . . .
:

found on Earth, and the Moon has lion yeamago, radioactivity . ..'..%.... )
. ,.

:prmerned,s word.@ @e;$q&sf W:?. :.e&e,a4%.&&49 of.QeWma

. :.. . .>.*.
..;;....&*& . .
..-. * ,...'!. ... .,,**...: ..*.*. ...
.. ' ..:,...:. :.' .>..L; I Q
: .f.Lf... -:.*;*.
. . .. ..'. . ;:
.
.
of
.I.
P
, . .
I

. . . . . .... the fopnation &@de$elcip- ' . rock.me1ted at depths of hun$reds.of

, .
ment of the planets. In its oldest rocks, kilometers, and &eshlava rose to the . . . . . .
-. ..

. . . : .I . .
aninterne.
we detect ~mdicati'onb~of 'Surface,sp.kadin&'to'foiin'.
; ' the great; . .. ..... . . .
. . .. .. .. . i
, .. . . primord.al.melt;ingthatleft th6,riew:. , inkzria;.of the Moon. . ....
dark i e g i o ~or .:. ..

-
: -.
. .
'

. .

born Moon covered.with a seethir?g ., : The 1avasTrom-these eruptions re- - . .. .. .. ...

. . .. .
. .
.
, ,
. . . .:.,. ............. . . @ s ....semble la~asf?.p&+Easth
d c e a n . o f m o l t e ~ l a ~ $ q - ~of;kilo~ .: . .* .,... .
in p@fes%:
. .. . ' rhet+$'deep. Gradu211ly,the lava o c k like Hawaiiand Iceland. But,.unlike . . . . . . . .
: :.+
.
.

. . . , .: . .. . .. _. . .: . . : :* . .
cooled and.solidified,formipg &he,:. . . . .teqr.es.wallaiias;..theyc~ntkh,nb . i I- . . .
. . light-colored crust we allthe l u m ~ water; and the crystalsin them &.as' ' . . .

mthe Useas."This chunk of bubble&h lava,collected ly the ApoUo 15

~ ~ u s i m, the surjace rock of the dark maria (or "seas") the Moon.P
tt y p m
volcanic eruptions about 3.5 Wionyears agofloodedmuch of the M o m with molten luva
resembling the volcanic racksfound in Hawaii and Iceland. UnlikeEarth rocks,the lunar
specimens contain no water;the nature of the gas thut made the bubbles remains a mystery.

ORIGINAL PAGE
PHOTOGRAPH
clear and gemlike as if they had been
erupted yesterday rather than 3.5 bil-
lion years ago.
For the last 3 billion years, the
Moon has been a very silent world. A
steady,gentle bombardment by tiny
meteorites has gradually chipped
away at the lunar bedrock, creating a
slowly stirred surface layer of pow-
dery rubble, the lunar "soil." During
these billions of years, the soil par-
ticles have been recordii the space
environment, retainhg.tracesof the . .
. steady bombardment of the Moon by.
cosmic dust, by charged atomic
particles from the Sun, and by cosmic
rays from the stars. Unlike the geo-
logically active, continually changing
Earth,the Moon has been a virtual
"museum world," a key to understand-
ing the history of the Sun and the
planets.

The rubble of ages. ColEected by Apollo 16 astronauts on the lunar highlands, this
light-colored rock (or breccia) wasformedjhnpieces of many different rocks, shattered,
melted, and mized together by the great meteorite impacts that rocked the Moon during its
early years. The c o m p k breccias are the key to undwstanding how the Mom and other
planets developed. S o r n e f i m t s i n this specimenmay be pieces of the original lunar crust
thatfomned 4.5 billion years ago.
 Only 40 percent lasger in diameter '
than the Moon, Mercury is the closest
planet to the Sun, and its sunlit sur-
face is hot enough to melt lead. The
planet is so small and so far away
from Earth that it was only a dull
white blur in telescopes before the
Space Age. Its surface finally was re-
vealed during three flybys of a single
space probe, Mariner 10.
M.ercury is a pl.+et mu$h.We.@e
. *M'&&.It &.a&d&&ee, & iG'
surface is covered with circular im-
pact craters and hugei round basins.
Most ofMercury looks much likethe
lunar highlands; apparently it was
subjected'to the same bombardmenrt
b a t shaped tlie Moon in pdihordial '
times. Yet Mercury is different. It '

seems to lack the dark deposits of ' '

lavas that engulfed much afthe

between 3 and 4 billion years ago.
Unlike the Moon, Mercury has great
cliffk, thousands of kilometers long,
that may be wrinkles formed as the
planet cooled and shrank. Mercury is
denser than the Moon, and it seems to
have a large iron core, the source of a
weak but detectable magnetic field, a
feature the Moon lacks.
Mercury is a scorched,primordid
world which must retain traces of
how planets were formed in a part of
. .the solarsystem e m o t e - h mthe.:-: -..
Earth and Moon. But we cannot reach
it yet for detailed exploration. Deep in
the gravity field of the Sun, Mercury
lies beyond the reach of even today's
most advanced spacecraft. To send
orbiters and landers there, more pow-
erful interplanetary spacecraft will be
needed. Until then, Mercury waits
just out of reach, its secrets baking in
the light of a huge and searing Sun.

wee
ORIGINAL'
BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH
 The lcvulscape of Mercury. In this close-up wiavfrom Mariner 10, an
airless, cratered sudace is revealed as it might appear to an astro-
naut in orbit around Mercury. Sudme temperatures can reach 425°C
(about 770"F) in the searing light of the nearby Sun. The irregular
A worZdrevealed TheplanetMercury, m e dark line on the distant horizon is a uniquefeature ofMercury, a huge
only a white blur inEarth bound telescopes, scay, (or clim, several kilometers high and several hundred kilo-
reveals a moonlikeface to the cammas of meters long, that may have beenf m d as the young planet cobled
Mariner 10. The heavily cratered sudace seen and shrank. Zbispicturewas talcaJCimn77,800kilometers(48,000
here resembles the highlunds of the Moon;the miles) as Mariner sped past Mercury; the distance along the lower
largest waters are up to 200 lcilmneters (125 edge &the picture is about 580 Icilmneters (360 miles).
m h )in diameter. Th.e surfaceof Mercury,
like that of the Moon,displays the sects of
! meteorite binnbardntt?nt,suggesting that
.': such impactsshaped many of the terreswl ORIGINAL PAGE
i plands. Thismosaicwasassembledfrom B U C K AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH
1 eighteen separate pictures, mppedat a dis-
j tance of 200,000 Icilometers (125,000m h ) .
 Mars their slopes. A huge chasm, wider in
.. . . . . . . . places than the Gmd.Canyon is long,
Mars is larger than Mercury, slightly runs east-west for about 4600 kilo-
over half the diameter of the Earth. meters (2800miles). Elsewhere on
For centuries it has been a mystery this younger half of Mars,surprising,
planet, a blurred red globe in the tele- twisted channels meander across the
scope, splashed with patches of white surface. These are not the straight
and dark. Even before spacecraft ven- "canals"once seen from Earth, those
tured there, we knew that Mars had turned out to have been tricksof per-
a thin atmosphere, winds, water, ception produced by viewing Mars at
clouds, and polar ice caps. There was the limit of Earthbound vision. The
.., ..-......
.. 's'&C&ed
..... ,:. - ;,.$.*~,gr44i;.?4i.r?jiay;f"1;&.
a continuing .debate.over whether the real twisted, braided channels seem
.",+, :.. :-aK&&dOw~.ca&&
%

.*. .........
and whether Mai% mightin fact have huge, sudden floods inore than a bil-
life: Inscience fiction, Mars was the . lion years aga,The water has vqn- .
,

..' destination.forsprnefannghumans . . ished; noliquid wateris now fourid on

G d also the.mainsource of extra: Mars. But huge reservoirs of frozen
terkesfsials, hostile oli.friendljr, who .. water appaently remain in the Mar.
;...: * i M , ~ d:.... ~ . ." . .,.:....*..:.. ,:. ,..* *polar caps, and~in~~peftnahst
. b e -*-
A new M q has been revealed by., neath theMartian soil, The white
[ $.Geral -& sp ':nyb.JTs, polar capsare largely made up of :
+.
',

.... ....orbite%.an.ct,finaflylandem: Mars ... water, with a frosting of "dry ice" or

,

-
'now reccighed'as a kinaof "hWay" frozen &bon dioxide. The caps
'

world. Wart af the .Mastian.s.mbceis. themselves lie on layered sediments,

ari'cierit 'like those of theMoon and . perhaps the evidence of past ice ages
Mercury, and part is more evolved
and Earth-like. The southern Martian
on ~'ars.
'

Two places on Mars have been

hemisphere is heavily cratered, so it examined on the surface by the two
too bears the traces of the primordial Viking landers (one of which is still
bombardment that engulfed the Moon operating since its landing in 1976).
and Mercury. But the Martian craters The robot spacecraft sent back pic-
are different: Their rims are low; they tures of a pink sky, colored by fine,

-.
are shallow, eroded, and filled with
wind-blown dust accumulated over . ments measured mild winds in the
. .ss..-:~.-n&fm; .:?
. :.. , ,; 6 . c. .:. ....-..........--
The northern half bf M&S% m6rG frost-
like the Earth. Huge volcanic moun-
. red, windblown dust. Lander instru-
- : .: .*,*"t~ted.a.thin
on rock-andsoil . -
during the Martian winter.
1.

tains climb as much as 25 kilometers The atmosphere of Mars is very

(15 miles) into the sky, three times thin; the barometric pressure is less
as high as Mount Everest, and the than one percent that of the Earth at
remnants of ancient lava are seen on sea level. Unlike our air, Mars' atmo-

Theface ofMars. The different regbns of the Red Planet are shown in this single picture
takenby Viking 1 at a distance of 560,000kilomders (348,000 miles). The dark spots are
huge volcarwes,which characterize the younger, megeologically active northern hemi-
sphere. 27.w lurgest Martian volcano, OlympusM m ,isthe isolated dark spot at the upper
right.It is more than 600 lcilomders (373 miles) across and rises about 25 kilometm-s(1 6
m i l s ) above the su@.ce. The more aancient, k v i l y cratered southern hemisphere is mostly
in shadow here, but the large circulurfeature, Argyre, probably fomzed by a great meteom'te
impact,can be seen at the bottom, its shape emphasized by a thin layer ofmst or ground fog
within.
 sphere is not predominantly com-
posed.of nitrogen and oxygen, but - .
consists almost exclusively of carbon
dioxide (COz), with minor amounts of
nitrogen and argon andjust a trace
of oxygen.
The rocks of Mars are porous and ORIG~NA~" earn
jagged, like the volcanic lavas of the COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Earth and the Moon. The Martian soil,
analyzed by the Viking landers, has a
composition very much like weath-
ered lava The red color of Mars is @
. .
.,..:.3:fk&:i~~(* @raq&i%$~+*~@f,
fictioli writers had written).by the'
presence of oxidized iron,a kind of.
exoticrust: . . . '
The @eatestmystew of ~ a r .s : .
Is there fife?-remains a mystery..
$evepal e%pehalts'orf th;e Viking ' . '

landers tried to detect life in the soil,.

and some unusual reactionswere en-
countered. But the reactions probably
were due to the unusual chemistry of
the soil rather than to the presence of
my microscopic life fonns. It seems
that we will need to cany more so-
phisticated experiments to Mars-or
bring a sample of Mars back to labora-
tories here on Earth-before we can
answer the question with certainty.
Mars is a more developed planet
than the Moon and Mercury. The evi-
dence of massive volcanism is ob-
vious. In addition, some geologists
consider the vast chain of canyons in
the northern hemisphere to be the re-
sult of rifting,perhaps the beginning
of continent-building.Mars has made
and retained an atmosphere. But, like
the Moon, Mars apparently stopped
evolving 1or 2 billion years ago and
has not gone as far geologically as the
Earth. On the other hand, like the
Earth, it is a world with weather and
climate. The records of its past cli-
mates, floods, and ice ages remain in
the layered sediments of the polar
re@ons,p h o t o ~ p h e din detail, but Rocks of UreRedPZanet A geological welcoming committeefMartian
as yet unreachable. rocks u p to a meter (3.3feet) m s s surround the Viking 2 lander in
the Utopia remof Mars. h r k , sometimes banded, and often
b u b b M h fthe rocks resemblevolcanic lavas (basalt)found on the

22
Earth and Moon.The red soil is c o W d by d . e d iron;its chemical
composition resembles that of weathered basalt lava. The SU-W
pink sky of Mars draws its h u e m p 1 2 e red dust cam-id abfi by the
winds.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
CGLOR Ph3TOGRAPW

Ve~as
. . . . . . . .. . . . . .
I..
..
Second &om the Sun,.closest planet to
the Earth, Venus has long been known
as the bright mo
stareCalled "Earth's Twin"because it
is almost the size of Earth, Venus is
surrounded by a thick, yellowish-
white, opaque atmosphere. All we can
see in telescopes are fuzzy images of
its perpetual cloud cover.

.,
.
... .. .. . .
:.
. .
. '. . selfasno of Earth, but' rather
.. . . . , *... ge md.hellish.Xenno; Its thick . .
.
- .-.atmosphere is composed mostly of .'
.

. . . ... c a ~ b dioxid~,
~n with,alittle nitrogen
, # . . .:. . . .
, . and.d&.uitraces
.ak. ofAtwatkr, bxygek;th&6
tfie'.s.u*c69 sul- .
and&-. ' ' "

. . . . .. . . . -. . 's~u~r~of
a " '
~ Venus' atmosphere is 90 times.
C , . ~ f ~ a r t h ~to,.tpie
s,~& ~Tess&
Ual -
'

.. . W a mile down in the ocean! The . .

thick atmosphere traps the Sun's
heat, producing a "greenhouse effect"
. . that keeps the surface of Venus a t a
scorching 480" C, literally hot enough
to fiy eggs. Above the surface, entry
probes of the Pioneer V' mission
detected several distinct regions, two
of them, and possibly even four,consti-
tuting separate cloud layers. The top-
most cloud layer, revealed in photos
made from spacecraft and dimly per-
ceived from Earth, consists not of
water clouds as on Earth, but rather
of sulfuric acid droplets, far more
potent than the mild "acid rain" that

b cladg WiPa."Planet-mUM.de swirls

and waves appear in the thick atmosphere of
V i m , asphotographed by Pioneer Venus
Orbiter. This viao shozvs a pro?urunced dark
band (lower lef two bright areas ("polar
rings")near the north and south poles, and a
m p h , turbulent region at the kf.T k s e
lame-scalepatterns are strikingly different
j k m the numemus smaller circulation pat-
terns of the Earth's atmosphere. The Venus
patterns are remarkably stable and circle the
planet in onlyfour days, although the planet
i t s e l f t a h about 2-94days to rotate on its
axis.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
CCLOR P'-'?T9GRAPH

concerns us now in the United States. major topographic features of the i

.. ..A haze of aerosol particles.extends
.. . . veiled planetk surface. . . ,,

upward from this layer and some- Venus revealed by rada; appar- . .......
. .
times even veils the clouds them- ently lacks the great number of high '2 ,. .-. . - .

selves from view. mountain ranges and the interlocked ;;,; .;;: ... &.:,..

The surface of Venus has been systems of deep oceanic trenches that ,..,.ii,.-......
$::''i.
..-, - .-
,,<;
'
photographed at two locations by run for thousands of kilometers on 22:;.:. :;': .
:
.
7
1
..
d. :,.

Russian Venemlanders that briefly the Earth. But it has its own remark- .,:., .:. -.:..,;,,., .
:..,..
-:..;...:.: . . .: .
......
.....
i
:
:

survived the hot, high-pressure envi- able features. Among them are two )..
;7 . :
:-.
- . :
:.:.
I

ronment and photographed the sur- great plateaus, each as large as a small ;, :. ... ~

rounding rocky slabs and rubble. continent, which rise as high as 17 ..

. . .. ..
,

Another V e mlander gave us our kilometeq (11miles) above the s u r ~

>;; .:;.> ::: . <: :..; ...* :.;.:* ; ;,.,; : ~ ~ c ~ e ~ & m & y s i ~ & & e .:?&&..a&
; ~ c ~ ~" ~; &: p ~ ~ * ' & ; $~&+g&& .-':~*<~;~;.-.+. ...,

... . :.. . .
' : of Venus,indicathga unique corn2. the siie if the ibntinent.1United .
. ... -
. .

. . .. .. . . . . .!.. . . . .po@ti~nreseqbhg. that of terrestrial.:.. States..andcon@ins a more elevated. . . . .:... ...- .

. . . . . . . . . .. .. -. . .. granite.
;
. , :-. . . ., . . .. .. . . region.that is higher.thanEarth's ........r . ..'. .::. . ..: . .
. ,
. . .Untilother'&era-carrying . Tibetan plateauand more than M c e . :. . . .
... spackiaft land survive, the rest as large; ElsewhereeonVen- iS-Beta - . -. . --..- .
............. : .... .., .... bf ae..g&&&f. V&m flrem& .. ;a*; & . . ':. -. .l
p r ~ ~ n t J a n d f O n n . ' ~ ~ . ~ O & - r i ' . -
"
?a.
'
A:

: upv-n.But the clouds.that block . tains two huge, adjoining.shielduol-

:. "
.
. .....
' . ;.. ..... telescopic investigation;.do:not.stop ... .:can%sS;:togethermdre e-nsiire thatl.! . . . .' ... . ..
.
! ..
hd ,* & .t.6
L
:,sv
radar.waves. Powerful radar transmit- the.Hawaii-Midway,chain.:~rnong .~. . . .: .. .-...: ;. . .
;&&. %the, s . ;

:.c. s--
: ters;'bi,a on'&qm hd a m & "' 'mfii'
: " . ,

.... .. . .Venus spacecrqft in,orbitaround canyon deeper and,longer than the , . . . . .I . .

.-Venus,:haveschnecj-and.locatedthe . Gihnd Canyon ofArizona and along . . : :. . - -
:
. . .. . . '

EEHEPA-9 22.10.1975 OEPQSOTKR MtlflM AH CCCP 28.2.1976 -

Hot rocks of Venus. S c m M to nearly red heat under the thick hot
atmosphere of Venus,the planet's sugiace was photographed by two
succ- but short-lived, Russian Venera la-. In thispicture,
jagged slabs of rock erfmd to the horizon(uppmright). The nature of
the rock isu w The images are curved by opticat effmtsin the
te- camems. Parts of the spacecmJ2are seen, out offocus, at
lower center and lower right.
 valley that apparently is flanked by logical activity,but we do not know
. large mauntahs. Do these chalsmsof . . what kind of phenomena were in- . . . . . . . . . . . . : . ..... ....
Venus indicate that its continental volved, nor how long they went on.
masses are separating?There also are Is Venus now dead and q ~ e tas, Mars
large circular depressions, perhaps appears to be? Or is it more evolved,
great meteorite craters like those and still geologically active, perhaps
found on other terrestrial planets. approaching Earth in its develop-
However, these basins are unusually ment? We have no detailed maps of
shallow, as though the hot crust of Venus to guide our thinking, unlike
Venus has flowed into them like hot, the case of the other planets. The sur-
soft wax. face of Venus, the nearest planet to
.. . i:%eppjxe. q f L H . e : ~ y &
a

‘:.&vC ~mEn;S~g&&b3r.~*8ec;i..
. L ' .. ...
@+. ~ pF .~ E WP stiutiuwe
e ,I*.
*>. . :-f';&
;y.
- ...
.?t:$&.
~ds.@*e~sohswe&~< '.
'"*pi
i*; ..
;, +.: :.& : :*.<.- :
F ;:..,.: .=&-:.. ;.,.; ii...c.
J ~ $ ~ $ - R ;51;:i' "?
;:
.$
.;:I .< .

Htghs and lows ofVe1~(8. Thiscrude relief map of the cloud-

shrouded suvace of Venus is based on radar obseruaCionsmadefim
Earth and from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter. Low elevations are shown
ingreens and blues, higher altitudes in yellows and reds.Most of
Venusis mwh$?attm than Earth, but afav plateaus the size of smull
continents rise u p to 1 7lcihwters (11 miles) above thdr surround-
ings. There is no clear indication of anything resembling theglobal
system of trenches and mid-oceanridges that characMes our
geologically active Earth.
 The6ds ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Jupiter
. . . : -. _ . . . . . . . ... :.
Jupiter is where the aetion is. The
planet is big enough to hold 1400
s and is almost 2.5 times more
massive than all of the other planets
put together. It is a huge, rapidly spin-
ning blob of cold gases-hydrogen,
helium,,a little methane, water, and
ammonia-all colored by traces of
more complex but largely unknown
. chemicals. The outer part of the ...~
, ,,I ...s ; : ~ - i & & ~ & ~ ~ e ~ ~ g ~ - ,::-.~
.?...~ .:;, ~
,..; ;& . .
~k: .;:~::<' &
" .* 4. ,.; .; . ~ .ijiE,fi~
. . . . ..
' . . tkr. There, clouds fomi in belts anct . . '. . .

: . stripes,.in.consequenceofthe fast : .........

. . . . .rotation.This plmet, 11ti.mes.the :..,. . : .... . .......
. . . . .._. . .

diameter of Earth, spins on its axis in . ' '

. . ....
. less than half an Earth day. " . . . . . . . , . . . .
. . : + + . Deep inside ~i'cer~SSamOSP~&e,. . :-::' :.*. ...:.. .+'..... !.. .. %
:'.

the pressure becomes enormous, and . .

.... I . .
hydrogen.,-,a g s a t ~ e . w g h e k . d. ~. .-. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . .. . .
. .
.. ; tudes, is condensed to a liquid.
(,16,0m At' '"';..; "..<.'"'.<'" . . . . . . . . . j ...:
..;... . .. : ~bi~uPZg;OOOkilo
. miles) below.+e cloud tops, the pres- .. . ..... . . ,.
s

. . a.val& 3 maon'times :. . . . . . . . .
..*

that of the Earth's atmosphere at sea

level. At this pressure, the liquid hy-
drogen transforms to a metallic state.

' ~ n in
Great stornzs a f ~ ~ i & k .exercise .
. . cosmic modern art. huoe whirling storms

ager Bfimn 6 inillion kilonkters (3.7 &illkm

miles). TheRed Spot (right center) 6s a huge
storm system, big enough to hold threeEarths,
that has persisted f w at least three centuries.
It whirls counterclockwise,producing highly
contorted patterns at its left, where cloud
banks mowing kflto right are blocked and
forced to squeeze past it. Smaller white oval
storms, about the size ofEarth, create simi-
lar turbulent effects belcrw the Red Spot. Most
patterns in Jupiter's atmosphere are con-
stantly changing; the struc6ures shown here
have changed signi@cantly since Voyager 1
photographed themfour &nthspr&ly.
Jupi terk atmosphere is composed almost
entirely of colorless hydrogen and helium; the
colors comefiom small amounts of unknown
substances, perhaps compounds of sulfir and
phosp-.
 gWIGINAC $glfi@E
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Cwents circulating though .theme-

' W c hydrogen fluid generate a &g-
netic field that is about 14.times
stronger at Jupiter's cloud tops than
the field at the surface of the Earth.
Disturbances in the magnetic f i l d
around Jupiter produce
bursts of radio waves, m iter
the noisiest radio transmitter in the
solar system, other than the Sun.
Jupiter's magnetic field is much
-: .q$.i$h 2% . -!
the s01m .*'.
'

wind;'thes t r e h of ~harg&dl'&oms
that pow out from tlie Sm: Jitpi.t;erY§'
field forms a.huge .ma&etosphe~e .
around the planet, and the.field . .
'jy&sps'~t pn sid~.o@po~ite..~g,,~.~
§anto eve Jiipiter a fat"'magnetic '..
tail" at least 15Q'times'Mdqr.thap .. . . the
..
diameter of th6planet its&.
-.Jupite$s.& p p d . t i o n . . & ~ &.:~ ~ ~
gen and helium is the same as the
Sun.'s. Recent theoretic& studies.have.
carried the similarity even further,
suggesting that if Jupiter had been
only a little larger, it might have be-
come another Sun, the gas at its ten-
ter compressed so much that nuclear
reactions would have hew. Thus,
Jupiter is a sort of ''star that failed,"
although it still radiates, by compress-
ing its o m core, twice the amount of
energy th eives from the'Sun;
ever, is that Jupiter is the center of a
miniature solar system, surrounded
by an of at least 16 moons,just
as the Sun is surrounded by planets,
comets, aazd a belt ofasteroids.
Jupiter, remarkable even as ob-
served from Earth, revealed even more
wonders as our spacecraft sped past it
in recent years. Camera gave us a
close view of its banded atmosphere,
A mewe* of mom Jupiterk f a r largest mocms,~rstseen as
tiny dots of light i n Galilee's telesc-, are revealed as strange nau
worlds by the camems of Voyagers 1 and 2. &en here i n thdr relative
proportions, they show a bauiWw variety. Each is diIfferentfimn
our own Mom and differentji-om the others. lo is a r e d m n g e world,
pitted by the craters of active vokames Utat constantly renao its
sudace with sulfir and sodium comzpoun&s,E u w is a yelluwish,
':
mzooth globe, crisscrossed with dark lines that may be thefmclures
of an icy m t . Gan-, larger than ourMoon, has light and dark
regions dotted by bright impact cmters that m a y have exposed a
subsudace ice layer. Callisto, brownish and heavily watered, has
perhaps the oldest planetary sudace yet discovered, its landscape
sculptured by an intense meteorite bombardment during thefonna-
tive stages of the solar system.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Vak ofB@. Jupiter's moon lo displays the only active volcanoes

found mtside the Earth. Driven tvy tidal heating as lo circles mighty
Jupiter, the volcanic eruptionsare stiU shaping the moon'ssudace.
spray sodium and s w r atoms, making a cloud that sur-
rounds lo 3 orbit. In this computerenhancedpicturefrom Voyager 1,
a blue plume on the horizon consists of m a e l hurled upwardjhm
a volcano to more WLan150 kilometers(about 90 miles) above lo's
blotchy red-omnge landscape.
 C3:GINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
' . ..b,the...innermostGalilean satel- -
lite, was one of the biggest surprises.
of the Space Age, a brilliant red-
orange world with more than 100 vol-
canoes. The two Voyagers saw seven
of the volcanoes in continual eruption,
shooting umbrella-shaped plumes of
modern art. The lines may be the
traces of a shifting icy crust, but we
have no idea of what forces have
acted, and continue to act, to keep
this world so flat.
Ganymede, the largest of Jupiter's
moons, looks a little more familiar.
Like our own Moon, its surface is
divided into light and dark regions,
and we can see craters. There the
similarity ends. Ganymede is a light-
weight moon, a "snowball" of mixed
ice and rock. Bright rays extend from
the craters,perhaps consistingof &sh
ice. The light areas of Ganymede dis-
play long bands of parallel grooves,
unique and puzzling structureswhich
indicate that internal forces have
shaped the surface.
I
I
Callisto,the outermost Galilean
, moon, is a heavily cratered, brownish
world. It seems to be a snowball
moon like Ganymede, but its surface
is uniformly cmtered and preserwis a :: .
long history without any disruption.
Callisto may have the oldest surface
yet observed in the solar system, its
craters perhaps dating back to an an-
cient era of bombardment, which
ended about 4 billion years ago. Cal-
at may be the larg-
est crater anywhere in the solar
ulti-ringed basin
.:. ?.. --3: (1600.
,kil?meter~ . . ..
.,
.-**.a-.:
., ..,:,..i;-.:::. :>;.*+.... . .:.,..<..
:, ; %~..~:.+:~.~.a:'.:
+:.a. r.
.,:; i.
a.
earo&d'~upiter. . .
tuns.out to.be exciting. Jupiter's huge . . . .
m e e t i d field is .ina cons&tstrug-:. - . '
"
'
gle with.the streams of .chargedyjarti- . .
cles that speed.outward from;the".... . ....._
Sun..:.. . : '
.fi Pgddutj t.&jb~.~~metO~Pheye . .
of highly charged. ;, - . .
ation pirtiL!les,'likethe " ' :' . - '.
'
'
Earth's Vw @en. belts, but much ... .. : . .,: . . . .
larger. The four large moons lie wit%
in this belt of radiation,.andit affects .. . .. . .
them. Sulfiir ahd'sodiumatoms : '
blasted out of 10by volcanoes form a
glowing, doughnut-shaped band in
10's orbit around Jupiter. An intense
3-million ampere electric current links
10 to the top of Jupiter's atmosphere,
continuously flowing from moon to
planet and back again. Further out,
beyond the moons, there is a region of
space where the atomic particles are
so energetic that their temperature
has risen to about 3 million degrees,
the hottest place in the solar system
except for the Sun.
The Jovian system of Jupiter
and its moons is a place where all the
forces of the solar system-atmo-
spheres, volcanoes, cratering, magnet-
ism, charged particles, radiation-are
present on scales so vast that they
inspire excitement and awe. We have
seen only partially and briefly the
wonders that exist there, and we are
only beginning to understand it all.
 ORIG!NAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Saturn
.'. . ... . .
To ancient astronomers, Saturn was a
wandering light near the edge of the
known universe. The planet and its
rings have been objects of beauty and
wonder ever since Galileo noticed the
"cup handles" that seemed attached
to a round world.
Saturn is a smaller version of Ju-
piter, made up of a similar mix of gases,
. . . -.' . . ~aturn'isthe. tops -. . . . .
of its.clouds.With
. .
colored belts of Jupiter. Above the
clouds..thereseems to be ahigh h&e. ..
of frozen ammonia crystals. Saturn's
rings, its best known feature since
Galileo's time, stretch far out around
the planet, extending to more than
half the distance from the Earth to
the Moon. They actually consist of a
series of individual rings separated by
small gaps and composed of huge
numbers of small particles. Saturn has
eww-&*ww.,
.at least 15 moons some only rwen,tly
. . ..".
";
.
i:,. .
. . . .
Among those h a t have long been - '
.P :
:
,
'

.:. . . . . . . . . . . . . their s&bduedhuesof yellow, gray end knownis Titan, one of the.largest. . . . .
. . . . .- . * ' : ..1>r&m;they.lack.the s h e , brightly . : moons inithe solar system,.iassive .
enough.to retain a thick, cold atmo- '

satjrn c o q a ~f.ag;.e! , most de-:.

S a t y ~ ntt4e sphere b a t obscures'imyview of its . *.

tant planet knowmto the ancient& wasfl- -surface. ~ o ~ t ~ p ~ ~ dpi.6~-

~qjanic s ' i .w e
nal& reachkd by spacemp in 1979 an2 ent on Titan, and it has occasionally .
1980. These three pictic~show'how .: . . ;
.'beens@&ulat&thatlife may.exisk . " '

ability tosee thi details of the mysterious

~ n @ d . p l a n . e t , h a s dmpucticQlk.in.
..~ tb.. there.
.... :s&d&
lastfao years as we have movedjkm Earth-
>?
.f&.,o.&+.A ,h&o*fif.dg&.... ..
based te1escopic observations(1 andpgee34) from Earth, the planet was not .
to pictures retacmd @om spa:ce~afi
: that. ;, reached by.any spacecraft until . *
dctual1yJk-wpast Saturn, Pioneer Saturn (2 '

and page 36) and Voyager 1 (3and page 37).
The telescorvic wiewfi-omEarth (1) shows
the wlanet. wjlich is about I I zoookilome-
ters-(71,000 miles) in diameter and is dis-
tinctlyflattened at the poles. Faint colored
bands are wisible in the atmosphere, and the
multiple nature of the rings can be seen. The
Pioneer Saturn picture (2) was takenfrom
about 2.5 million kilometers (1.6 millicm
miles) away; it shows one of Saturn's moons
(Rhea, lower right) as a tiny dot. In this
picture Saturn's rings are illuminated by
sunlight scattered through them, so that only
the thin rings appear bright; the thickest ring
(the B ring) appears as a dark band between
the two bright ones. The shadow of the rings
is a dark band on Saturn's equator.
The Voyager 1 TVpicture (3), takenfrom a
distance of 34 million kilometers (21 million
miles), sshouls details in the rings that are
invisible to Earth-hed telescopesor to
Pioneer Saturn.A nau gap has appeared
in the dark i n w C ring, and material is
now visible within the s u m n d i n g empty
Cassini division that separates the two larg-
est rings (the A ring and the B ring). The
dark band on the planet's equator is the
shadow of the rings. Some of the details of the
structure of the rings can also be seen in the 3
shadow.The mnall dot below Saturn is its
moon Dione. (Photo I courtesy of Catalina
Observatory,Arizona.)
September, 1979,when Pioneer
Saturn, after a six-year trip by way of
1 Jupiter, flew past the rings to within
21,000 kilometers (13,000 miles) of
Saturn's cloud tops. Voyager 1,with
better, more sophisticated instru-
ments (which had explored Jupiter
in 1979)reached Saturn slightly
more than a year after Pioneer.On
November 12,1980, Voyager 1
ducked under the rings, passed
Saturn at 124,000kilometers (77,000
miles) above the cloud tops, crossed
the ring plane again, and headed out
of the solar system at 90,000 kilo-
meters per hour (56,000 miles per
hour). In a few hectic days, the tele-
vision cameras and other instruments
of Voyager 1told us more about
Saturn, its ~ g sand, its moons than
was learned in all the centuries that
people have studied this strange and
beautiful world.
 I.
These closeup looks at Saturn re- rings were one of the biggest suprises !
vealed several properties that the . in the history of planetary exploration, ... . . . ... ... .
.

ringed planet shares G t h Jupiter, as' far more numerous, complex, baffling, - . .... .. . .
well assome differerices. Like Jupiter; ' and beautiful than ever was expected. ... '.. .. .'
&i ,. ....
?.

Saturn is radiating away about twice From Earth, we could clearly see only j;:: . ; .:.::...:- .
..-.

;?-.'.-~:
:., .: -
as much energy as it receives from three rings. PioneerSaturn discovered g.
..< ,. .. .<.- .
the Sun, but its frigid cloud tops have three more. But as Voyager 1drew ;..
. . 1... :;.:....:;,..
;:-,+...
:..stq
;
-..!
.. .
.

,:-: ..::?
a temperature of about -183" C. Pion-
emSaturn discovered that Saturn has
close, the once seemingly uniform
rings separated into dozens and then
i ;
z.,. ;
Q;.
. _ . I
< ..! :< :
..,...-'
.:.,.
-. .....'.. .
"

.:.:I-;
.....
; i ...
. ::;..
a magnetic field. The field is much into hundreds of distinct, thin rings :,+. >...:,. .. ..
. . ..
weaker than that of Jupiter, but it is separated by narrow gaps. As . ,. . _
. .. -..
probably produced in the same way, Voyager 1flew under Saturn, the :..:: ... .,:
. ,...
. .: .i- . . ..... ., ....;
. - . ?.. fi%.*;-.+$:.,- ::
..

,,..:b ~ . + y @ $ j n g , ~ o w ~ ~ ~ ~ i & p ~ $ a & ~ ~ &&tc&d.&.trq .the.sp~@ra&.-., .. .

s
! :+.:a : .a

hydrogen .deepwithin theplanet that - like a-huge,.~.ainbow

, .and the Voyager '.' .. . . .. ... _ . .I;. . ... .. .
generate electric currents and thus . cameras photo.graphed perhaps a . , . . .. . .. ., . ....
. .. field, s ~ ~ - Y $ , ~ ~ thmiand
& me
,

_ - ....'.... ... .. .
-:
,

. . . . -. . . . .. ... ..;:.
e..'..

. .. separate .$rigs; looldng .. . . ..,. ,

. .
..
. t : _ .

' . 'neticfi'ild fills a smaller voiume of ." the groovesaf a&smic phonograph '. . . . .
. .. .
. .
. . space than.does Jupiter.%,and its wd- . record. Eyenim the Cassini divisjonia .. ... - ..
. . .. . ..
. . ..
. . . '.' : ,

.,.)afiionbelts-aiec~rrespond&jly .- .,.. . .- dark, sqemingly empw.band.as.seen ;i .: ....: :, .*.: . . .., .... ,. . . .;..
. .: ... ...,... 2,

weaker. .1nfact, Saturn's radiation . from E.arth, Vcqjager 1photojgaphed .: . . 9 .

.' be1,t;sare ~mparable.@interkity tq :. ; over.50 of the.thin rings, floatingwith- . ... .. .. . . . . .... .... . - - .: .::.: * . .. -.
. -.
' '

'. the Van Allen Belts of Earth. : - in what had long been regarded as a
'
.
, . .-,,;. . .:.&-.Vwagmt$.aPPrO~hed Satm, .' .permanentempty m&'hthemg, . . :;. - ;
.... '. .; ....
.:&.d. ".".a,- ' '

the planet's atmosphere began to system.

. . . . I . .. '
. :The rings &e farmofe bompli-- . . . ..
. , -
~show.structural details wi.thin the iri- ' . . . ' . t

distinct, faintly colored bands. The cated than anyone had imagined. For
' '

television cameras peered through some unexplained reason, a few rings

the frozen ammonia haze, down to the are not circular but appear elliptical,
thicker clouds. At this still fairly dis- as though some force has pulled them
: .
tant range, Saturn looks more like a little out of round. The thin, outer : .
. .
I

8
.

Jupiter. Turbulent belts and streams F-ringwas resolved by Voyager 1into

of clouds stretch east-west across the several distinct strands that appar- . . ...
planet. Cloudyjet streams were ently are braided about each other. .. . .
. <

photographed that move four times as Equally mysterious and unexpected ' ...
. .,. , -
fast as the wizids of Jupiter, as much. ,arethe so-called"spkes," mad . .- ;.;-..7 :..'....*-.<. ;.:;. :*.....' *<*. e ..;,. +!+?.?..
as 1500momete* pe.rhoury.930:mC?'8 .,,,-has. ku.ti.gl;i'...ca..i6ii . *.
.
. . .
. .
... . ....
._ZC
::- -
per hour). A red oval was found in .. .

the clouds. a swirling storm like

Jupiter's Red Spot, Gut much smaller A close look at a largeplanet. rn2oom-
(only about the size of the Earth!). ing shape of Saturn stretches across this
Saturn's rings are a landmark of picture takenby Voyager lfrom 13 million ,.' .. i
!
the solar system. They seem solid, but ICiEometers (8 million mites) away. Nearby
andtothele$taretwoofSaFurn'smoons,
we have long known that they are lkthys (above)and Diane(below),each about
made up of innumerable particles of 1000 kilometers (622 mites) in diameter.
water ice and perhaps frozen ammonia, Saturn'sringsstretch.j%mupper~ to lower
a few centimeters to a few meters in right. 77z.eCassini diwkim, the n a m gap
between the large A-ring and the B-ring, is
size. Nevertheless, in close-up, the clearly visible, and Saturn's cloud topscan be
seen through it. The shadow of the rings is a
s& of light and dark bands that stretches
across the planet. 37hesmall black dot at the
lower right is theshadour of the moon lkthys.
 much like the spokes.ina wagon problems of the rings are now seen
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wheel. They may.be clouds.off i e . . . . more fqlly .anddearly, and unfortu-
dust, held in place by electricalforces nately, they are moi-ecomplex New
generated around the rings, but no one theories are needed to understand
really knows. the entire fantastic Saturn system.
The Voyager 1pictures de- In its dash past Saturn, Voyager 1
molished all existing theories about photographed seven of the planet's
Saturn's rings. Previously, the struc- large moons, previously unexplored
ture of the few known rings and gaps worlds that had been only tiny spots
was explained in terms of the gravita- of light in earthbound telescopes, de-
tional influence of some of Saturn's spite their fanciful mythological
.,. .... .".:. ... -. ......... adjacent moons on the small ring names: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, ....
...... - . ...
;
d...

. . . .,.
...,

.
.....
.. .
, ,
. .
..st . <
:
. ..mw.~*~e . p . .
:*.I
.g .
:~. . ~
~ ~~ ) ~~ ~
~ ~ . . ~ e ~ , ~ i .Q.:~ ' (.~ .
,
. . . .. . . . how this mechad&m'niay&rk'oinina . befoe Voyager l.&ved; wethought : . .
, . . .. . . . . .,. . .' . small scale: Two small moons were, -. . .thatthese moons would bedifferent. . . . .:
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . discovered, p e bneach..sideof the . ' . .h..thiscold,-distantre@onof the solar .
. . . . thin F-ririg. The pairmay be "shep-
'

system, water does not exist as a

. . .. . . . . . ..
' "

. . . . :. herds,'' their gravity kexip.hig the ring . Gquid but as ice, in effect a.b'rime , - .
. . . .
"

: . . . . . . . .,.. . .. . .. . . . . .....:... . . : .'. . particles frshmoving in sr.out'.dtheis &&of

' ; rock S&m!s moons arehuge .: . .
. . present orbits.:A third small moon, . icebergs, perhaps with small cores of .
. . . .. . . .. . . . ....
. ; . . .:. . . . . . . . . .,..
:
. dismvefesljust'out4ide tkre.1-e .A-' true roGk, and they may Bqmork like: . : .';'
. . . -': :

. . . . . . . . ..; ;-
ring, may have
. ..:...- -.* "3 ..,; ..:, .:c. ............'dffect.. a similar stabilizing
'.<" . " ...........
huge versions of the iiucleus
. . . . .. .ciommev&~ our
. "'.. .. ;.‘:"'"'"" m2kryofmbbL
a: ..... ".. .
. . . . . .- . . ,%
;
. . ...., " > 9.c

i
. . These exaniples are helpful, but Just like the moons of Jupiter,
. . . . . . . ., . . . . . .. .. . . . . . they arenot enough. No tlpmry,involv- Saturn's moons displays a variety . . . :

ing only a few moons can explain the ' of weird landscapes. Mimas, Dione,
presence of a thousand narrow rings, Tethys, and Rhea.allhave heavily
the elliptical rings, the ring braids, or cratered terrain, presumablythe result
the spokes. Nor can we yet explain of bombardment.by smaller objects
how the delicate rings apparently shortly after the moons formed about
have survived over the 4.5-billion- 4.5 billion years ago. On Mimas there
year age of the solar system. The is one large crater that makes the
moon resemble a huge, staring eyeball.
The crater is so big that the impact
that formed it must almost have
Iceworld. The ancient, cratered surface of shattered Mimas into pieces. The
Saturn's nwim Dim may record an intense
bombardment by smaller owects (planetesi- landscape of Rhea, photographed
mals) whm Saturn and its m o mf m d close up as Voyager 1skimmed past
r Dione, whichis about 1100 kilometers (684 only 72,000 kilometers (45,000 miles)
; miles) in diamter, is composed largely of
- ice, though it may have a small amount of above its north pole, resembles the
i denser mIcy material scattered through it or cratered lunar highlands and the
: jhming a smaU core. The largest crater in battered surface of Mercury, but
j thepicture is about 100 lcibwhm(62 m&s) Rhea's craters have been cut in ice,
.: in diameter and shows apwmi?umt centmi
' pakWhitestreaksonWl&sidemaybe not in rock.
; rays of material thrinun out of a crater on the The craters are caused by an ex-
, other side of Diow. SimiEar cratered land- ternal force, the cosmic bombardment
scapes were photographed on other moons of of Saturn's moons, but some of the
Saturn-Mimas, Bthys, and Rhea. Diow's
su4ace sshozvs aridence of internalf m e s as moons have clearly also been modified
welL A long crack at the lower right near the by internal forces. Tethys has a huge
shadow may have been produced by spread-
ing of the moons icy crust.
 trench, 60 kilometers (37 miles) across only 4000 kilometers (2500 miles) .
and about 750 kilometers (470 miles) above the atmosphere, h e closest
long, perhaps a great crack in a flyby past any cosmic object in the
spreading crust. Rhea and Dione dis- history of space exploration. The
play strange streaks and swirls, side- accuracy involved is comparable to
by-side with heavily cratered regions, shooting a billiard ball 3200 kilo-
as though the icy crusts shifted and meters (2000 miles) across a giant
deformed after the craters were made. gitintheright
The moon Enceladus was a sur-
prise of a different kind; its surface is Titan's atmosphere is so thick,
smooth and crater-free, even though it perhaps more than 200 kilometers
mbI@:&t.?3q.@q~n:*eeafl31?, :. . : Cl?lg*@-)dep~,%a&
+

editered moohs Bimas and'Dionki. * . ' h e r a s coula not see to. th

ae.. J,
e.
Perhaps Enceladus is heated by tidaI Surprisingly,the atmosphere is not
forces imposed by nearby Dione. (Sim- rich the methane detected from . '

ilar tidal heating of Jupiter's moon.Io : Earth..Inbtead, the most common gas
'

is strong enough to power Lo's con- .isnitrogen,just as on the E d it-

s-:$~ :eryp+W. .. .&leth&e qakes ue oplxabout one
v5)!cy.*s.). %u.ch.... ..self.
h&atingcould w h Enceladus' icy perf ent*ofde'airof Titan. ~orecom;
crust, deforming it and removing the . plex orgqnic 1h01ecules,.farmedby the
traces of once-present craters. Per- action of sunlight
haps the heating is so strong that icy gases,produce a n
volcanoes erupt from time to time and different from the choking haze found
floods of molten "lavaw-inthis case over many of our cities. At; Titan's sur-
just water-pour briefly across the face, the atmospheric pressure is two
surface of Enceladus. or three times that on Earth, but the
Saturn's distant moon Iapetus, temperatures are as low as -150" to
photographed at long range by -200" C.
Voyager 1,is even more of a mystery. The unseen surface of Titan may
Telescopic studies from Earth show be a bizarre, frozen swamp, with
that Iapetus has two different sides, murky streams and lakes of liquid
one dark and one bright. Voyager 1 nitrogen and a cold rainof nitrogen
pictures showed the two regions and and organic chemicals sleeting down.
their sharp boundary but as yet pro- There may be no life in that incredible
vide no explanation of the mystery. cold after all,yet Titan-magprgsefve '

Titan is a unique, giant moon, a in its deep freeze a sample of what

world about the size of the planet other primitive atmospheres (includ-
Mercury. It is the only moon in the ing Earth's) resembled before they
solar system known to have an atrno- were changed by phenomena that
sphere.Already from Earth we had probably have never affected Tit;ua:
detected methane and other organic volcanoes, oceans, and life.
compounds, so Voyager I was care- Saturn and its moons still have
fullyprogrammed to take an especially much to tell us and doubtless more
close look at Titan. It flew past Titan surprises in store.

. . ~Loaaof%Rhgs.Inthismon~eof
1 individual Voyager 1 pictures?SaCurn is sur-
mu- by the newly revealedfwes of six of
f its moons. Below Saturn at the right is Tethys,
j'' a h e a d y cmttmximoopz with a long myste-
rious trenchrunning along its su.rfwe. Tb
the lef of Tethy~~just belout Saturn's rings?is
~ M i w a, tiny, p o c h r k e d m o m on which
one huge crater can be seen. Enceladus isjust
be@ the lef -hand edge of Saturn's rings;
ORlG$NAC, PAGE
GGLQR PHOTOGRAPH
thfs moon d.isp2aysa puzzling su4wes
m o t h and apparently uncmtered.In the
lower&fcornerisDione,a~ishmoon
with a heavily crawed su@ie. Rhece,at the
far kg%nearSaturn's rings, shows afaint
bluish tinge and strange patterns of white,
wispy swirls on its su.rfie. Titan,Saturn's
largest moon, is shown in its distant orbit at
the upper kfi.Tztun'sthick:orange-brcnun
atmosphere completely conceals its su.rfwe.
 The meients hew iffive p l m e ~ h
the sky. h less than a generation,all
five have been brought close to us by
spacecr;aft. out inspace, three
more plane our kspmtion.
Uranus, the &st ournard beyond Sa-
turn,is nearly 3 billion kilometers
(nearly 2 billion miles) from the Sun
and takes 84 years to make one orbit
around it. Pioneer 10 passed the
:..2&i:.?$Fm%?;@?i.@$ y t $ ~ mpew%.. X
.

the plmet. Uranus ~s.aizothbi. 6s' .

giant, smaller than Sa'turn,a cold
worid that is a dirtmt'gree@sh-ctisk.;
even inh e l~@:es$~t~lescopes. From.'
E m ,wee@ see five moons circling'
:. +e pbnet. .-. X&nug.ht+s one unique . .
'pi;6fi&& it;s d s ' 6 f ro&tibn li*esiii
. plane of its drbit rathth&?r$hmnearly -
vertkd to it as is.he.cake witti the
o.thep p ? ~ ~ ~ . . B ~ u im e :s .c;uriqw
of
orientation, Uranus hoves ar6unzcf the
Sun, not so much like a top spinning . . ..
a bake1 rolling
The greatest Space Age discovery
t Uranus was made in 1977, not
a spacecraft but rather with a
ed in a high-altitude
jet aircraft, the Kuiper Airborne Ob-
servatory. Like many great discover-.
ies, it was entirely unexpected, and
the scientists were looking at Uranus
..-.. 4.; .* 3. A
. > ." y. s:,....:., :;:
. .,,. .-;.. :.>:.**:. 29 ...: &

Dark *s of U m w . Discovered by tele-

scopic o b s e r v a t i ~ l ~ ~ ~ o m aircr@ in
a NASA
1977,therings around the planet Uranus
are painted here as Uzsy might appearfrom a
spacecraf approaching theplanet. 17Es thin
numow rings, composed of &rk particles,
are invisiblefrom Earth. They werediscm-
ered whenthey blocked the light of a distant
star on a night when Uranuspassed i n j h n t
of it. The rotation axis of Umnus lies almost
in the plane of its orbit around the Sun,so the
ring system (in the plane of the planet k eqwr-
tor), appears like a gigantic bullseye as
Uranus rolls around the Sun. Uranus isso
distant that no spacecraf has yet reached it.
Voyager 2 may go on to Umnus awpa-ssing
Saturn in 1981;it would get there in 1986.

46
 for something entirely different. They Neptune i
.. intended to study.Uranus' atmosphere . . . . . . . . f. . .
. by measuring the light from a distant Neptune is even further out, 4.5 bil-
star as the planet passed slowly in
front of it. What happened was that
lion kilometers (2.8 billion miles) from
the Sun. Through the telescope it is a
, .....
k:i
.: .-.
!,

. .:-.-.- . .:.
., i.,;.
c.::.. ...
the star seemed to flicker on and off green, featureless world, about the . . .; .
5:'.:.,; ........
:.

<.?;+ :. ..: -..~

:',

several times, long before and long size of Uranus. Two moons have been >.+'....
,
- ?
-3 ...
,

.:..:. .:
.
after the planet had passed in front. detected. Neptune has remained un- .--..;.:.:
.i...*
-%..
.

The only explanation was that .... . . ..

touched by the activity of the Space -.. :.-.
,. . -..:
........ ,

Uranus-like Saturn and now Jupiter- Age, although clouds have been de- . .,: , . : .
- ,
has rings! The planet is surrounded by tected in its atmosphere. The planet . .. ...... ..
{; . .<. . . .e:,
; &..<.... m ..;*
f. .
at least five and perhaps
7&$&;&6&$z; .ninerinp.. :. *.../&,&.-*&~
twf,..*G&a remains an enigma,
, too far away&%:;,e
@&q.o&tGo to :. :.:, \. <;:..... < . ;.:..:.
,
. .
1-

away to reitch. . . . . * . - . . . :.... ......

:. .: ..
". . . . inviisible &om Earth; but they were
. . . .. . . . .t$ck.enpu&..tg block put the light.. . . . . . . . .- . .,.. . . . . . :.. . . .,.. . . . . ._ . .. .. . . .-
. . .. . ..
frorn.thestzn.. .... . . .. .... . . . . . . .. . . . . ... .. . . .
.i-
' _r

. . . . . . . : . : . . .: . . . . .,. . ,.. . .
.
.
;

ranu us may sooh haveits first. ,

.:%&itor from Earth. The spacecraft :...'. . . . .....

. .
: ... *;: .' : : ' r ~ w - ~ 2 ~ n m f o ~ O ~ g ~ P a ~ . : :. : ..; ...: . . . . '
. ............ :: .". ..*...... . ; ._.
4 .i . i , &-?-;
'.

that will take it p u t Uranus in 1986. . " . .

The clouds of far-offNeptune. Neptune, the

most distant gas giant plandji-om the Sun,
is sofar away that it is onLy a tiny, blurred
image i n the 154-cm(Goinch) telescqpe at
the CataLinu O b s e r v ~The . top three im-
ages show dark absorption bands, due to the
presence of atmospheric methane (CHd,
across theplanet's equator. Thebright regions
at thepoles are produced by a high haze of
ice crystals. Tke image at lower lqt2 shozos
the u n ~ o m featureless
z, appearance of the
planet when seen i n visible light.(Photographs
courtesy of Catalinu Observatory, Arinma)
Pluto . -
* .
Pluto is a planetary oddball, a strange
world that has baffled scientists ever
since it was discovered in 1930. It is
not the large gas giant that one might
expect to find in the outer reaches of
the solar system. Instead, it is a small
world, much smaller than the Earth,
and in fact roughly as large as our
Moon. It is probably composed of a
. lorigPluto will hold its secrets for a
time yet. It is simply too far away . . ' .
for our current spacecraft to reach it .
in a reasonable length of time. It will
be many years before any machines
or humans see Pluto up close, dimly
lit by a Sun so distant that it seems
likejust a rather bright star in the
blackness of space.

aenliineer>lanet.
"-- - -- - - -- - - but si.mbh a.moori
A- . . .
that somehow escaped k m Neptune. .
. Pluto is usually the farthest .
known planet from the Sun, its mean .
distance almost 6 billion kilometers . .
(alxtiost 4 billion miles) out. It takes
248 years for Pluto to complete one
orbit around the Sun, but the orbit is
_
'

.so elongated #at it actually spends .

about 20 years of this time inside the
orbit of Nepture. (In fact, Plutcris
inside Neptune's orbit now, and w i l l
be until 1999, so that N q t u m is tern- soThe b t ~ l a n e t ? n nmys*PZuto
~, is
far* the Sun that it appears only as a
~ o r a r ithe
l ~ furthest planet from the tinv speck of liqht (arrow) that moves slowly
Sun.) auiirkt the-ba&n&nd ift h e . ~ e stars.d So
Despite Pluto's distance and the i&- that it WGnot-discovered
untzl1930, Pluto is not a gas giant planet
extreme of it, Our like all the others in the cnctersolar c q s m .
view of the faraway planet has Instead it is a small, rocky world about the
changed greatly in the last few years. size of Earth k Moon. Recent examinations of
As we have looked more carefully, old photographs, combined with new obser-
vations, indicate that Pluto itselfhas a moon.
Pluto has become an even smaller
and brighter object than we thought
it was. It seems to have a bright layer
of frozen methane ("marsh gas," chem-
ically CHq) on its surface. Even more
surprising,reexamination of old pho-
tographs revealed that Pluto is not
alone; it has a moon. Pluto now seems
to be about 3000 to 3500 kilometers
(1900 to 2200 miles) in diameter. ORIGINAL PAGE
Pluto's moon, Charon, is large by com- BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAW
parison, about 1200 to 1500 kilo-
meters (750 to 930 miles) in diameter,
so that the two bodies form a kind of
unique double planet.
 New m m b r o f & e m & . A tiny tmil of
light m s s afield ofmed stars reveals the
track of a recently discovered member of the
small group of asteroids that cross the orbit
of theEarth. Thenew arrival, &Shalom,
was 29 million kilomders (18 million miles)
fmm Earth when this picture was taken. The
grainy background is due to thegreat en- .
largementfiom the original negative. (Cour-
tesy o f E l e a w F. Helin, C a l ~ m i Institute
a
of Technology.)

chEvrk of corn&histbry: m i t e r n -
m t s in this dark, carbon-richmetsmite
thatfell on Mexico in 1969 contain minerals
.fbrpedQthigh tenapara- ~ ~ p s ' a ~
Ulejlrstsubstames to cmLdense as the solar
system began to'fmzcfimn a.hugec2owl of
hotgas and dust:Some of the white pieces
also contain material that is chemically dv-
f e r a t f i m n the rest of Ule mef2xwiti4;a&
which may have cornefmn a nearby star that
e p k d e d s W y b@wethe solar system was
born. (CCYU- ofBrianMason,National
Museum ofNatuml History, Smithsonian
Institution.)
 Minor Objectsinthe Soh-System
The nine planets and at least 39 moons to the Sun than Mercury. It came
... . . ....... -.. . . . . . . . . . =-only a tiny p&.of the population.'. . .within.6.5million kilometers.(4mil-. . . . .
that circles the Sun. There are huge lion miles) of the Earth in June, 1968.
numbers of smaller objects: comets, Recent observations have de-
asteroids, large cosmic rocks and small tected other members of this Apollo-
pebbles, and innumerable particles of Amor group in the sky. The geological
dust. Each object makes its own con- record on Earth also bears witness to
tribution to the solar scenery,and these Earth-crossers, for about 100
each has its own secrets to reveal. ancient meteorite impact craters have
These small objects have been less been detected, each one possibly rep-
studied, and none have yet been vis- resenting an asteroid that didn't
.
....
... .- . . . . . if;@, by a qp,wqq@.0.ym@p souwe quite make it p y t ,the .Ezyth.Some of
,
. . . .Ti.: . .+<;::;i~~;~y&:<
- .c Tc;;;?y$
s. :, . . . . . . .;-g
f
. .;$:<:$.&- . ,
I.,.. r .hkaC&&w&,*.-
.BPn.fit3h'&G~~:&&$&*.&:~~,
~ - ~ . , ~ C . ~ ~ . ' . : , 7 . ) ~ ~
... -.%. ..i..;.....:';
:," f.

.. :. . . . . . .t h r ~ t ' 6 l e s c o p a
k n d z f lievablk c&tastrb&e~; the twd.1argest
. ... :' . ' ,

. which are part of the ex- ..; known eraters,:one h Ganadaand one . . :
.: .: :... . .. .. ... . . . -.:. meteorites,
'..
. . . . . . . : .. . . . . . :
traterrestrial:inateeal4thatfall.to~. . :' . . .inSouth Africz,.are.morethan'100. . : . . . . . . .
.. .... . . . E m at a rate of several . .hcindred. .. . .
. ....
kilometers (60 miles) in diameter.
- . . ': ..tons per 'day. . Smaller bits.ofasteroids also coi-.?' . '-
. . . . . . .. . . . . . .,; ,",...................... . . ........ . . a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,

-:
.. ! .....licfe'ht. iceE d h ; although lerjS~yi'o- * . . . . .' ..
?. . . a
. 0 .
':

. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . ..*. . +
.f
. . . Asteroids
...'A . . . . ..ple-teofites
. . . ahd . . .,* -
. <..: ;
,
fently and-more&equently.,Theseob- . .
. . .. . .. .; j.&ds, cfied:m&~eo~t&fhavee$&~d$d. . . . . . '.
. .
. . . .... ....- - . , ...... ...-.,:..) .. ;.. .......,.... .J,ii,6.... hit&.
is'no ~ l . &iKe*re.Gii!ii!a
~ b g t w w n . .and . ~ .r s. % us - k l with
;.-. ...... extqteqesteal:...samples
i .- f o r .; .*. :
-.,$ .** :.
.
centuries,'longbefore'we were'a6le'to " ''
. . . . ., . .: many.smallobjects.callqd.gsteroids.. .. collect rocks from the Moon. We think , ,
a . . . .. . ' ' - Where a plzinet might have formed. .: that they come from theasteroid.'belt. "..
' " ..
About 2000 have been observed suffi- If this is right,.then there must be a
ciently so that their orbits are known. great variety of objects out there, for
Most of them are irregular rocks a few meteorites are very different. Most
kilometers across, but a dozen are meteorites are stones containing
about 250 kilometers (160 miles) or many glass droplets, but others are
more in diameter. The largest, Ceres, pieces of lava flows, chunks of solid
has a diameter of about 1000 kilome- nickel-iron, and even bits of dark, car-
ters (about 600 miles) and is roughly bon-rich materials containing signifi-
the size of Texas. It has been esti- cant amounts of water.
mated that there may be a half- Meteorites are among the most
million asteroids larger than one kilo- ancient solarsystem samples we have.
meter (0.6 miles) in diameter, nearly They date from the formative stages
all too small to be observed by current of the solar system 4.5 billion years
. ... ... . .. . methods. ago, and they are the only source of
..
.....
. . . Most asteroids have orbits that direct information about the physical
. .... ..-. ' ! remain between Mars and Jupiter, in and chemical processes that went on
..... :
... . . .
,
a region called the asteroid belt, but a as the Sun and the planets grew from
. .. .. . . ...
few have orbits that cross the orbit of a collapsing cloud of dust and gas.
. . . .
the Earth. These "Earth-crossers" are Studies of meteorites during the
I called the Apollo-Amor asteroids Space Age provide specific details
d
(named after two of their number). about the solar system's birth and
The most famous member of the group early years. Some meteorites seem to
is Icarus, discovered in 1949,and so be pieces of actual lava flows that
named because it actually goes closer poured from ancient volcanoes on
 b*na &hesmo An artist k imp& shows how m a w
j+vmamthmstar might have been trapped in meteorites as the solar
systemformed. like wplosion of the star (supernova)sendsa shock
wave through interstellar dzlst clowls.Material_fimnthe star, car-
ried along by the wave, is trapped in thefirst mdeoritesformed and
thusppeserved before it is strongly diluted with other solar system
m a m l s . It ispossible that passage of the shock wave also induced
the cosmic cloud to begin the c h a t i o n that gave birth to the solar
system.
 small asteroids heated by primordial Meteorites also tell much about
'r&dibactiVity.The cai.b&n;ricflmate- . what theasteroids are like. Using
'

rials in some meteorites contains ground-based telescopes and spectro-

amino acids-so-called "building meters, we are able to make crude
blocks" of life-which give us new chemical analyses of individual aster-
insight into the possible occurrence of oids by analyzing the light that they
life in the universe. White rock frag- reflect. Comparing these data with
ments &om a meteorite that fell in the results of meteorite studies, we
Mexico in 1969are composed of high- have determined that the asteroids
temperature minerals that may have can be divided into families that are
been the first materials to form as the similar to the different groups of me-
. .~ ~,mee:..w~t6
..
. ~ ~ s ~ ~ m ; c abeing!--
q.e&. $i .:n
-~ t. ..
. ,.;: *
.A
r,:
*q. rr... . kg%es,@ ~ . Q u @
. .a. ;.fieen'8&
w.e hayj?.n_qtyet...
f&.mZ*,h&&te -6 ..-:-..:
, .
morekhanjust the.beginning of the uniquely to a specific asteroid.
"solarsystem: Theymay contain ri:: . '
The origin of asteroids has also
..cord5tl&&ac.tually date :from "before. : been illuminated by meteorites. The '

t h e beginning."-Someof the fsagments asteroids were once thought.to be the

.cont&i a~Ioxp@lo$s. matgig $hacis .. .re~~~napt$of.an exploded planet. Me- .
chemically unlike the matter that ' ' . teorite studieihave dii6roved this
make,$up th.e.solar system. (The . .... idea, h d the asteroids are now
chemical elements are the same, but ' thought to have formed & small ob-
- tfieabundance p a t t e r n s - o f s m el.-- iects isa,a region where the gravita-
ements are different.) This chemically tional tug-of-war between Jupiter and'
ynusud.material did not come out of . . the Sun prevented a larger body from
our owri'SSun; It may haire dome'from coming together.
another nearby star, perhaps flung We now know enough about as-
out in a violent supernova explosion teroids to ask some exciting questions.
to enrich the cloud of gas and dust Do they hold records of the actual for-
where the solar system later formed. mation of the solar system? How can
The discovery also suggests that shock such small bodies have developed
waves from the supernova passed with such a variety of compositions
through the cloud, triggering the con- and histories? Among the unanswered
densation that eventually produced questions are some that may be of
the Sun and the planets. Thus, through more than scientiiic importance. How
laboratory analyses of the meteorites, many asteroids are there? How many
we can now see back in time beyond undiscovered ones cross the Earth's
the formation of the solar system orbit? When might another cata-
itself. strophic collision occur?

ORlQlNAb' PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 Comets dust particles reflect sunlight and

. \;
form another, smoother tail The tails
Comets are the shining wanderers of seem white to the eye, but coior pho-
' ' -
I -
the solar system. With their glowing tography reveals that the ionized gas F..,
. . . :;:::
. . :.. ;

tails that may stretch 100million kil- tail is blue and the dust tail yellow. . . ... .. .. .
ometers (60 million miles) through Although the tails may be bright, they :i:$:...i:.":.
-.
...... <: ..
space, they are conspicuous, remark- are thin,and stars show through. I
:.>,:
....
.,..:. . .-..-.
-.;>:.
able, and exciting objects. Their The small nudeus, the only even .;::;,.....
..
:. :.; 2 . ,: ...
.....
: '
appearances often have been super- near-permanent part of a comet, is <
as, ,,,
:.,; :,.:.
.:,;.. +. .
......:
stitiously associated with disasters s m u n d e d by the coma or head of ,
.\.
.
..,. ... ..... .... .
-.
and (more recently) with brief periods the comet, a large, hazy structure . . .. . .
of intense scientific study. formed by the liberated gas and dust. . ... . .
. . , . .. ,

-. . . . .
. bly is surrounded by a huge.clou.d.of . .by the.solar.wind.In 1970,an instru-. :.; ...~..I
.
. . . A

.
.more than zihw@ed.billioncomets : . ;merit on the Earth-arbiting.sdteflite: . .; ... .:. .. . .
' ' . . .. . -.
. that may stretch a third of the way to
, OAO-2 (named the Orbiting Astrb-
' '

. . . . ..
..........
thenearest
. ;'*erg,b wffb&n
shr. Almost all r e m e ~ k aObservato@
.d,&h&ss; 6ti'f..os :: ...Cd*ek.&t l
seom.& revealed that ..
by'hG'e.el*ddi ,: . .:'. .'.. ' .'..... :
.rare occasiom.they are perturbed . of hydrogen .gas,produced when ul- . . . . .
fge&apsby the ofa newby ." +vidlet light'from: ~ ~ & s .~ :': ~
'"
. .
' '. .- b ; ' "

:. . s*) and a comet may be sent on a .... :I)oses.*?,cometa?ry gas, Later, +e... ,.. ...
. . . . . ....
long b-ipedodvnto the Sun and back' "'' hydrogen cloud'of the'bright Comet
. . Out aga.in. . . . . . . ........... Kohoutek was scanned by.a photome-,. . . . . . .
~ o r a l l . t h e i r & ~ ~ &size
- e nint the ter on Miz&im 1.0,and the comet W:& . . -.. '-.

sky, comets are actually fairly small photographed in ultraviolet light from
objects. When a comet begins its trip Skyhb. Aboard Skghb, astronaut Ed
down past the Sun, it is probably a Gibson was able to view the comet
chunk of "dirty ice," a mixture of rock when it was very close to the Sun, and
dust and ice a few kilometers across, he discovered a unique "anti-tail"
much smaller than the typical ob- pointing toward, rather than away
. . .
served asteroid. As it speeds toward . from, the Sun.
. . ' ~ . .
the Sun, the heat from the Sun evapo- . '. Of the 100 billion comets that .

rates the ice; and the gases thus re- may exist, less than 1000have been . . . ..
.-.;lea& WW pe&.~;~m&-d.~ '
;
.:
,
.LF&W& . . far$ s & e y . e . & e : .
:.
* . . ;. . ....
-I ..
: :.i.:--f .:
. . ~
.;8
.

' from the solid body or nucleus..' longjourney d o h to the he&ofthe ...
Radiation from the Sun ionizes the Sun. Some comets now are trapped in . .

released atoms, producing a tail that smaller orbits, taking Erom a few to a . . . ... .
glows in the sky like a neon sign;the few thousand years to complete one . .
. . ... .
......
I . ,

Shining wanderer.A A t o r f m m far beyond Pluto, Comet West

seems to hover above lbble Mountain in Cal$tiiiashortly before
sunrise in March 1976. The bright head of the comet is seenjust
above the mountains,while its long broad dust tail sweeps up and
backfrom the nucleus,pushed outward by the pressure of sunlight.
Comet Westpassed within 118 miUion lcilometers(73 million miles)
ofEarthand will not returnfor another 560,000years. (Courtesy of
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.)
 lap. Even so, most of them spend the during the Space Age has come from
. . . .. .. . . .bullfie
. of their time@ th.e cold, dark, .,.. : groqnd:beed telescopes, .&omafew ,. . .
outer s o h system h d just a tiny . u n m m e d satellites and sounding
portion of th in rockets, and from studies made in the
glowing sple sk;~ ce station. But excitement
Comets probably formed in the is bu for a major event: the reap-
darkness beyond Jupiter and pearance of Halley's Comet in 1985.
beyond Pluto where they Swinging on a long orbit that brings it
spend most of .their lives. As a result, by the Sun,every 76 years, Halley's is
. comets are probably the most primi- one of the best-known and brightest
tive and the most unchanged original comets, and scientists are already
. . . ..
::.;2
........ - ... ....
.
!..?$
.;=
.&?
. ....
..
:.; ;.
,::
k:?;...*.>;!; . .:,...:
i::i+
5 . ..;.
!.'
k
...
. . . ' . . . . . .We have.neGer yet se~t.a.space ..
. . . . . . . .' craft tq a comet. What.- k a v l e ' l e ~ e d. famouq visitor, . .. .
.
... . . : . . .
. . . . . . . + . . ..
... >. .. . . ..
, . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ...
.
.
.. ,

.
. . . . . .
.. . . -. . . . .. . . . .. ... .. .
. .
. .
. .
-
..:
.....
. .. . .. . . . . .;: . .. . . ...
. .
 A speekmm a ccpnrdBDisplayed in a closezlp under an electron
microscope, this tiny bit of cosmic dust may be ourfirst sample of a
passing comet. Less than one-tenth of a millimeter moss, the
particle is m p o s e d of millions of even tinier crystals. Although
chemicallysimilar to some mete&&, its$&, aystulline s t m -
... : .. . ; .L .....-:. ..
'
?uT~.@2qnL*.t%t o l a ~ ~ .~tePe.te-I ~ & ? @ @ wdqt :...:...: ,r
partwh like Chzs are trCipped'2itspecial collectors- ah&&
......
..
:
' ..,a.
. :.. * .
...c . . ...... -.v .. ,
high-alticudeaircraf Their interplanetary origin is established by
analyzing the gases that they trappedfiom thesun while still in
space. The interplanetary dust is believed to cow- cmts,
which shed m a m l as they are warmed by the Sun. It may be
possible to collect m a W f i o m a partimhr comet when one passes
close enough to the Earth some day.

ORlGlNAb PAGE
BLACK AND WHITE PW
 Dust
. . . . . . .
There is no lower limit t i the sizes of
the solid particles that move around
the Sun. Small asteroids grade down- cles have been successfully trapped
ward into large meteoroids and then
into smaller pebbles and so on down
to the tiniest particles of dust. The
most numerous particles are the
because of the rarity of the particles
. . . and the contam@ationof collecmg . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . ..
...
' devices by terrestrial dust. ~ecektly;
however, extraterrestrial dust parti-
with collectors mounted on high-
flying aircraft.
The yield has been small so far:
only about a hundred particles a few

..
. smallest ones. A particle larger than a thousandths of a millimeter across.
millimeter (about one twenty-fifth of But recently developed instruments
an .inch) in diameter is a relative rar- are so sensitive that even these tiny . . . .
'

. .i?-;.. ...:.:........
..... :
i ;. .
~ ~ , i ~ t ; - * % @ ~- p i J $ - & ~ .I
1&j&je.w
~ ? 2 ** .iyj~Q&y$3&lq@;.ppl$$p.
.... ,is q.. -.......... . .:.G.: ..:... *;-.; .: .:*...# - ..
. . -**.. -..ka..$..;&.
n.
............... ...... ,., . ' . . t ..-.:,-3. ., ,-,.a.r.
P
.
..
.
,
.:.$.<
.,x>>..<s'*,;:

. :..: . . .. .-..
. ;.... . 4

.. exist by the un'e6un'tabie billid&.: . . . . are delinitel? dtr%i&&~trid, for the= . . . . . . a. .S

..
~ . There are enough of them to reflect.. , chemical composition is like that of. . .. . . . . . . . . ...
. . : : . .- . s w g h t in,a faint.@ow,.called
. . . .. . the,. . . . . common metebrites.(gnd not like that ' 1 :. .. . . . . . . . . . .

.zodiacal light. . .. of the Earth), but theyare fluffy,frag-

. . . . '
......
.' . Unlikq planets arid other large . ' ile oljjects, each particlea mosaic of - . .
.. 1-. ~. . ;. . . :. .....: ....... :--. .
:'
. - .... '.:objects; & s t p d c l e s .& n&.pepar'' . . son$ & , h y c ~ & & :. . . .,-
. . . . . a * . .

nent residents of the sol&r.system. . As we look ahead to the reappear- .

. . . . . ' . They spiral slo~Iy.inwa.1~3 toward thk . ' an= ofHaUeyYs Comet, we arecon- ; -:. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .
=.; .... ..: ....... Sun. Over a million years or so, a . ,
tinuing to collect zind study the dust . ' ' ' '
.:*
.... ." . :' :'.. . . . . - . ;. ;;:..a.+ . :& .. 1 :...
.&.A .m~mlii~o.,t;h&“J~h:~, 1 . ":. - fiat'*&~have bemsfid
. so that the current dust population the past. Perhaps when Halley does
. - .: must c.onsistof fairly..n!. arrivals,., : :. : :appeax,'*?'may beable to,domoi'e . ' . . . .. . . . . .. . ,. . ,

presumably shed from comets; thanjust look at it. We may be able to

Because interplanetary dust par- collect and analyze the very dust that
ticles may be actual samples of com- it sheds as some of those tiny frag-
ets, strenuous efforts have been made ments drift down to our planet.
to collect them. Many efforts failed
 (.* " ,-,. I
mp I*.: p 'I
ThePlantary Connections *j~Afi$zL$*c2;a?<o
OF POOR

If our goal in planetary exploration Volcanism

were simply to accumulate a list of
impressive discoveries,then we have Volcanic eruptions seem to be a nor-
succeeded beyond our wildest expec- mal process in the development of
tations. But there is a larger purpose terrestrial planets. The Moon is cov-
to our search through the solar sys- ered with dark lavas that have been
tem: to discover not just what planets identified, analyzed, and age-dated
are like, but &so how they got that through samples brought to the Earth.
way. What forces formed and shaped Photos of as-yet-unsampled Mars re-
young planets in the ancient past? veal both huge volcanoes and surface
What processes sculptured their sur- rocks that resemble lavas. Mercury
faces, made or failed to make atmo- shows large surface features that also
....... :. ... . :;I.. ...: ......:. i;.:. .$ p ~ e s , ~ r n.bml;lghtdo*c%r:f&&
d t ; ~..:couM-.&~
. lava flam;Qw.b)~an;d:i Q;...
.bring forth life?, - indistinct radar views of Venus show
. . We cannot discover the general some landforms that .probablyare , .
"'law'sthat gov6x-n all plhets by study- large volcanoes: The asteroids aisb
ing only the Earth. We would never seem to have volcanic histor&, for
know whether things+that.arecom- some of the meteorites that w.e find . '

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .rnon..on Earth (.cxqgen,-water, and .; .. i: cthemselvespresumably.aste&dal . ::

life) were abundant or absent else- fragments)are pieces of ancient lava
where, and so we have.gone.toother . flaws empted at the very beginning of.
worlds to find out. A new scientific. the solar system. Even Jupiter's moon
. . *-disciplinehas arisen, cornpardive 10 haS its own coIIecIion ofdtrange, '

planetology, in which we study as sulfur-spouting volcanoes.

many worlds as possible, looking for . .
common characteristics amid the riot Meteorite bombardment
of individuality.
Finding how planets form and Before we went into space, meteorite
grow is motivated by more than just bombardment seemed an unimpor-
scientific curiosity. The Earth is a tant process. Only about a dozen small
planet too. Our world and its life are meteorite craters were known on the
the results of complex forces operat- Earth, and many scientists thought
ing for billions of years. The more we that the Moon's craters were all an-
learn about all planets, the better we cient volcanoes. Now we know that
.:. ..................
*a*-.
. . . . understand.aq; owp;.i$s.geoi?gi.cL.- -jn~q@u~bq.nbaubent,
can. by meteo@tes =
past, the Ijehavior ofits atmosphere, in the past was the rule, not' the ex-
'

and future climatic trends. ception, among the planets. The Moon
By going into space,we have dis- suffered a violent bombardment in its
covered that certain basic planetary earliest years, more than 4 billion
characteristics occur throughout the years ago, and the traces are still seen
solar system, manifesting themselves in the heavily cratered lunar
in different ways on different planets. highlands.
These general features include phe- Other planets show traces of the
nomena that affect the Earth itself: same ancient cosmic battering. The
volcanism, meteorite bombardment, whole surface of Mercury resembles
magnetism, atmospheric evolution, the lunar highlands, saturated with
and weather and climate. overlappingcraters. The southern half
 of Mars likewise was battered, al- ' '
produced, why it varies, and why it
though its large craters have.been. completely reverses itself every.mil-
deeply eroded. Venus bears traces of lion years or so.
what may have been large impacts. Space probes have discovered
Even Callisto, the icy moon of a gas magnetic fields elsewhere in the solar
giant world, displays much the same system, extendingoutward from the
cratered surface that Mercury does. Sun and surroundingboth some ter-
Is the Earth unique? It shows no restrial and some gas @antplanets.
obvious large meteorite craters. Did it Where these fields are present, they
somehow escape the bombardment? shield the planet from the solar wind
No. The ancient Earth must have been that pours out from the Sun, and in
. 3-. .:. .... ;-.::
a.
..>.
.. :.: pow*$ -sb@
>.
Py-qe.t&W*- .%-$heceg@nuykeez W e . . W : W ~ l . p : T
;:-
. .g
'...J, +.. f : ;.
:.. I . . --A pact& j ustliiCe.the.worW.n&r it:.BM - ;enca\~~teW'phetary fields,.Were2-
. .
the ancient craters, like the Ea~%h's arise other remarkable effects: .
oldest r~cl<s,'have been.destroyed by -peed radiation belts, planetary
". . - . . . .
the continiious vdcanism, erosion, magnetic tails, magnetic storms that
and mountain-building.thatcharac- . cause aurorae, and bursts of radio . . . .
. . . . ......:
terize ow.planet, Nearly 140ancient, . noise t m ~ a he
.a
q he& w ~ othe ~ s. . . ... . -
i.. . . .. .. .... . . .. ,. .
craters, now identified 'in the geolog- solar systein. In truly great magnetic
ical record,,show that the Earth has fields like those of Jupiter,.atomicpar-
been; and still presumably is, subject ticles may be heated to millions of
t;crmeteoriteimpacts. - ., +. :. - . degrees, and a great electric am flows
Meteorite impact has continued between the planet and its moon 10.
through.time, though at a much lower Indeed, one of the curiosities of the
rate than in the early bombardment. solar systein is that'two planets as dif-
Smaller craters occur in profusion on ferent as Jupiter and the Earth-one
the relatively young, dark, lava flows terrestrial, one a gas giant-should
on the Moon, and even tinier micro- have similar magnetic properties.
scopic craters, made by bits of cosmic Each has a magnetic field, aurorae,
dust, dot the surfaces of exposed lunar radiation belts, and naturally-gen-
rocks. On the Earth, Meteor Crater in erated radio noise.
Arizona, the best-known impact scar, Magnetic properties vary widely
is less than 50,000 years old. The and unpredictably among the terres-
Tunguska event in Siberia, a violent trial planets. The Earth has a metal
explosion probably caused by the en- core and a strong magnetic field. The
trance of a comet into the Earth's Moon, with no detectable metal core,
atmosphere, occurred within living has no field, but it may have had a
memory, in 1908. strong field in the past because a
strange "fossil" magnetism has been
Planetary magnetism detected in many lunar rocks. Mer-
cury has a large metal core, but only a
We have studied and used the Earth's weak magnetic field. Venus probably
magnetic field for centuries, but it has a metal core, but it has no field.
remains a mystery in many ways. It Mars, which may or may not have a
surely is caused by huge electric cur- metal core, has no field. The gas giant
rents in Earth's iron core. But we still planets, at least the two visited by
do not know the details of how it is spacecraft, seem to be more uniform.
 Both Jupiter and Saturn have strong The terrestrial planets seem to
magneticdields, although their "metal- . have atmospheres of the outgassed
lic" intesior regions probably are made type. Somehow, most of the original
of hydrogen rather than of nickel- gas seems to have been swept away
iron. from the terrestrial planets and re-
Our studies of planetary magnet- placed by other gases from their in-
ism have so far produced more ques- teriors, such as nitrogen, carbon diox-
tions than answers. Why do some ide, and water.
terrestrial planets with metal cores These outgassed atmospheres dif-
have magnetic fields (Earth, Mercu- fer greatly. Mars and Venus have at-
ry) while others (Venus, Mars) do mospheres rich in carbon dioxide, but
the pressure of Venus'-qtmosphere is
not? Ifthe
' ,*801', ~ hplanet's n & rate is a..:*" . '
y . ~ Lrotation
osj;MHta:w: .:f~,o~(j.&,*S &a't *f~~..,-)&i&&, *,"*<
(Mercury)-havea magnetic field while Venus has a thick, heavy atmdsphere,
another (.Vgus).dpes not? More puz- its composition suggests that the . . ,
zling is the eyidence from Moon rocks. planet has not outgqtssed as much as
.
that the Moon's magnetic field "turned has the'Earth. The atmosphere of
off' about 3 billion years ago. How' Mars Has been modifi&dcontinuously
.couldthishappen?'Might the E M ; 'sirice Eormatiokbeirtausethelow'&v-'
.or another planet, lose its magnetic ity of the planet has allowed much of .
field-in.thiefut;ure? . : .- . the nitrogen to escape into space, . '

Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere .

seems unique, but we know b a t it -
has been drastically modified by an
L,bAg before the space ;elge,'wek e w agent not detected on the other plan-
that other worlds have atmospheres. ets: life. Studies of other planets sug-
But only recently have we been able gest that,just before life developed,
to make accurate analyses of these Earth's atmosphere may have been
atmospheres or to understand some- much like that of Mars and Venus:
thing of their histories. probably rich in carbon dioxide and
There seem to be two types of nitrogen. In such an atmosphere, with
atmospheres: original ones, formed oxygen lacking, simple organic mole-
from gas present in the primordial cules could combine into more com-
dust cloud, and evolved or outgassed plex ones without being destroyed by
wes, whose.w.esh a v e . ~ @ y . ...... ,oxygen. &ve~tudly,-aboN &billi~n:..-.
.
come out of the interior of the planet, . years ago, these complex molecules
probably as the result of volcanism. united to produce simple life forms.
The atmospheres of the gas giant At some later time, simple plants
planets are largely original. Their began to turn the carbon dioxide into
compositionsare close to that of the oxygen, and the process has contin-
Sun itself (largely hydrogen and heli- ued to the present, producing the air
um), and the crushing gravity of these we now breathe.
huge worlds would prevent any origi- It is ironic that the development
nal gases from escaping. The gases of life on Earth has finally produced
that collected into Jupiter 4.5 billion an atmosphere so rich in oxygen that
years ago must be there still. the original chemical reactions that
 .led to life c q no longer occur. lf life
suddenly vanished from the Earth, it
might'not reappear again. Because liv-
ing things produced the atmosphere
in which we now live, there is a real
cause for concern that another kind
of life (human beings) could change
the atmosphere even further. It
happened once before.
Weather and climate
,.-* -
'
locityjet streams w e our own also
run dong the belts of Jupiter's atmo-
sphere. Jupiter's Red Spot, three
times the size of Earth, bears a strong
resemblance to an overgrown ter-
restrial hurricane.
The atmospheresof other planets
give us another important opportuni-
ty:to learn how our own atmosphere
might change in the future. We can
look at other worlds to see how their

'7
%
; ,.-,*+".7%<*6

E&i&.pmbtfMy
L. -
.-.. &... . " 9 . .",
a..:. ; *.**- .
2.-

*;cigt pl&t&'+":
; .. ...i.l.atmcc?sphermamarffqtat by ;qPtaiF,. $.+
u. ;:

learn the laws that govern Earth's dioxide,sulfuric acid. In this way, we.
weather. Our weagher patterns are caq understand what will happen to
complicateetheyare modified .by the ~ & l f satmosphere if natural or
planet'srotation, by -highmountain human activities continue to.intro-
ranges, by theit huge oceans, and by; .: du~q.i&ese.m@riaLs,into it. : . . :..
the water.that rises as clouds and We have already found several
falls again as rain .Because of these :. examples worthy of studyand con.-
complications,it is difficult to study cern. Dusty Martian sandstorms may
theweather arrd:almostimpossible to W&ate;the heating or coolingeffects.
predict it. of dust, produced by volcanoes or by
We have to examine other worlds human beings, inour ownair. The .
with simpler weather patterns in fine particles (aerosols)of sulfuric
order to learn about our own. Fortu- acid that form the corrosive clouds of
nately, the solar system provides a Venus may help us to understand acid
wide variety to study. There are plan- rain and other kinds of sulfur pollu-
ets that rotate slowly (like Venus) tion here on Earth. The atmospheres
and rapidly (like Jupiter). There is a of Mars and Venus, rich in carbon di-
flat world (Venus),a somewhat moun- oxide, may teach us to predict what
tainous world (Mars), and a world will happen to our own atmosphere as
that may have no solid surface what- the burning of fossil fuels continues
ever (Jupiter). There are thick, dense to pour more carbon dioxide into the
atmospheres (Venus, Jupiter) and air. Will Earth warm considerably or
thin ones (Mars).There are atmos- not at all?
pheres of carbon dioxide (Venus, Climate is simply the weather of
Mars) and of hydrogen and helium a planet over long periods of time. We
(Jupiter, Saturn). The atmospheres know that the Earth's climate has not
range from superheated (Venus) to been stable. It has been both hotter
freezing (Mars). and colder in the geological past, and
We have found similarities to the recent Ice Ages are only the latest
Earth's weather in unlikely places. events in these variations. We do not
The circulation of the thin Martian at- know what caused these climate
mosphere is similar to the effects changes: gradual changes in the
found over Earth's deserts. High-ve- Earth's orbit around the Sun, changes
in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere, glimpse of the mechanisms that con-
or perhaps even changes in the Sun trol the birth and development of
itself? We know even less about what planets. We have found that worlds
climatic changes may occur in tihe which seem t o d y different at first
future. Yet civilization is dangerously glance are actually linked by common
vulnerable to these changes. Will the bonds: volcanoes, meteorite craters,
climate grow warmer, melting the ice- magnetism, and atmospheres. But fur-
caps and flooding our seacoasts?Or ther investigation and exploration are
will it grow colder, freezingthe seas required to clearly define the forces
and wiping out agriculture? that make planets what they are.
Again, other planets can help us From what we have already done
find the answers. We now know that and learned, we can suggest and plan
; o ~ q $ & q e @ he~~~d e ~ , &-&.::.
e d i.*&n& s&ps?..:.:. .$ .:-. .:.. .-; ..'.. .
....AC

mate changes, so that the Earth is not ..

ugique in this respect. Marsshows Weshould map the hidden su?$ace of
the traces ofa warmer,ketter time, a Venus, so that we cancompare it
period when its atmosphere was thick clbsely with the other terrestrial
.and great:floods scoured channels . worlds. ..
across.its swfkce. Mm'majT dso have - J, . . . . . :. .... ............. . . .
- a ..
.been colder in the past than it is now. we need.to return to Mars, a world
i'he layefs of s d m e n t around the . which we-run0see as tabntalizhgly -
polar caps suggest that those caps Earth-like i n some ways, strangely
may have been T i e r in the past. If - . digereit i n others. Weshould monitor
we could show that Mars' hot and its weather i n detail, bring back rock
cold climates had occurred at times . samples to study, and carry out a
responding to the Earth's, then the more thorough searchfor lve.
underlying cause might be ascribed
to variations in the light from the Sun The outer gas-giant planets are still
itself. largely unexplored. Jupiter's huge
Venus, our other neighbor world, atmosphere and its strange and
is not too helpful yet. We do not know varied moons are now readyfor close
enough about its surface to under- inspection and study.
stand if there are traces of previous
climates. In a cooler time, Venus
~ d g hreall.
t have.b=n tf.E.%'s
Twin," with rive& c u t h g win&g
. . ., Wes W eqvand the investigation
.P~~O~@.@ (@?T@@
@ tO.dW~.$hese
strange, W l l objecl at dose range,
channels across it; those channels and to seek i n them a more complete
may remain. We need to explore in record of how the solar system, and
great detail both Mars and Venus, ourselves, came to be.
those worlds that bracket the Earth,
before we will fully understand the The more we understand about
development of the Earth's climate. other worlds, the more we will learn
The flood of data and discovery in about the past and present nature of
the Space Age has given us our h t the Earth. Did huge meteorite impacts
 begin the process by which the Earth Selected Readings
. . . .: .produced continehts and ocean . : .. . . . . . . . . . . . .:. ..... . . . . .. . .. . .
' ,

basins?.Why is the Earth a highly ~ e a t tJ.K,~ , B. O'Leary,and A.

evolved planet, with active volcanoes Chaikin 1981(Eds.), The New
and mountain-building, while the . Solar System (Cambridge, Mass.:
other terrestrial planets seem quiet Sky Publishing Co., and New York:
and dead? Why has the Earth devel- Cambridge University Press).
oped a temperate environment where Chapman, C.R. 1977, The I n w
. life has flourished, while nearby Planets (New York: Charles
Venus and Mars seem lifeless and in- Scribner's Sons).
hospitable? Cooper, H.S.F. 1980, The Searchfw
... y $ ,::*3, y;;,... . ,.T+page. q ~ ~ ~ . q ~ s t i .. ~-:$~..? .p.........
.. a. b L.ife .aaMw*yL
o u ton Mars (New York:.:.Halt, $.... :-...,*?.... ...; ..:.., .. .. .. >..... .:.$. .,z. ......
%.......... .. ..1..
.,. ...i j

,.': . t h . ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ : ~...E-:;
,, :@
S~ . z . @ - & ~

i '.,;.j ~ t ~ $ < ~ , ~ ~ ..:.....,,;; .........

.y ?

-
'
~. ~
8 ' .

...............
... msaiefi How a+ weehmging o w &ti ' ~ ~ r n z ~ i'gbl <f .mi ~ . & & i Book . '

... ; . . . . mosphere, and;w w t will these... . . . . . . - . (New York.PenguinBooks). . . . . . . . ..-..: . .

' 6
... changes ddts us? Willthe Earth%cl&-. Guest,.:J.,:P. B u t t e r w o e JaMurray,. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . ". . .
mate change soon, $nd how? fs'the. . ' and W. O'Donnell1979,'Planetary
"

. .
.~arth's.mag&etic"field
.us
de&reeGhg?
iirit. v.&iShs;. ..
.: . )
.C&l;gy (New Yo* Xohxi Wdey ......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...
. . . . . . . . . .. . . "....
mat will.hAp*h
:,

. < .:. , A
"'
... . . . .
. . -
3 .

~ v e n f oar short 'me?.When Kauhan.n, W.J.,UI 1979,Planets and

. . . : :.
. astefo&'~t tkie.~ai.th,
an . . .
as.man'$'ribve. .... Mo.m.(San F-ClsdDt
,
w . . ~. 1.. ....... I .-. '-..'L ....,. ..' . ..-... *.' . .., e

of more
...done .&an
,@:$he jdst scigitfi.c &t6seki'tl:..
~~~~.Thes.e~.y~que~ti.o.~!~. .- ., Nikihg!eer;
. . . Freemari fgS2,
anc!
if.ti.-* Co.).
:bi"*fthSky:-. . .......... ... : . . . .... .;... . . ...,~.jc~
, Y*, ........ . .... *:.%

Their answers may determine.thesur- . . . An Introduction to Meteom'tes . . . . .. . . . ...

'via'ofpeople kimation: . . : . (New York Dove'r.Boiks).: . . .. ..: . . .
"'
'
. %

The Space Age has given us a The Solar System, 1975(San Fi.an-
new view of many worlds, but most cisco: W.H. Freeman and Co.).
especially of our own Earth. On our
ihst trips to the Moon, the Earth sud-
denly appeared to human eyes as a
tiny blue world of life, isolated in a
vast, uncaring blackness. Now that
we have explored further, we see that
the Earth is not alone. It is one of a
family of worlds, all different, each an
individual, but all formed at the same
time, shaped by the same forces, and
developing in related ways. We can no
longer hope to understand the Earth,
its past, and its future, without study-
ing and understanding its compan-
ions in space around the Sun.
 . .;:' .-...if'P,.%
.. c-.;,,
..
iii.&*l+ @W 9:
otograpiwd this 'huge '

erupting pominence,,ov~e of the lcirgest sew.

in a decgde,,.as.itli&d oflthe 4 u n , ~ n ; D e c . ~ - . ,

bkr 19. 19.73;The ultraviolet rcidiatioiz ruas .

pi.o@&ed. by electmmd i d i u m atoms at.a . ,

temp&tz~re of about 70,000' C: . . .

, .
. 5." . .*.,;. ;;.. .... .< ..... .: . i . . - - 1

ORIGINAL, PAdC
COLOR BWQTOGRAPH
 N
i

othing is more important to us

on Earth than the Sun.Without
i
. '.

the Sun's heat and light, the Earth !.

would be a lifeless ball of ice-coated
rock. The Sun warms our seas, stirs 5-&. . .- .
our atmosphere,generates our wea- ::
i.: - ..
-..
.. -
.I-.

ther patterns, and gives energy to .....

the growing green plants that provide -..,**,. - a

the food and oxygen for life on Earth. -

We know the Sun through its heat
and light, but other, less obvious as-
._
.... ,. . ' .>:. .*', .
?.<: .,%+< i
.,.'>%.4,,,., .::: :. . .. . ... .-"-,.* i.*............
....:...
.
. . .
*.:

. . .
9

. . .
a . . . .:. ........................
'4 ...
. . . .. .
: ., .
.
.
clek.
,...,... ; p q . : o ~ ~ ,9e 9 @~rq.y.gB
Energehc atpwc
w!$.sy:v.,. *...........
particks.and.
.-; ..>s: :,;is
.
..
..':
q

. . . . -. . ' . . . . . . ' - .
. .
: , L

X-rays $.om sotarflares h d other ,

....
. . . . -:.:.. ... .': ". . _ .. . . ". . ... .
f:. -I ..:' di&urbananGeson the SM often ; . . ..:. .-. .. ..- .
. . .

. . . . . . = . . . . . .
.... , .... radio'wavestraveling the E'arth's.ionl
. . -
._. ... .
. . . “...
..
... . . . . . ...... .
. .osphere, causing.bterference.and
. . ,
.. ,

. . . ... . ... . .. %.l:. . . ,.. .. . . . .:.. P ., : . .#. .. . ... : . . : .... : . ' d ' even..bla;ckour;sof long-distance.- .....
'*':.'" . . r$daco--ktiohs: . D
.
~ ..,%
~ .;.-;. ':-.~. .. G
. .

. .
.. . . f .. ..
. . .. . . . . - . .: . . . . .. .: ., . . .
a
. . . . . *
. of.the,Earth9s magnetic mld,bysol- . . . . . . .
. . . phenomen&sometimesindukehuge: . . . .
:'
.
..._. . ........ . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . .. . . ... . . : .. .:. . .. .. . .. .. . ... .- .,. . . . . . . . voltage fluctuationsin podger.linesi. ,.,. : . .
, , -.:
threatening to black out cities. Even
. . ' . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . such seeminglyunrelat.edactivities=. . .. .. .. .
the flight of homing pigeons, trans-
atlantic cable traffic, and the control
of oil flow in the Alaska pipeline
apparently are interfered with by ,

magnetic disturbances caused by .

.
.
.
events on the Sun. Thus, understand-
ing these changes-and the solar
events that cause them-is important ... . . .
' .

. . ,. .. . .
. .
.' ' for scientific, social, and econoinic' .
'
.
'
.
a

. . reasons. . . -. . .
. ?
,. . I . -.+.:;. .....<%..;"*: . . <. >. *..?.-.*..
. . *.
.* .......... . i.-.;.'.:.=;&..;*.,
. . *' . . . . .$..... .......-:*we:
.;*. ;;.=*.+;~~x,~~..c;,., ... k&66m-&a&"&:z 7. ..: ...".~'.,.~>;I. . ".
. . .
.>."T.. &
.: %
.
: . _ .

portance of the Sun and watched it

closely. Primitive people worshiped
the Sun and were afraid when it

. .-
 -
would disappear during an eclipse... . . . We have obtained a clearer pic-
Since the early seventeenth'century, ture about the scope of the Sun's
scientists have studied it with tele- effects. Its magnetic field stretches
scopes, analyzing the light and heat through interplanetary space to the
that manage to penetrate our absorb- outer limits of the solar system. Steady
ing, turbulent atmosphere. Finally, streams and intense storms of atomic
we have launched solar instruments- particles blow outward from the Sun,
and ourselves-into space, to view the often encountering the atmospheres
Sun and its awesome eruptions in of our Earth and the other planets.
their even as~ect. The spectacularphotos of the
'. .,..!.,:;?-:.:,.; . .-- 2..'~~5~ewwmt'~~;d@&*g3
;.$-,.*\..
. .
,

. . .., ,* :.,.....
CjFFEt~wh.~n.we l o o w a$.the Sw> ' i ‘Earth
. .:*. .... -:!/."'C
i ~ w ~ space
~ @ e ~ from
-
... a
; : I t ; l ~showonl~
$ m , ~ * 9 ~ ; part
f 3 r of ,- 4'
y. :..>.*+.a. , .
:
''
." ... . ':.:: *.-< 2 !. .j; . .<: "

z:.: ...;:; L...

'

:. . &und, it.,gjem&k average; 1$ther . szitellitq.reve& 6id6 deb of ,iii-

.- :>.-.a ..a

. . . ..
. . . . .stable It was .not exactly con':. - . .: visible phenomena-kes,of magnejic. .. . . . .. .
: ... . . . . ,

.st&, but it,semped:tovary a f&ly.: . 'fqrce,atomicpax=ticles, electric-"cur-: . ; . .: . ,. , .

. . ,
. .regular fasgon,]witha cycle ofs,yn: rehts, and a huge g e o c d a of . . . . , '

spots t*t comes a d goes iri'about . . . . hydrogekatoms-surrounding'the . .-. . .

.eie'+4i; ye& N ~ & & ~ G~fia%. . E~.. Ea& is &. (,jmplex. changI' .-.' ,. J .
sp&c& ,
' "

..... . .. . ' . .
3 %
'-.
i
.
1.

. given rn
: of fie.>sun:.
. .-the .. . sun
3..
entirely different picture . . ing as the visible face,ofthe globe.
-fibrn spa&',wehave se& .- ..:.Be
'"...-. .. .!@qtes ofuy-lcll4ra-. tensman$;&.&;int.
violet, X-rays, and gamma rays-that
:,
g&~,<~
pf thousands of,qe.s
never reach the ground. This radiation trons and protons circulate within it.
sti;e&sintospace,
. . . ..
fiag.t.e field -ekt&nds.. . I . . . ., .-. ; . . . . . :.
'

_
,

bf.elec- . : <,, . .:, .-,-,,. .>>. . :: ..

?;,

.
,

>, ,

.
'

., 'v<"?.4,

. . . ...
... .
&s out to' be ~ ~ m o r ~ r e s p o n stoi v. e. Huge electsiccumentSflow around . . ; ,
.

flare eruptions and other so-called the Earth, affecting their high-alti-
solar activity. tude surroundings as well as our envi-
We now see the Sun as a place of ronment at ground level.
violent disturbances,with wild and Space observations have greatly
sudden movements above and below expanded our ability to look at the
its visible surface. In addition,the Sun, at interplanetary space,and at
intluence of solar activity seems to the immediate surroundings of the
extend to much greater distances Earth itself. We can now "see" many
than we had believed possible. New phenomena that are completely un-
studies of long series of historical rec- detectable from the Earth's surface,
ords reveal that the Sun has varied in and we now have a much better, more
the past in strange and unexplajned complete and more coherent picture
ways. Scientists wonder how such of how events in one part of our solar
variations might affect the future cli-' system relate to activity in another.
mate on Earth.
 ORIGINAL PKeE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Human beings have always looked

upon the Sun as the most important
celestial body. Even primitive people
realized that the light and heat from
the Sun sustain all life on Earth, and
they knew that any disturbance to the
Sun's daily motion through the sky
would have serious effects. Over the
years, they devised many rituals to
ensure:phthe
.Grsg .ibsd*Preliability
heg.deC~aeed of the Sun.
at Latgr,
th4&--.
Sun is a flawless sphere, its motions
governed by perfect perpetual clock-.
work. Sunspots glimpsed dimly by the
ancients when thin cloud or thick mist
made it possible to stare at the Sun '

were dismissed AS u&1ated abjects ' '

passing in front of the glowing sphere.

This.idea was accepted throughout
the Western world until after the in-
vention of the telescope, when Galil&
proved that sunspots were true mark-
ings or structures (hence, "blemishes")
on the surface of the Sun. Not only was
the Sun imperfect, but it was change-
able; the spots came and went over
days and weeks. Later, astronomers
discovered that the number of sun-
spots varies in a cycle, showing a
maximum and a minimum about every
eleven years. - .. . .
More recently, the combination.of
p e h e n t s , and bett
tions has enabled scientists to obtain
a good picture of the overall structure
of the Sun. It is a ball of gas, com-
posed of about 90 percent hydrogen,

h m paom to eorom Artist k cutaway

drawing of regions and structures of the Sun
includes both the observed phenomena and
layers of the exterior and the hypothesized
energy-generating and tranmnitting zones of
the interior. Many sug%ce features are
shaped by magneticfwld patterns. Interior
regions are calculatedfrom conditions nec-
essaryfor the observed solar energy to be
produced by nuclearfusion of hydrogen deep
inside the Sun.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
69
 ORlGlNAC PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
9 percent helium, and only 1percent lent activity. Solar disturbances of
of all the other elements such as czq- diverse kinds occur on time scales
'
bon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, and from years down to thou-
iron. The diameter of the Sun is about s of a second, involving regions
1,390,000kilometers (865,000 miles), ranging in size from the entire solar
or about 109times that of the E , atmosphere to the smallest detail vis-
and the Sun is 300,000 times as - ible in our most powerful telescopes.
sive as the Earth. Space observations allow us to
At the Sun's center, theory pre- see the Sun in many wavelengths, or
dicts that the temperature reaches an "colors," of light that are totally
incredible 15million " C. This is the abso
temperature of an exploding hydro- and from the ground.
: ... .. 3..m . ,b~mb;~i+.ifje n
rt+
s-.! &
.

the thermonuclear reactions thal' - . ..ultravioletlight, and much ofthe infra-

'

convert hydrogen.atomsinto helium, red and.radio regions of the spectrum.

thus powe&.the.~un. h this way . . can tie obsefied ~ n l fr6m y abovemost . .-.,I . _
the Sun consuzries about 5 billion kilo- of our atmdsphere. Each of these
grams (5 million-tons)of its nuclear. newly explored spectral regions, or
.. . . hydi.ogen &d.wery s.eeond: ?kt the... .-:'fwhdows~~ yiddsuniqueinfom%~~06 ..-
Sun is solarge that it.has been burn- about physical processes and phenom-
ing hydrogen at .thisrate.ever siftceit... ena on the Sun which are inaccessi-
formed some 5 billion years ago, and it ble +th ground-based telescopes.
will continueto burn steadily-far att: . " .Through these new'windows ' "'
' '

least another 4 billion years. that open for telescopes above the
'

The energy released by nuclear Earth's atmosphere, we a n see radi-

fusion in the heart of the Sun is even- ation emitted from many Merent
tually radiated away in all directions parts of the Sun. Each solar region
into space. A tiny fraction reaches the has its own temperature, density, and
Earth, powering every process neces- other characteristicphysical condi-
sary for life. Even this tiny fraction is tions and emits its own kind of light.
enormous. The solar energy striking We have measured temperatures on
the Earth is equal to 800 billion mega- the Sun ranging all the way from a
watts of power, an amount vastly mere 4200" C in the,coolest regions
more than the entire capacity of all of to over 50 million0C in the hottest .
...... ..* .eB~~~ely.
So~neday~~ve y@ ,,;.:.. ..sslqr$kqe+ -:. .:..*?*3,<+':i: ":*;:,
. . . . . . The'app'iuSntsuffac6bfthe'~uh',
' +P'P..?,*-..:-
.-?.:%.
'

The solar interior may burn the photosphere, has a temperature

hydrogen at a steady rate, but a close of about 6000" C, which decreases
look at the surface and outer layers with height to a minimum value of '
shows that the Sun is not stable at 4200" C. The solar gas in thi
all. Examined with modern tech- shines mostly in visible and
niques-esp,eeially space instruments light. Above the
-the solar atmosphere is seen to ture region, the gas gets hotter. The
seethe with constant motion and vio- chromosphere (the next higher piurt;
 Raysmm theSun. Solarfeatures at d ~ mtemps7atures t emit
characWtic radiation of d i f f m tf m 9 r a ~ n radio g a~ d
; in&ured waves to wisible light, u1Cmwiold,X m y s , and gamma rays.
i h w i n g shows typical temperatures,while legend at the kflin&- ;
QK&$I?$;5+ ;>*F$t;r<:>" dm
: #l
1
cates correspondingmdiatinns. Infrared and visible light are suit-
ablefwstudy of coolest layers,while much infomnatim on the hot cats '
c,F V~JCP~; a
=7ewc*
4

comna can only be gleanedJhm X-rays. Energetic atomic particles

firnn solarjlare explosions produce gamma rays.
 of the Sun's atmosphere) has a tem- the same time, observations of other t
perature of about 10,000"C and glows kinds of stars help put the Sun @
'. brightly in ultraviolet light. The mil- perspective.
lion-degreecorona, farther out around
the Sun, is best seen by the X-rays it
The Sun is a relatively typical star
among the approximately 100billion
1.

i.?. .. . -
. 1 .
emits. The very highest energy radia- stars in our Milky Way galaxy.The
tion given off by the Sun is not due masses of most other stars that we see 5:._...
..- : , -- .
.
to a hot gas but is actually produced range from approximately one-tepth '
_
_. ..
by erupting streams of very-high- the mass of the Sun to about 30 solar .-- .
speed electrons and protons which masses. The surface temperatures of
s e e the ordinary atoms of the Sun's most stars range from about 2000" C
atmosphere with sufficientforce to to 40,000° C. Although the Sun is
<.- .%:. .: ,2gq.1eq2e &:FP.a?d.guq@,m~+?n::,~pme,w~~t~.~e..qoF.~Me.a2;54~t. r .: ,t :. :.; :,. -;
. . . . ' . Ea$h we use a.vem similar process -. 6000: C, hot stars are rare, and most ..
on a vastly smaller scaleetogenekte normd stars are cooler than the Sun. '. '. .
. X-rays for m e d i d e ~ t i o n s :. ' . .Compared to some of the expiosive ... '' '
,
. . -. .
& .
" "

.. In addition to the X - e s , ultra- . stiws -novae and supemoGae- which '

violet, and other forms of light from. sometimes appemin the sky, the Sun. .
.
_ . . . . . the sun, satellitpQooge~ t m p e n $ , . ,is,s@ble andprdht-g. - - . . . . . . . , .. . . .. ...:..
have -dbsefiedp&es and strea~itsof ' This long-term stability of our Sun
. . . atomic particles l$iat,are.emitted from probably was crucial for.the develop- , .-
the Sun and travel outward to the- ment of life on Earth. Biologisti be-
. . .. Earth and beyond. These particles ;. lieve tha* a relatively stableaverage-
provide actual samples of solar mate- temperature had to prevail on Earth
. rial. Their composition tells what.the . d&g the past 3.billionyears,.in : . . .... .
Sun is made of and how matter is order for life to evolve to its present
ejected from its atmosphere. From state. The relative stability of the Sun
space we can even detect the solar is also important to astronomers try-
magnetic field, which stretches out ing to understand the basic nature of it
into the far limits of the solar system. and other stars. Violent activity in the
Sun could mask the more subtle and
The Sun as a star long-enduringprocesses which are
the basic enerm transport mechan-
We sometimesfo*get'that&re is &e . isms of dur stir. Fortunately, they are . . .
.-
. . . ,,. ...
. ., +. + ..f.-e"i~.s.e"jTh'e'e's~
star that is easily visible in day- ::ngt hidden,
the6iey,ia&.
:&e. .&,,is.-
and .Gd+OG
we'hay-I?,%.
.Piope~esable to. .*. ........ ,.
. ;,,.:..,t ,.
close enough to be studied in detail, height above the visible surface.
but we are confident that all the pro- Above the minimum temperature
cesses in the Sun must also occur in region in the photosphere, we have
billions of distant stars throughout measured how the gas gets hotter as it
the universe. To understand the na- thins out with height The chromo-
tureand behavior of other stars, we sphere and corona, each hotter than
must first understand our own. At the layer below, are warmed by the
 transferpf energy from below, by abruptly into space from the corona.
processes that still are not well ' " he e&losions called solarjZuresemit' ., .' . .
understood. ' vast amounts of radiation and atomic
Until space observations became particles in short periods of time, often
possible we knew nothing about co- with little or no warning.
ronae in any other stars,and had only Space observations have dis-
marginal information about the prop- covered many new aspects of solar
erties of stellar chromospheres. Now, events that were hidden from ground-
space observations have shown us based observatories. The hottest
that a large m t i o n of the stars in the spots on the Sun shine primarily in
sky have chromospheres and coronae. ultraviolet and X-rays, rather than in
' .: . ;- -.-:%d.:
::; %, ...: . O s : ~
.:
a ~@Idbm.&.@~e
~ & 2 % ~1. ; :) : .~
...
.
:.; ;*.~*
& i.: B
~~
*P*i3' * ~ u g 9 ~&-
i I c*e.3s \ ~ t ; fjlx.&e'j.f.m ,,.m
2* -.;.:~:.:;*:.:~ ~
Ci\. .:. < ..-* ...
:\.
-- . . "-5..
...
...*-.
..a
:
.i
"
%--. . :- .< * ..
...:.2.
...-1

. nected with st- (or "starspot") - temperature sblar flares and deter- . . ...
cycles like those of ourown Sun. &ray' : h e the@phyecal conditions. Space.
telescopes catx4ed:on satellites have observatories have shorn us the . .
recorded flares h &er.stm that are *higher,hotter layers ~f.the Stan's - . , ....- . =.
a

. . .kmoFe powe@ulthan.the dmady . atmosphemthat norm& a;rgbvis-'.. . . . ) . . . " .. .. ..,.

impressive flares of the Sun. By ob- ible from the ground. Instruments on
. se-g the strength and ikequency of. satellites revealed that in flaces9and. ..
these events on stars with masses, other violent disturbanes the Sun
wq a n $ r m ~ ~ ~ n - & ~ ~Me- whi& - - * 2 m . u e +a a & ~~e= 1 m t o r driving , .
., . ., -.. . * :.., * .- . 2 A-

from those of the Sun, we search for electrons and protons to velocities
answers to such basic,questions as: approaching the speed of light. At , . . . .
"HOW does the sunspot cycle period such high speeds, the particles emit '

depend on the star's rotation rate?'or the high-energy X-rays and gamma
"What is the relation between the rays measured by our satellites. Some-
temperature of a star's corona and times they even induce nuclear reac-
the strength of its magnetic field?" tions on the surface of the Sun.
By deciphering the general pattern of Two aspects of our improved
stellar properties we can better under- knowledge of the Sun deserve spe-
stand what makes things happen on cial attention. One is the role of mag-
the Sun. netic fields in determining virtually
The Sun presents us with a be- all aspects of the structure and be-
wildering variety of surface features, havior of the Sun's upper atmosphere.
atmospheric structures, and active The other is the discovery of the
phenomena. Sunspots come and go. solar wind, a stream of atomic par-
The entire Sun shakes and oscillates ticles that constantly evaporate from
in several different ways at the same the Sun's atmosphere and are acceler-
time. Great eruptions called prmni- ated to speeds of hundreds of kilo-
nences hang high above the Sun's sur- meters per second, escaping into
Eace for weeks, suspended by mag- space in all directions.
: netic force, and then sometimes shoot
 ORIGINAL PAGE
WmR PHQTQGRAPH
 M~gneticField and
theSo/~rWind

We have h o r n since 1912 that there

are power6ul magnetic fields in s m -
spots. h fact, the sunspot cycle could
just as well be described as a periodic
increase md decrease in the m o u n t
. .ofsolar magnetism. The
..-..$e1'&:~~~e~~&t&~@&$.
Sun by a natural h$narro
verses itself every eleven-yeam,:This .
'

..ilynamoaction may result fkom an .

interaction between the Sun's 2%-day
. '

' rotzition sirpd tkie iiisiqg:and f d b g of '.'.

%u& biObs af'gasin a laye~justklbtt"
the solar surface.
TVbeil the Sun-was photbgmPied.
&om Skylab, we learnarned.that
".'w~ole:~Lm*8Ej;h'6reeeabove $6 the siadadg *'

of the Sun is structured by the pres-

. eneeof changing mignetic fields. The.
solar corona often appears smooth
when glimpsed from the ground dur-
ing total eclipses of the Sun. However,
Skylab X-ray photographs proved
that the corona is composed almost
entirely of individual loop structures,
formed by streams of hot gas chan-
neled along lines of magnetic force.
Some loops are small and isolated;
others are so large that their two feet
may be separated by half the solar
surface. The majority of the loops are
qmnged in long rows or arcades,
which frequently cover a large frac-
tion of the surface.

Mgs&&m saesme of sobr w i d A

long, dark coronal hole,here semingly part-
ing aglowing "RedSeamofmillion&gree
c w m l gas, separates magnetically-shaped
coronal arches to expose the Sun's cooler
chromosphere layer belozu. Inwisible i n ordi-
nary photographs, coronal holes appear pro-
minently in images made, as here, i n so-
called "sofi~orlowenergy, X-rays.
GR!GINAL F,:.Gf
COLOR PHOTGGRAF'H
 ay7 ~10.9 XBMB % w l qXlsnonqu03 *&~suapMOI
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?q 3 .
0 ~ 3'.sa?.rir?p ~ q w .300gig
~ . . . .
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sdno* lodsuns st? suo@a~-H ayl ale2 q o s Xq pasne~am @nsn squars
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.:.:;. ': & ~ . & q y B w J O ~ & p.m ",& $=~ 8 ::. " . ? - ~ w &$gq&&iiS.&gqk Gn& '-
aJaM squaAa asayq3eylqIaj qsgua!3s -ymw s 07 ~ M O &pp3e
B ~pa~eurjo
asayl uaAa r)nq 'uns ayl woq s a p ~ d ad& sly3 'uosaa~uluouyun auxos rod
3po3ejo sureas 03 anp aq q @ p . u n ayq
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ayl q s a m q q s p Xq pur! araqds -puapI 'sdool asay~, .ow ro moy m
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sXeldsp qmgpq Aq paMonoj uago am ' a ~ e pmlos s ayq uo suopmol uxoplnrr
suo~soldxaamp q o s qualop ayq3ey7 qe Xluappns madde sdml 3pau%ew
w o q SEMq -3da3uo3,,unsqa~nb,, s~yl p u s rCra~Xmux "euoros aqq q
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d oq uopppe UI
Escaspej3.orn the Sun. More than 1.6 million kilome- (onemillion
miles) in diameter, a glowing white "solar bubble,"^ coronal Cmn-
sient, races oflint0 spacejbm the solar corona. 'Eke Sun itself is
eclipsed by the dark disk of a Skylab imtmment designed to study
these remarkable phenomena that ocmr u m e e n j b m Earth. A series
of photographs made on June 10,1973, showed how the bubblegrew as
it m e d rapidly outward. Other Skylab observaticms c m f i m d that
the bubble was produced when a prominence erupted into the corona
@om the solar su?$ace below.
Spiralpattern in interp1aneta.qspace. The interplanetarymag-
neticfieM makes a spiral pattem as thesun turns. Pie-shaped
usectors"between the curved black lines are regions where the mag-
neticfieMhas a consistent direction, its lines offorce pointing either
awayjbm or toward the Sun (denoted by plus and minus sigms,
respectively).Illustmted here are m e a s u r w made by the W-1
(InterplanetaryMonitoring Platform 1) spacmf during three
27-day solar rotation2>a*alsbeginning in late 1973. Each plus or
minus denotes the direction of thefield according to three hours of
IMP-1data Outemzost circleof plus and minus signs (with December
dates)represents the$rst 27dayperiod; the two circles within
represent the next twoperiods in succession. Comparisonof d a t a j k m
one circle to the next shows that the sector structure persisted over
most of the long interval of observation.
 Sun and passing.the Earth at the high . point.in the opposite direction. The
speed of several hundred kilometers boundary between the two magnetic
per second. The theory would also ac- hemispheres consists of a thin neu-
count for the behavior of certain tral sheet, in which the magnetic
comet tails, which acted as though directions are not consistent. The
they were blowing in an electrified neutral sheet is slightly warped, so
wind. that it does not lie quite flat in the
Several early interplanetary plane of the Earth's orbit. As the Sun
spaceprobes detected the solar wind rotates, the sheet turns too, so that
around 1959-1961.In 1962,Mariw the Earth is alternately on one side of
2 made a detailed survey that showed the warped region and the other. As
' ..--a
' . - ~ g h & g ~ 6 ~ & j ~ ~ % t a e ' m%l aW4mpp+iw,.steMtes
-:-.:
neja-&e-Ear& -.:.,;
,...&&-k..$i-;r&ka6kG.::: - ;.,0b.ps+4.&h' ;(: 6h&i@~.ih'eeaetiOn:w..
. ..
Instrumern carried on Mariw and the interpl@netary magnetic field as . .
other spacecraft also found that the. . the sector boundarjes pass the ~astli. ..
'

solar wind actuahy is guided along an Study of the sol& wind revealed
interplanetary magnetic fieM which theeidentity of the mysterious M-reg- .
. ~riginatesat the.Sm, The magnetic' : . ionson-the;Sun, which.caw the r e .-
field is stretched outward by the . current disturbances (geomagnetic
flowing v&d and warped by -themrn- stomzs) inth@ Earth's magnetic field. . .
ing of the Sun, so that it has the spiral The geomagnetic storms are found to .
shape of a @&tic phwhed. 'ThciL . - coirrcitiewith Sreams that -aremuch .
^

field begins to be stretched at a h e a t faster than the normal solar wind. By

of about one s ~ l a rdiameter abope.the . comparingthe arrival times of these .
surface of the Sun. This stretching high-velocity streams with pictures of
explains the elongated and nearly the Sun's corona taken by SIcylabX-ray
radial appearance of the streamers telescopes on known dates, the high-
seen in the outer corona during speed streams were traced to parts
eclipses of the Sun and which also of the corona which emit no X-rays,
have been photographed by solar the so-called coronal holes.
telescopes on Skglab and other The temperatures and densities
satellites. of coronal holes are much lower than
In the plane of the Earth's orbit, those of other parts of the corona. In-
the interplanetary magnetic field vestigations show that in the holes,
often is divided into sectors of alter- the magnetic field has no loops, but
nating inwardly (i.e., toward the Sun) extends directly out into the solar
and outwardly directed fields. This wind. We do not yet know how and
magnetic pattern will persist for why coronal holes form, but we do
months as the Sun rotates and some- know that they area major source of
times lasts for as long as two years. the solar wind. Two apparently per-
We have recently discovered that manent coronal holes exist at the
the magnetic fields which originate north and south poles of the Sun, and
in the northern hemisphere of the it may be that much of the solar wind
Sun will point in one direction (in- that leaves the Sun originates in these
ward or outward) while fields origi- two polar coronal holes.
nating in the southern hemisphere
 Sun, actually reaching beyond the
Moon's orbit. This long magnetolc&il
In order for any solar particle to reach
extends more than 600,000kilometers
(370,000miles) from the Earth.
the Earth, it must h t pass through
the Earth's magnetic field. Before theAt the boundary of the magneto-
was discovered, the Earth's
sphere, there is a constant struggle
between the magnetic field of the
field was thought to be symmetrical,
resembling that of a huge bar magnet,
Earth and the forces of the Sun.
fading off indefinitely into space.
Buffeted by fluctuations in the
However, we now know that the solar
velocity and density ofthe solar wind,
wind shapes the outer regions of the
the magnetosphere's size and shape
's magnetic field, and that the
are continuouslychanging. At the
point where the solar w@dstrikes the
field is sharply bounded. Outside the
. . . ; . .. . .-. . .-... . ..
3 $"..',.:. * 5 o u d e , spae&t6.&jinM@& by&$ ' a r - s ~f(jf-m&,"~ c ~ ~ ~
. . solar.wind and the interplanetary analogous to the sonic boom that '
magnetic field. 1nside.theb o a - precedes g supersonic airplane. . .
is the region or magndosphere d m - Inside the boundary with the '
hated by the Earth's magnetic field. solar wind, the magnetosphh re-
'The measurements frrjamany space 'mains ariactive region. It contains
. . . . . mission's~havebeerzeoabined to = ' . 'two'belts of Very erietge'tid ch&eil'
reveal that the Earth's magneto- atomic particles that are trapped in
sphere is blown out by the-solarwihd the Earth's magnetic field hundreds
into a teardrop shape. The head of of miles above the atmosphere. These
thi! drop extends on19 about 10 Earth belts were discovered by Professor
radii, or about 65,000kilometers James Van Allen of the University of
(40,000miles) "upwind" toward the Iowaand his colleagues in 1958,using
Sun. The tailof the drop stretches simple radiation detectors carried by
~ w ' ~ ~ T,,y ~ in~ the
~ direction
p H opposite the Explorm I, the first U.S. satellite.
&wRPi , - '
 M~oaemspBaem aPad m~rntotolri&, S t d i e s by s m m l satellites and spaceprobes have now
mapped much of the region of ?nagmCic@M structures and streams of trapped radiation
particks a m n d t h Earth, t b xmg&osphere. %solar wind, stwarning out@m the Sun,
shapes the magnetosphepeinto a teardrop7with a long magnetotail stretching out opposite
the Sum
OW!GINAL' PAGZ
Emh's &kGa~~aenoimmmcenf It once was thought that the Earth was s u m n d e d by CObCR FHOTOX?A?li
nearempty space, in which the Earth's magmtic@ld would a pattern resembling that
of a bar magnet (orange lines). Hm7ever,thefirst American spacecraft, Explorer 1 (shown
here), discovered a belt of energetic particles trapped in thefield and streaming back and
forth above the Earth. It was thefirst of two such zones, the VanAllen belts, to befound.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR pH3TO;RAPH

meMoMea a d %u*em many spacecraft showed that the sit-

&mthe S m
The structure of the E 'smagneto- the
sphere also controls the behavior of
aurorae, seen in our night skies. Pre- there, they periodically are violently
Space Age textbooks stated that
aurorae are produced by protons
which are emitted from the Sun and
's upper atmosphere
s:
uation is more complicated. Particles
fro the solar wind and from
s atmosphere apparently
are stored in the mmetotail. From
ejected into the northern and south-
ern p l a r regions of the atmosphere
along the Earth's magnetic field and
are accelerated to high speeds by a

.,..
.' . . . , m&e@c
. through gaps that exist inthe Earth's process not yet fully explained. The
,.;. , . .. ., qalp?e@.f$l@ atsa&0.' the n0.ma n d . s ~. ...~...%
rdin2 ibbaee,
.. .;mapeWtail.is
. in effectareser-voir of
,. ;. -fi&&,e< ark &&i&didj; rga&ddi
, ..yo<
. ' theory, these protons st&e oegen
' VVhen.theSun is active during ma%
.:.
+. ... .. .. atomsin-thea~osphei~ k d the - . :' . h u msunspot years, this processis :' ..
,

. . .. . .. '. collisioris cauGe the glow which we . especially intense and &equent,' a d . .
' ' '

. ., call the Forthe? Lights. the aurorae are brighter and move
. ..
' . ..'
. . . This view has .changedhathe
. . Si;'asee.Ag.e.yhi3'
' ' aata
.io~&t'ed.edby;." .'
.-. . - tfie
. closer
t :
... equator,
.... .

.. . r...

Northem LightdP, a giptjiu,m the Susz This brilliant green display

of the aurora borealis,photographedpom Fairbanks, Alaska, re-
sembles a huge curtain with a circularfold. Aurorae, stimulated by
disturbances on the Sun, are atmosphmk phenomena which also
take the shape of rays, streaked clouds, and a "starburst"or m u m
form, which corresponds to a curtain viewedporn directly below.
Colorsrangeporn white throughgreen, blue, and red.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

. . .. .. . . . ... Other
. . . . . m,agne:ts
planetary. . . . . .' stand why some planets apparently . . . . . . .
- .donot gefierdte their own magiietic
Spaceprobes have discovered that ' fields. '

three other planets besides the Earth Just as there is a sharp boundary
have magnetic fields strong enough between the Earth's magnetosphere
to form magnetospheresaround them. and the solar wind, there must be a
The magnetospheres of these planets, limit to the much larger region filled
-
tiny Mercury, giant Jupiter, and ringed by the solar wind and the interplane-
Saturn, are as different as the planets tary magnetic field. This region, called
themselves. Mercury's magneto- the heliosphere since it is dominated
sphere is much smaller and weaker by particles and fields that originate
.. . .L'...,,.n'.
. . :.If. .<:.:.::.* . .
. ._., . ";-,r.: :.. .. ; . : ~ : : . : - : ; . . , ~ : ~ : ~ E ~ ~ ~ ; . ~ J ~ p i t ~ e ~ : ' ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ . h ~ ~ . .$ ~
.. ."..
. .:..
t.-i.. ;.'.': .L;:-. . .? ... ...::-,
4
: +::::% . ~ ~ ~ g . m ~ e t i G f f d d c ~ . ~ #6>fl&-Mtt&GtiOn$ju9t;&.tk
ped ..,. : ;. .
. . .
ticles in a violently active magneto-. Earth's magnetosphere does. In'the
...... ..
... . ... .. .. . . . . :. . . .' sphere's0 large that,.ifvjsjble.frqm . .' . .. c+e of the heliosphere, .d&is.stream- . .. .:. .
. Earth, it would appear & b& as the '.ingis caused.bythe m.otion'ofthe . .; : '

:. . . . . . . .. :. .- full.Moon. Saturn's magnetosphere Sumthrough interstellarspace at a ve- .

. . . .
.
. .. . . . . . . . . . *.... .. .... . .:.kintmediate'betweeri
. :
those.of .the : .locityoCa5gut ?&()'kilometers per . . . . : . ; .....
. Eakh ahd Jupiter. ~ o m ~ k t i v' e sekond (fi miles per second) with
. . .. . . . . . . . . ...: .: ........ studies-ofthe.magne$ic fields and. . .respectto the suvounding inter-. :.:. ..: . . . . .
. .
magnetospheres of the planets should' stellkr gas. '
. . .... . .. .. * : .?.
.: :r : ;.. .. ?*I.: ........... . . ..;.,h@pa$btw&theog-
.t &thed;<;.,+. ..,.; :s. .-;. T,he to $hedgeogthe. . . . . . . -..
Earth's magnetosphere and its as- heliosphere is unknown, because no
. .. . .
: . . ,
..
.s,iiciated
:
. . . . phenomena, apd ta u~der:, .,..
. . .
spacecraft has yet gone far enough.. . : . . .. ;..,. ;.
.
However,'wedo know that tfie belie-"
(

S~here extends at least as far out as

the orbit of the planet Uranus [almost
3 billion kilometers ( 1.9 billion miles)
away],because the outward bound
Pioneer I 0 spacecraft passed Uranus'
orbit in September 1979,and has still
not found the boundary.

Looking down on the aurorae. The entire

oval of aurorae around the south geomag-
netic pole of the Earth is seen in this photo-
graph madefiom space on June 15,1975.
Images of this kind show many types of
aurorae simultaneously and are .zlsed to
stwly the diffmmcebetween "clayside"
aurorae (near the top of this picture) and
"nightsidenaurorae(at the bottom).
 TheSm-Mathr Connection
The Sun and the weather has not be& deEnitely identified.
There is much research under way on i
The energy.thatthe Earth receives possible relationships between solar 1 -
from the Sun is the basic cause of our activity and the weather. r:.
:....
. .
:. '.. :
.:".:
.
changing weather. Solar heat warms A study of short-term weather r -.: '.. - '
L. ' ...,...:.. ..'
, ...
:
the huge air masses that comprise patterns by Walter Orr Roberts of the .*'<. . ...'
i ... .. .
.L.... ':.;.':: ......:.
(..
1-e and small weather systems. The University Corporation for Atmos- ,.;.,
,.7-,:, - ;-.. :
,,

day-night and summer-winter cycles pheric Research and Roger H. Olson .,.'.,.-
;-,; >. .-
..:....:
in the weather have obvious causes of NOAA suggests that weather may c:.:<. .:.,:,:'.-.
..:.: .,.:;~.:
,.I .-
. ...
and effects. Are there other, more be affected as the spiral-shaped inter- .2;...
.,.. . .
..:
.

subtle ways in which the Sun affects planetary magnetic field rotates past . . . .: , . .
weather and climate?Will the future the Earth. They found that about a
.....L :.*. ..,?:: ;,..;...,- cwate-even
. -"
, . . . .. . .our -. .. :: . ....
. ,survival-depend
'
bep59.%:, , ..
...* . %Y ,.afte.rthe t y ~ f r d w
oii sunspots, fikes;eotorralho1es;"br '.ward-+ihi&g and outward-pointing
other fotms of solar Activity? If SO, sectors sweeps by, there is a decrease
. ... . . . . - .. can future trends'be predicted? ::' . - : in thenumber of low pressure-weather
+

. . . The effects of c,urrentlyobserved' .systemsforming in the.Pacific Ocean

changes inthe Sun-small variations . . off the western United States and
in light output,the occurrence of sol&. . C e a Because these low pressure ,
... . .. '
. - .' p&cle' s ~ @ - 'and'&&&tie fle1os- 'rsystems@verise to most of the stcrlin
' '

are very smaU in the Earth's lower centers that pass over North America,
. . . . atm~spliereor .tropospherewhere OLI? &I understanding of this effect may .
weather actually occurs. However, at ultimately assist in making weather
higher altitudes, the atmosphere re- predictions.
acts strongly to changes in solar activ- Like most suspected Sun-weather
ity.The ozone layer,at an altitude'of 25 connections,the effect seen by
kilometers (16 miles), and the iono- Roberts and Olson is hard to explain.
sphere, which extends upwards in a The problem is that the amount of
series of layers above 60 kilometers energy present in the weather phe-
(37 miles), are produced by solar nomena themselves far exceeds the
ultraviolet light and X-rays which energy that apparently is available
ionize the thin air at these altitudes. from the variations in solar activity.
Although the visible light of the Sun . In this case, the low pressure storm
is stable, large variations in X-ras .
" systems in the Pacific contain far
r:ir '
and ultraviolet radiation accompany. more energy than do the particles and. .
..:.. . ..-.....: ;.:. .au.a&vi.ty
'

an'd&&e.$@-j'&i.on.'~
, ok.i-'*kagrzel;ie.fiddsoocMkk&fi&fthZi@. -
"';. ..
the Sim cause major chhges in the .. Earth's magnetosphere from the solar
ionosphere. Some meteorologists be- wind. If the Roberts-Olson effect is
lieve that the ionospheric changes in real, then there must be an amplifier
turn influence the weather in the mechanism, whereby the magnetic
lower atmosphere, but the physical variations trigger the changes in the
mechanism by which this may occur weather. But the nature of the ampli-
 fier mechanism is currently unknown.
- ' .The se'anh.for Siui-weatherrela-
. tions is further complicated by the.
presence of many non-solar influences
on both short- and long-term weather
patterns. Volcanic eruptions can in-
ject huge amounts of dust and ash
,
into the atmosphere, cutting off some
of the Sun's light and heat. Changes
in the amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere, as a result of volcanic
..:...!.5.-f.
.::...',., ;:.+-.;&- -;- . ~a~ t~t hw. e a~r i~~ B~t '~a de, I~; : b
~tw ihweE;;&-h
urements +re very hard to make with
.therequired accuracy. Because of ab-: . , : . . . .
. sorption and scattering of sunlight in
the Earth's atmosphere, these meas-
urements are unreliable if made from
the ground. Recently, techniques have
been developed to measure the solar
constant from space vehicles. There
are now several instruments in orbit
that are measuring the Sun's output
with an accuracy that should be suffi-
~ ~p
~dfat $Q detec4~~b4.11~
; f . @ :~ . ~ ~ . .,:e. I......
. . .'. ...-."
gagab1e.of ,

...... '. .-
;. :i2~ce :.... .;.,.... :;f. :,...a,- &
..
. .:;: .*.*-:.*:
-. . .
;&-.-,-
."C .
;;tF.."-.;a.q . ' , .* .*
..$. .?.; .-.'.';-* :-2
'*. . .

by the atmosphere; Even small varia- The sp~cecr&.measure&~nts

' of . .. " ,

:
,

.
tions in the Earths orbital motion
'
thesolar constant .thatwe are ac- . . . .
'
. .
..
:
- . aroun8'the;Siinfroin.m ye&toyear may. cumulatingnowwill enab1e;us.to"'de- . .
" . *... ...
. ... .. . . . . cause significant changes in the . t$rmipq the.dayTto-dayand month-to:.' . .
, ' '
. . . .
, .&., 9~ooki~g.f,or,dir&t
of soIar.activity
. . . .. . ,wqther; ~ffets
vye' . . ;. . month changeiin
on the .;Neather solar output. Ithd"
eve$tu&$.b&ij;dsSif,l$t'. .. .. . a . :. ..*. . . . : .., . . ..
..
a . . -.

.. .

..
-

.
. .must~ t c l i ~ e ~ t a p the
'

. .-... ..; . -tarrwus$y..It.

C-ate .throughr
. the
g l em,any,non-:'

.. . ages
.
,
solar effects that are going dn sirnd- "
.
h . a U ~ ~ .W
. . . . __..
k
ii-year
a$ng:it:ts
out.,whethe?the Su,n
.:.. ,. .,: .:perhaps
well.
. .
~yen,ov.er:
vqies, not only
5u~spof
lo0nge;r~edo.ds
.. .
Our studies with spacecraft are
b ~ t ... .. . . . .. .
.
' ... . .

...'.;. .. . . .... ,"-. .' r. .I' ..; ;..

, . _ '

,
,
z
. ..

.;. .

. . . .. .. . . . . . motivated in part by indir&t evi-'

,
. '
.,
Climate is the state of the weather dence that long-term variations in the
over long periods of time, tens to thou- Sun's light have actually occurred.
sands of years. Long-term effects of Observational records show an almost
the Sun on the Earth's weather are complete absence of sunspots be-
called climate effects. tween the years 1650 and 1715. Dur-
If the total output of radiant heat ing this period, named the Maunder
and light from the Sun (the solar Minimum for the English astronomer
constant) changed with time, rather who first pointed it out, the sunspot
than just the X-rays, ultraviolet and cycle apparently ceased to exist. His-
other fringe effects of solar activity, torical sources attest to the fact that
the variations would affect the Iower the weather in Europe was partic-
atmosphere directly and surely would ularly cold during these years, a fact
change the Earth's weather and which would follow logically if the
climate. But we stiU do not know light from the Sun decreased slgnifi- '
whether the solar constant has cantly during years when the sunspot
changed in the past or even if it is count was low.
changing today. The necessary meas-
 QE pQ(>&
2 $ * F 4 ."
WhereDo MGo from Here.'
-rT ;
I 5
~ ~ i.

We have made much progress in using wind and the Sun's magnetic field.
observations from space to discover To better study the Earth's mag-
basic properties of the Sun, its mag- netosphere and ionosphere, the next
netic field, and the Earth's magneto- major advances will require measure-
sphere. But we have onlyjust begun ments made simultaneously by per-
to see the Sun as it really is, and many haps five different spacecraft located
very important questions remain. For around the magnetosphere and in the
instance,we still have no adequate solar wind just upstream from the
theory to explain why the period of Earth. With coordinated measure-
the sunspot cycle is 11years rather ments like these we can accurately

'.:.. . . . . . , - . a
than, say, 2 years or 50 years. And we trace the changingmotions of the mag-
are far from being able to predict

val.with few if any s ~ s p o twill

To answer such questions, we will
.
netosphere and follow disturbances
...*(. :.... syhel?:far.eveaif)anotherkng inex- r .in thestrews of solar.partic1es.a~ ....-:
s occur. they travel through space around the
'

Earth.. .
-
. . .
. - '+nee6 a program' of systematic new ' '
' A basiii*n&k type df ihvestigation ..
'. ' space observatibns and:much inten- - &Ibe possible with future Iarge or-
sive theoretical work in the years bital laboratories such as Spacelab, .
. . . . . .; to come. .
' ....
...... . . . : .' which will belaunched on tkresSp&e - .
New techniques of observation Shuttle. These laboratories will allow
will:enable us to probe the convec- us to make-activeexperimentsin .
tive, oscillatory, and rotational mo- space, in contrast to the earlier pas-
tions that take place deep inside the sive measurements. By injecting
Sun. These studies will be crucial for known amounts of radio waves or
understanding how the solar mag- atomic particles into space and ob-
netic field is generated. Telescopes, serving how they travel away from
mounted on spacecraft,will give us the spacecraft, we can answer ques-
detailed pictures of the fine structure tions about space around the Earth in
of the Sun's surface. Currently antici- much the same way that Earthbound
pated instrumentation can reveal de- physicists determine physical condi-
tails a fifth as large as can be per- tions in laboratory vessels. The future
. ceived (due to blurring by the Earth's missions will be logical extrapolations
atmosphere)from the ground. from previous @ace- and ground-
Spacecraft could be launched into based studies of the Sun and the
, ..... .-. .. :.... .....; .: .: W.wtpFies .@t wsdd..-uliew+.&
re,S. ::.E,*.'.s. en@qqmenG.We.r!~~Irpp.w.- ..
out of ihe plarie of the plhetaiy or- ' gnough.to.frwne the questions that
bits, so that they could look down over we believe they will answer. These
the poles of the Sun. Moving along explorations will bring closer the day
these paths, the spacecraft could pass when our understanding of the phe-
directly through the streams of solar nomena around us is complete enough
wind that originate at the Sun's north to tell how the entire Sun-Earth sys-
and south poles. We would thus obtain tem works and how we can anticipate
our first information on the full three- its future behavior.
dimensional structure of the solar
 *E:;!.*.p>t:.y?%P .
Gi, tt*.;?SL kd"t;<.r

QF !@zfJg

Selected. . Readings . . .. . . :. ......

. t . ... ... . . .. ". 1 ' ' . . . . .
Akasofu, S.-I.1979,Aurora Borealis-
The Awmzing Northemz Lights,
special issue of Alaska Geo-
graphic, 2, No. 6.
Eddy,J.A. 1979,ANew Sun-Thesolar
Resultsfiom Skylab(Washington,
D.C.:NASA), SP-402.
Eddy, J.A. (ed.) ,1978,The New Solar
Physics (Boulder, Colo.:
.&.. . A'... ..+*z Y.. W9$~g~.?rq#.h::..:~..
.:......' .: ..,, :i,.~:c.:,r~:.il,. : .r - . : . : I C 2 ~..p.....*:
....*:.:'........ .
. . ....
. . . I:. ....:
.
.;.t.+.:+s:> ...$.
. .i.i<;.::I.:CI:::;; j:2!l.,f.ii.t
,.-?

i.. : i . . , . ~ i i f e i f e + i ; . i f a . ~ ~ ~ '...~r..,q; ~ ~ s.<:f. .< .. '. . - . .,; .'

* ...., :.,:.- , . ;....*. - . ..
a ., -2 I$'.$:
. . . . .
.2 :z....:.,..,:
?'
.>
:;-
. .
.!b
. .:
.>?.
. . . . .. ..*;..
d
-..i .??.&

... . the Sun, 198.1'CNew York:.W.W.- .

. . .
,
. ..... . . . . . . . . '
.. . . . . . . . ...... . . I
" . .Nortongii$ Co:; ~rnithsoniah . . . .*.:. . . . ' .... ,
. .
. . ...... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- .
'

... . . . . . . . . . .
.ExpositionBooks). : '.
. . . . . .
. . . Gibson, E.. G- .l973, The Quiet sun .. ... . . . ..... ..
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . ._.I . . . . r .

. . . . . . . . . ......... > ( y * w . o s . p . g : : 8ASA);..' .: . . . . .,. : . . . . .

,
. ...
. :... . ..' . . . . . . . . . ;...... ... ..... .* ......".
i
. . . .....
,

i
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4 .

SP-303. . . .' . ..
. . . . . ~ . e w a n , . ~ . ~ . ' w d @ . k . ~ .. b .l .d. b
.. . .e . r g
"..- .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . , . . . . . . . .
. .. . .......... . . . .. :. .
. . ..
. . . .. . .
; . i
.. 1.979,Sun, Weather, and . ' . .

. . . . ... . . .. . .:, . C & ~ t g . ( . ~ ~ o a b , ; T ] ........

.,;.";t.'...s, k C-.i... * ..: : . .... .. ...... ,+.,. ;,el. ,(.::,.: .;,:. . . . .',<..:
.i-.;rh! L.:.. ......... r: ...;<.. ,;: ..; ,.-Y: ...
.:'.ad ....-,...-I*

NASA), SP-426.
. . . . . .. '. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . l l r :
....... .. .. ... ... ... . ... .. . . . . ..
,
.
. . . ..>.
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . . ... . ',. . ." .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. .. . .. ... .. ... . . . .
, . _
. "
.
.
I
i . . , : - %
 Chapter 4

B r n D
THE SOLAR
SYSTEM

ptio,to&phed in X-rays by the HEAO-2 satel-

,' lite, supernova remnant Cassiopda A is i;ke
expanding blastJi-0.pa star. that ewlo$frd'in..,
the late seventeenth cusnturg. Histodcal ree-
d suggest that astronomers of the time. .
q$.ssed the eirent, althpztgh 0-n+obiwv.qmag,.
haveseen afaint star'at the location ofthe '
explosion. Cassiopeia A is one.of the most ,

c ~ m & t l s d ~ e found.withX-ray.tele-.
cts .
scopes, although only very dim nondescript
,,& ~ ~ j ~ g w ~s ecma. wr &$b&~CigP&.
photographs.
e .
..:..- : ....
in thSky ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

A stronomy has undergone a

tremendous burst of discovery
thanks to our new ability to study
the universe through "whdows"
available to telescopes flown above
the Earth's atmosphere. We are ob-
serving radiation that never reaches
the ground:X-rays,
violet, and infrared
telescope in space brings the universe
into clearer focus and reveals objects
and.phen~mknanot even irliagined '
when the telescopeswere planned. We
are seeing further than before, with. . -
greater sensitivity, and a t wave-
lengths of light that are utterly invisi-
ble to observatories on the ground.
gthis heietbfore unseen '

are exploring what

amounts almost to.a new kiiVerse.
X-rays and gamma rays from'matter
heated to millions of degrees tell us
of violent explosions both in our own
galactic neighborhood and as far away
as the edge of the known universe.
At the other extreme, Mimed tele-
scopes discern clouds of dust in inter-
stellar space whose temperatures are
scarcely 50 degrees above absolute
zero (-273"C). We have found places in
our own galaxy where enough matter
to make a planet apparently disap- '

pears into a black hole each day,.and

there are.fiw~off ga~&~s~w~&re]mme ''
ravenous black holes may consume
whole suns every day. At the very edge
of the observable universe is a wall of
frozen fire, the remnant of the Big
Bang of creation, which appears to us
as a whisper of radiationjust a few
degrees above absolute zero. No light
ftom behin all can ever reach
us, but the es in the wall re-
main to tell us the very details of
creation itself, if we are clever enough
to understand them.
 TheScal'etof the
ORIGINAC PAGE

To discuss the universe, we must

abandon our ordinary frames of refer-
ence and think along almost unimag-
inable scales of distance and energy,
and we must consider unusual, even
fantastic, states of matter. True, our
own horizons have expanded through
space exploration. Humans have gone
lugher and faster than ever before.
B . u $ . o v . ~ ~ ~ i~
ws.U,&zs~~G#F~.
limited by camparison to the fmensi:
ties of structures in the universe.
Speed and distance
. .
.Thescale,b r speed in the univerge
set not by space fight but by light '
waves7vvhich travel at 299,800 kilo-
meters per second (186,000 miles per
seemd). This velocity is a h d a ? :.
mental constant of the universe, a d
it provides a standard forjudging our
progress into space. At the beginning '
of the Twentieth Century, the speed
of light was more than 5 million times
faster than any human had ever trav-
eled. Now it is only 25,000 times faster
than astronauts have flown on their

M e ways tosee a nebula.Observed i nM b l e light (bottom),X-rays

(top, le9) and mdw waves (top right), the eta Carinaeregion reveals
wholly different aspects. Each is studied so that thephysical processes
at work in the nebula can be understood. The wisible-light photo
shows glowing, electrically excited gas, heated by mdiationjknn
adjacent hot stars, tthemselves not clearly distinguished.Dark lanes
are clowls of interstellar dust that hide the bright nebula beyond.
X-ray imagej'iwm the hCFA0-2satellite reveals exact locations of the
stars;X-rays comejhm their thin, hot outer atmuspheres or c m e ,
while visible light comes- deeper layers. Faint blueglow around
the stars in UleX-ray picturn (color supplied by a computer) reveals
ULepresence of million-deqreegas in a localized region of the nebula.
Contoursmapped by a radio telescope show that mdio emission
regions are highly structured (courtesy of D. S. Retallack,Kapteyn
Institute). I@ared measu-ts (not shmnn) revealed that at some
wavelengths,eta Carinat?is the brightest owect beyond the solar
system, as seenjknn Earth.
way to the Moon. As space travel de- ience. A typical unit of human energy
velops, it is no longer inconceivable is the joule, about the amount of en- !

that humans may someday travel at ergy needed to lift a glass of water from i
such high speeds that trips to the stars the dinner table to your mouth. On
may become possible.
1
't- .. ---.
earth, energy releases can reach a
Dirriensions in space are most quadrillion (a thousand million -.. . ..
.:
conveniently expressed not in miles million)joules, about equal to a mega- P-.. - .
p,.. .- ,
or kilometers, but in terms of the time ton, the energy produced by the deto- .. -: 1:-

:. .. '.. .-
it takes light to travel the distances nation of a million tons of TNT.This
*.... *.,.
: r
?,

involved. The distance from the Earth is also roughly the amount of energy 9

to the Moon (385,000kilometers or contained in a tornado or in a small

240,000miles) is 1.3 lightseconds. The earthquake. A very different scale is
distance from the Earth to the Sun is needed for astronomical power, A . .
8 light minutes,' or 150,000,000'kilo-' usefu3 unit is the energy rele'ased by: - .-
meters (93,000,000 miles). The space- one star -our Sun- which emits the
craftPioneer 10,bunched in 1973and equivalent.of 100.billion megatons in . . . a

now past the orbit af the planet the form of light every secpnd. Even' .
Uranus, has gone more thari 3 light this immense quantity is tiny by cos-
hoursfrom the Earth. Even the nearest mic standards.An average galaxy may
stars are l&ht year$ away. It takes 4.3 contain 100billion stars, many comi '
. . ,

years for light from the nearest star parable to the Sun. The strange, dis- . .
beyond the Sun, Proxima Centauri, to tant objects called quasars are even
reach the Earth, traveling 41 million more powerful, some individually re-
million kilometers (25 trillion miles) leasing as much energy as a million
in the process. galaxies.
Galaxies,which are irregular, Energy has many different forms
ellipsoidal,disk- or spiral-shaped sys- in space. Energy is present in light, in
tems of billions of stars, are aptly the motions of particles, in magnetic
termed "island universes." Our own fields, and in gravitational attraction.
gal-, the M i l e Way, is a flat spiral The temperature of atoms and mole-
that is 100,000light years across and cules moving randomly in space is pro-
almost 1,000light years thick, with a portional to the energy contained in
large central bulge. The distances be- each particle. As each particle moves,
tween galaxies are greater still, often ... it radiates energy. By detectingand -
measured in millions of light years. .measuringthis energy, we can meas-
-&d.~e:uni~e~~eitS&.exteadscst- 1-.:;:: ..<=we p & i c l e ~ e m dh- ~ ~:. 5.s:~'F.. ~Y .r - *
'
least 10to'20 billion light years in tances of thousands of light years.
every direction from the Earth. The scale of temperatures found
by space astronomy runs from a few
Energy degrees above absolute'iero,with par-
ticles moving at a slow 30 kilometers , .
The amounts of energy involved in per hour (19miles per hour), to almost
celestialprocesses are equally dif6cult 10 billionoC, where electrons move
to appreciate from our own exper- at close to the speed of light. Most of
 TheNr~~?)Astronomy
the universe is made of hydrogen, and One cannot perform laboratory experi-
. . . for this reason thetemperatum of .... ments on stars and gal'axies.For this. . . . . . . . . . . .

10,000 " C is a critical threshold. At . reason, astronomy has always been a .

this temperature, the energy of a mov- science of careful observation. Our
ing particle is enough to knock the two main sourcesof information about
electron from a hydrogen atom when the universe are electmmugnetic
they collide. If energy is added to radiation (light,radio waves, infra-
interstellar hydrogen, the gas will red, X-rays, gamma rays, etc.) and cos-
heat up until it reaches 10,000"C and mic rays, which are atomic particles
then will stay at 10,000"C, even that have been accelerated to high
though energy is continuously added, velocities and carry great amounts of
.::;'. .(. . ;. ..: . ,ystii.thel?xWgeqQQc~qp1ee* . e ~ q q . w . ofweJ~w.pp~!v?@ . . . . . ..... . . .. . . .:. ;;s?'..~........
.. *.-,.....
i
;,

. :.'....:.&<a,,..: + -
:. .,i*M%&. ...: .:+..:: .;'. I:.;' . .... .9::
. .+&,
,;:a ;

. i' +* .: :.t:..;'..-&.+&bOli m&-&.-&e.&p?@ *p@&t;: ;.i.".,.., :;: ' !.' i'.:.. :;':-' 3--*
. r. .
7. i
;;
;.
, :,

. . . . . . .. " while cosmic rays are slightly slower. . . . . . . .

Density . . . . .
. . . . . ;. . .. .. 'Ehtromagrteticradiation.iselectaie- _ . :
.. . . .. . . .. . . . . : . .. . . . . . : . . .' . . . . . . . ..- ., . ... : . .. .. ....
, ' . '
.. . . . . . . . . d y ' n e ~ t dbut'cosmic
, ,rays-.an' : . . .
:. :. '
. . . The den& of matter spaceis very .. electric charge. As aresult, light can . . . .. . . . . . .
. w erent Qom~onditionqoq the .E*h. . travel *ugh sp@e in essentially : . ... . ' .

spa
,

.; . . * . :.....-.... T~~beii vgcuumsGefbuiiid4kgl;ace, .:'swgh$w4s, bit kos& eys t : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

especially b e t w ~ the n stars,,.where,. .. along the weak lines of magnetic fqrce. -. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . :. _

;
., .

. . . . . . : . . .tban,a:
'

there often is only one atom more

thousand opbic cq@meters.. ..; where.a beam~f
,

;
: that.petli.'&te space; ~ e ' c a n ' d
li@t.~r.of...X-'"a~s
'

hw:,. . . .<! . : . . . . .-....:..,...-..! .: .*

.-. . .'.:
,

:.< +; %
:.

(60 cubic inches). An average star, come from, but because of their spiral-
. . with about a trillion trillion . . a t o ~ , i.... n ~ .ling,. cosmic rays . . cannot be traced to
.. ~' .~.. .' .. . . . .. .
. .
: . " . each kubic cen'met&T, abo&G, ....... t h e & p o ~ ~ ' o f....'.: O ~ . .. . . . ... .,.
. .. . .

dense as water. At the extreme of Before the Space Age, allastron-

astronomical density, however, are omy was performed on the ground,
the neutron stars that form in super- limited by the Earth's atmosphere.
nova explosions. Their matter is so Cosmic rays could not be observed di-
compressed that the individual atoms rectly, but it was possible to study the
, collapse into neutrons. A single cubic showers of energetic charged particles
centimeter of a neutron star contains that they produce when they strike
enough material to make a cubic kilo- the atmosphere. The atmosphere ab-
meter of a normal star and may weigh sorbs almost all of the radiation that
as much as several billion tons. reaches the Earth from space, so stars
and galaxies could only be seen at the
. . . . limited wavelengths to which the at-
mosphere is transparent,primarily
. . . .. .
. . . .
visible light and radio waves. Large
. . . . telescopes were built to "see" at these
.. .. ..
. ,
.- .
wavelengths. Diameters of optical
. . . . telescopes are measured in meters,
. . .
. . . .:.
. . while some radio telescopes are hun-
dreds of meters across. Ground-based
 observations discovered star clusters, by a collapse phase, in which all the
galaxies, cosmic radio sources, and galaxies in space approach each other
the expansion of the universe. Optical and eventually coalesce in a fiery end
and radio telescopes also discovered to the universe as we know it. To dis-
quasars and pulsars, two types of en- criminate among these alternatives,
ergetic objects that have gained in we need to see further and make
interest through studies from space. measurements of distant phenomena
Perhaps the most signif5cant dis- at appropriatewavelengths and with
covery of ground-based astronomy higher precision than heretofore.
was that the universe is expanding, a Hopefully, we can then resolve the
result which led directly to the Big uncertainties we face in applying the
Bang theory of creation. As fragments laws of physics at the very largest
fly apart from any explos$on,the - scales of energy and distance.
faster-movingpieces leave the slower- Astronomy will advance greatly
moving pieces.behind. A simple law in the future when welaunchlarge . . ,
applies to the various exploded parts: optical and radio telescopes above the
the further apart they are the faster interfering atmosphere, but the main
they are moving apart. From the achievementof space astronomy so far
ground, we could see that galaxies as has not been in these traditionalareas.
far away as 40 million light years were The Space Age has made it possible to
receding h m us in accordance with see the universe in new kinds of
just such a law. This law -that the light, not just the visible light and
velocity at which a galaxy recedes radio waves that reach the ground.
from us is 20 to 40 kilometers per sec- The most dramatic discoveries have
ond for each million light years of dis- come from the telescopes that observe
tance awayfrom us- lets us determine ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and
the size and age of the universe. At gamma rays. Small telescopes to study
great distances, everything is moving cosmic rays have also been flown, and
away; nothing is approaching us. the fmt large cosmic ray telescopes
About 10to 20 billion light years away, were launched on the third High
the receding matter would have the Energy Astronomy Observatory
speed of light, and observation to (HEAO-3) in September, 1979.From
seater distances is impossible. . . . these telescopes in-space has come a
,

There are several alternative ver- burst of discovery that rivals the rev-.
sions of* Big theory.anddso:.. .+&ion pmdueed.bytt.rbinven$ion~ f-.:-
a.

some competingtheories about the na- the telescope itself in the early 1600's.
ture of the universe. We hope to learn We are reaching toward a new under-
whether the universe is "open," mean- standing of the components of the
ing that the expansion will continue universe: the stars, the galaxies, the
forever, or if it is "dosed," in which strange pulsars and stranger quasars,
case the expansion will some day even the almost-emptyspace that lies
come to an end. In that event, the between the stars.
end of the expansion will be followed
 Life-StyGesof theStars
Normal stars Canis Major, and Vega,in Lyra, are ex-
. . .. . . . .
. . . . a .
ampleSof hot, massive mma]r.stars :. .
'

Before the Space Age, most astronomy
concerned stars and systems of stars.
The reason for this is that stars emit
much of their energy as visible light,
and this light can penetrate our at-
mosphere and be detected easily &om
the ground. Even though scientists
were limited to studying this kind of
starlight,much was learned. Stars
~~,e.qe.&,@t&+as!#ypi,.m,~yred.i,
~"~ereh~:ad*dMiftto:m"s"sI~eii.eii.,~I
..
that.are Wly close to the Sun (8.6
light years and about 26 light years
away, respectively). They are white,
several times more massive than the
Sun, and have surface temperatures
about 10,000"C. Other, more distant
normal stars have temperatures up to
about 40,000" C. There are many
normal red stars near the Sun, with
. &ppe=tur- ofafew thousand dq;.. . .
I w e s ~ & ~ t~e,:iY&i: : ~ ...~ i ~:;:.........
:*.$;i$..tcf:i
. . .+*;...:si
i. r ! ~.-?..:a.

.nuclearenergy sources were deduced. of the ' None; how&er, 'is bright '. +. . . .
Th& life fiistories, from birPlh to . . . enough tabe seen without a telescope, . . .. .. . ' .. . . .. . .. . ._.: , . ,

.". 'd&ih,.@@y +.&:d&iPheredf . ; .. .t91f bjj%'&.$w'in:'he.nighe:....:. . . . .

a , . . .
...
*

.,. . . . The so-called "horhal" stas,such: sky ane red giapts.wdsupergiqtq, . ... .......
. .@.. oyr.Sun,sh@e
$a.e. > %
s t e e y . They&ive,a . .counted,aniongt ' h o & ~ j r t e hab- .
of c o l o . iOed,
~ o.mgi, :~;&~b+,.
. . .
:.. ~6&&-~&:E2ariiIj'ies"*.~k .siperr' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: i 9 .. ..a

white, ajld blue. Most are smaller than .giants Betelgeuse in Orion md An- . . . .
. . . .the; Sur;, m&y*rebem6fe a 26s
i i t , - ' ~ ~. k(?s:in s'c;orpih (each &aut 5:20li&t. . . . . i . . . . . . : . . .
: . . .. .. . . . >,.

..,.. . a r e . m ~ l a r gad~.tian,.there.we:~.~
~~h ~f:m.-@?v E*) s n d . g i ~ ~ A l d f ? ,...........
bm
...... ................ ...?, .T#v=L
several types of "abnormal" stars: (68 light years) in Taurus. The Sim is
s ,giants,dwarfs,and.a.varietyof vari- . slightly unusudin one.respect: It has. . .... .. . .. . . . .
,
. .* , ables& ... : '..:. :.:'.,;: :....
. .%..':; & c i ~ o m P ~ o- . . .n. . .s. . . <~
.............
The Sun is about 1.4 million kilo- have companions, with which they
meters (865,000 miles) in diameter- orbit in binary, triple, or larger sys-
about 109times the diameter of the tems, and some stars are members of
Earth-and has a surface temperature clusters, with from a few dozen to a
of about 6000" C. It is a natural hydro- few million members.
gen-fueled nuclear power plant. Deep In the first half of the Twentieth
inside, the hydrogen that makes up Century, astrophysicists worked out
90 percent of the Sun is fused into the life cycle of the stars. Stars are
helium atoms, releasing an intense born out of giant ciouds of gas and
flood of e n e m that k d s its way to dust called nebulae.We can see the
the surEdce and so out into space. young stars in such clouds as the Great
Today the Sun is in a state of balance Nebula in Orion. (This nebula is visi-
between two forces: gravity, which ble to the eye, and even with small
pulls it inward, and the pressure of binoculars one can see that it is a
the hot gas and outward streaming diffuse object and not a star.)
radiation from the central nuclear The large blue supergiant stars
furnace. have up to 100times the mass of the
The diameters of most normal Sun, while small, red dwarf stars have
stars range &omone tenth to ten less than one-tenth the mass of the
times as much as the solar diameter. Sun. (For comparison, the planet
The larger, more massive ones are Jupiter has slightly less than one
blue or white, and notably hotter than thousandth the mass of the Sun.) The
the Sun. Sirius, in the consteUation biggest stars burn hotly and rapidly,
 ORlGlNAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

consuming all their nuclear fuel in a New U@&

quickly, sometimes in less than a mil-
liofyem. StWs'like the Sun, on the '
other hand, burn slowly and steadily;
their hydrogen fuel may last for 10
billion years or more. The red dwarf
stars burn up so slowly that trillions
of years would have to elapse before
their hydrogen is exhausted. When a
star bus used up its hydrogen fuel, it
leaves the "normal" state. This occurs
when the core of the star has been
.
Spatie'astrondmy has allowea us to
understand some of the really hot
stars in the universe. When a star
shines with a temperature of about
6000" C, Eke the Sun, most of the
energy is emitted as visible light. A
10,000"C star produces much ultra-
violet radiation. Unusual, very small
stars, with temperatures around one
million degrees, generate X-rays. But

burning process moves outh.rd.to . .' absorbed by our atxnosf>here.h fact, ..

wkre.dliScov&ed-withihstsu- .
'

tdghe~ aridbigher layers. Tl19 atmu-': .ththey

sph&reof the star expands greatly m d "ments.flown msrjace. . . . .. . ' . . . :
'

:
, '

it becomes a red giant..."Giant" is ~ I J . . Ultpvio1et telescopes in oibit i .

.a@ game; 8&red@ q t~ w .@?c+ e .:. have:obaerved.h~tblue .sup
' ,

where the Sun is now, .the.innermost such as Rigel in Okion (akiout 900 light
planet, M e r c . ~,might
, @ inside l : . years..away),;.thai~ar&.much
.l.it,. . ,moremas-
an'd a larger red "supergi&nt" S g h t . sive than the Sup. TOour.surprise,' ' '' '

...extendoyt .pwt,.~e of the .gh&::..:.these

o~bi-t . r n a s i v e . stm&*.out.b
~ ..w..:
Mars. As nuclear evolution continues, have intense stellar winds, streams of
$he .star may beco,m%a variable, pul: .. atoms that boil.off the.tog of ,th,e@ar's.
. .. :.
sating in size and brightnas over'pe- 'atmb$pliere and a c e into.spaice.
riods of several months to a year. The Although the winds from the hot
visual brightness of such a star may supergiant stars are invisible to tele-
vary by a factor of 100, while its total scopes on the ground, they are hun-
output of energy changes by only a dreds of millions of times more power-
factor of two or three. ful than the wind from our own Sun.

im star. Bluer colors and higher temperatures are to the bj2; redder .
colors and cooler temperatures are to the right in this schematic diugram, whib stellar
luminositiesare plotted so that the brighter values are higher, the dimmer ones lower. Seen,
according to thtmy, is the coUapse of an intersteUar dust and gas cloud tofcnm a massive
blue star, which spends most ofits life at a positfan to the bfZof center on the thick colored -
band at the cmter of the diugmm. The a m shows the positicm of the Sun on this band,
known us the main sequence. Although the massive star may shed some matter in a stellar
wind, it will remain on the main sequence until its central store of nuclearjiiel is nearly
exhausted M ,it begins to expand. %Theble"su?$~:e"of the star gets larger but cooler;
its radius may become asgreat arr that of the Earth's orbit, hewe the term "redgiant,"After
JSsrthermassshedding and nuclear burning, the star begins to pulsate, rhythmicaUygmw-
ing larger and smaller. Finally, when nuclear burning no longer releases emugh radiant
enagy to support thegiant star, it collapses, its dense central core becoming either a compact
white dwa?for a tiny neutron star. %collapse also triggers an explosion of the stark cncter
layers, which manifests itselfas a supaova. in exceptional,very massive cases, the core crr
perhaps even the entire star may shrink into a black hole (symbolized bg warped gmd lines).
 These winds sweep away the inter- in determining its X-ray luminosity,
stellar @.and dusx around their s*, and indeed the Sun is a slowly
sometimes producing an "interstellar rotating star. Faster-turning stars ''

bubble" over 10 light years in diame seem to outshine slower ones of the
ter. The wind "blows" at thousands of same type in X-rays.
kilometers per second and carries The interplay between space tele-
away enough of the star's mass to scopes and ground-basedastronomy
make a whole Sun every million years. has not only given us a new look at
In the lifetime of a blue supergiant, familiar objects, it has also turned up
which may be 10 million years, a sub- a number of very strange and un-
stantial fraction of the original mass familiar ones. One example is the re-
of the star may be expelled into space. markable, stiU somewhat mysterious
. .
.;...:. :)gqdqineth~$-qtyym , s @ n i d . -?$b$%$ &QW@.S 433..'She?it.C- ..:
has 'given us more s~rprises:With'~ . . . PO& 433 w d ocsewed t&hive " ..
the X-ray telescope on the second spectral lines that did not correspond
High Energy As6rmomy Qbsmatory ,to the spectra of any known stars.
(HEAO-21, sGrs of ail kinds have been More detailed observations revealed
observed through the X-rays they pro- that these lines moved very quickly
. duee. Contrary to.whabscientistsex-..... fkomone.wave1gngt.h.ta another, @a-.
pected, massive stars were found to cating a surprising change in the ve-
have ooronaez-thin, hot gaseous enve- locity of thegas emitting $helight, .
lopes surrounding their lower atmos- Over several months, the range in
#heres. These copoilae, with tempera- - ve1of:~amounted to;ne$3:]:y.one-third
tures up to several million degrees, of the speed of light. This was suffi-
generate the X-rays. Normal yellow dent to shift some inared and ultra-
stars like the Sun seem to make much violet wavelengths alternately into
fewer X-rays. Even some cool stars the range of visible light. No wonder
make more X-rays than the Sun. New the spectral lines were hard to iden-
theories are being developed to tify! The high-speed movement is
account for this discovery. The space characteristic of gas at a temperature
observations indicate that the speed of close to a billion degrees. The width
of a star's rotation may play a more of the lines, however, showed that the
important role than its temperature gas is cool, with a temperature of only
about 10,000"C. How the gas in
SS 433 can move so very fast and still
remain cool is one of the outstanding
mysteries of the 1980's in astrophys-
ics. X-ray observations from satellites
h t called our attention to this star,
undergroundohmem Space. stimulating the spectral studies that
In a basemat room at t h e ~ ~ s ~ - ~ o d d a r d revealed the enormous velocities.
Space Flight Center, ~ ~ C m n o m eworkr s with
an orbiting tekscqpefar above. The telescope
is aboard the International Ultraviolet
Explorer, a spacecr@ swpendsd over the
south Atlantic, in Earth-synchronous orbit.
In continuous touch with the lUE telescope,
the a s a m can view starfilds through
it or e x a m i e the ultraviolet spectrum of a
star (as shown here on large screen at top of
photograph) or nebula shortly aJkr a time-
exposure observation is completed. (Photo-
graph courtesy of Fred E p a k . )
 TheEdofStars: Death and Transf;gu:ration
White dwarfs
Perhaps the greatest surprise of the
Space Age has been the realization
that "dead" stars that have used all
their nuclear fuel can sometimespro-
duce more energy than they did when
"alive." We have discovered that there
are three possible ends for a burnt-out
star. If the star has about the mass of
the Sun, it will collapse under its own
gravity until the collective resistance
of the electrons within it finally halts
the process. The star has become a
white dwaqfand may be comparable
in size to the Earth. A star with a mass
of about 1.5 to 2 or 3 times that of our
Sun will collapse even further, ending
up as a mmtron star, perhaps 20 kilo-
meters in diameter- In neutron stars,
the force of gravity has overwhelmed
the resistance of electrons to compres-
sion and has forced them to combine
with protons to form neutrons. Even
the nuclei of atoms are obliterated in
this process, and finally the collective
resistance of neutrons to compression
halts the collapse. At this point, the
star's matter is so dense that each
cubic centimeter weighs several
billion tons. For stars that end their
life weighing more than a few times
the mass of the Sun, even the resist-
ance of neutrons is not enough to stop
the inexorable gravitational collapse.
The star ultimately becomes a black
hole,a region in space so massive that
no light or matter can ever escape
from it.
The existence of white dwarfs
has been known for some time, and
many have been detected with
ground-based telescopes. However,
neutron stars and black holes existed
only in much-disputed theory until
the Space Age.
Neutron stars and supernovae
The discovery and understanding of
neutron stars involve studies of two
poorly understood types of.spaceob-
jects, supernovaeand pulsars. Super-
novae are extremely violent explo-
sions,in which a star suddenly deto-
nates, pouring out so much energy
that for a few days it may outshine all
the other stars in its galaxy put
together. Pulsars, h t detected by
radio astronomers in 1967,are

- . . .. - .
9. . :. , ., . .* ..: . '.... . . ,.. . ,.
': ?. ..-.Stmnge
%&- &
~ ' kof ad ~
~
S-H
~
~ ~ . . ~ e ssum;
~ ~ n ;
~ ~ . .
u l t ~ txplo-
tistisht"
~ f ~
years in diameter. l7t.e Crabis shown i n wisible light at upper @;
jilamentay! strmctu~esare shreds of the disrupted star, wh& the
smooth whiteglow is radiationjbm high-speed electrons streaming
through a magmtic@ld in the nebula At upper right, two X m y
i m u g e s ~ ~ A 0show - 2 thepulsar at the heart of the nelrula as it
seems to blink on and ofl Actually, thepulsar is a neutrvnstar (the
suruiwing core of thee x p M star), mtating 30 times per second,
each of its twin Useamhlight* beams sweeping past theEarth at like
iqztwvals.Each sweep corresponds to an observed pulse o f x m g s ,
gamma rays, wisible light, and mdio waves. Illhe spinning core is
gradmllg slowing as it supplies energy to thefast eelecErons that make
the smooth wart of the n e e shine. At the bottom, two blackand-
~ 5-met43r (200-imh) H& r e m t o r on Mt.
w h i t e p h o t & r a p h the
Palomar are combined to reveal the motion ofthe tT€uments thrown
out in the 1054A.D. explosion.A photo mademadein f950 is$nted as a
positive (bright regions are white), whib one made in 1964 isprinted
as a negative (bright regions are dark). Note that each mnaU white
structure has a black rim on the outer side, indicating that mpan-
sionfiom the center $wrtdsts.
 ORIGINAC PAW=
COLQR PHOTOGRAPH
 sources of very accurately spaced space like the revolving beam of a
bursts of radio waves. These bursts lighthouse. The neutron star has
were so regular, in fact, that the sci- become a pulsar.
entists who detected them wondered Pulsarswere discovered accident-
briefly if they had found artificially ly during a study of "twinkling" radio
generated signals from an interstellar sources in the sky. This twinkling is
civilization. not due to our atmosphere, as is the
The discovery of a pulsar in the twinkiingof stars. Instead it is caused
Crab Nebula supernova remnant led by the highly rarefied interstellar gas,
to a great synthesisin our understand- which affects the passage of radio
ing of pulsars and supernovae. Super- waves. As the study went on, the sci-
novae occur at the end of a massive entists at Cambridge University
star's life, when it is a red supergiant, noticed that in some sources the
with its nuclear fuel almost spent. twinkling was periodic, the signals
When the central core becomes so came at regular intervals of 1or 2
dense that electrons and protons seconds or less.
begin to form neutrons, it collapses Gradually, more pulsars were dis-
catastrophicallyto form a neutron covered. The fastest one known so
star. In the process, more energy is far, which rotates at 30 times a second,
released than the star ever generated is in the Crab Nebula, the remnant of
from its nuclear fuel, producing an a supernova explosion that was ob-
explosion in which every atom in the served in 1054A.D. When this rapid
outer parts of the star is heated to pulsar was found, it was quickly real-
well over a million degrees. The star is ized that it must be a neutron star.
literally destroyed in an instant, but Only a neutron star could remain in-
the debris from the explosion shines tact under such rapid rotation with-
briefly with the energy of a billion out breaking up. (A rotating black hole
suns. would remain intact, but it would not
Besides splattering stellar debris produce a regular signal.)
into space,supernova explosionsleave Now that we can see the universe
behind a "cinder" -the dense, col- by the light of X-rays and gamma rays,
lapsed core, made of neutrons- where further unexpected properties of pul-
@ere once was a star. The weak mag- sars have been found: The theories
.
netic field of the origind star is '.that wererather s'uccessfulin explain-
. .. : ..: ..-..: ...-.-. ....c:",'.t
greatly enhanced in the collapse, and +g the Crab Nebula.pulsar
q~&&t;&f.~&d~~!f6f .>,* failed'to
..-.% :
i>henomeTia .
..
.,y., :.
e 4:. ..-., rmmt &r'e*erfletih~
may have a magnetic field trillions of found in the brightest gamma ray pul-
times stronger than the magnetic field sar, located in the constellation Vela.
of the Earth. The rotation of the star New theories are needed to explain
also increases dramatically during col- how pulsars can create intense radio
lapse, and the resulting neutron star waves, visible light, X-rays, and
spins many times a second. Beams of gamma rays, all at the same time.
radio waves, X-rays, and other radia- Many neutron stars of another
tion, perhaps focused by the power- kind have been found with orbiting
ful magnetic field, sweep through X-ray telescopes. We usually cannot
 detect the heat left over from their in which the gravity is so strong that
. . couapse,.butinstead we detect'x-rays- no matter, nor even.light,can escape . . . .

from matter that is heated intensely it. But,just as in the case of a neutron
as it falls rapidly towards the surface star, matter that falls toward the black
of the star. The realization that neu- hole is intensely heated, producing
tron stars suck up surrounding matter copious X-rays that can be detected
came &om the discovery in 1971of an with telescopes flown above the
X-ray pulsar, Hercules X- 1.Detailed atmosphere.
study of this X-ray source revealed A few of the brightest X-ray
very small variations in the 1.2- sources in our galaxy are probably
second period of pulsation. More study black holes orbiting closely with rela-
. %-:.;. :. >.- .proved .that *e.se. snlal! v&atipns --.+.. . . . .,tively
,.. ; ordinary s w s . The X-py . . ~ .
=

.
.. .....: . . 7;;.., .; \iv*&ri"&,& .fj.f ~&f@%&. gs4.&,Pt;r61t: . .
,*.t
~ ~ 4 ~ B.&m&sf It:e . .>~
,. ';; '...
.
j..,.....
.
,~
. .;:,L;i..*
. +..*. '
$= . 2 ..?V
.. 8 *. . *: .,~ ~x
... * y .:',
...
.
2.
, . .&.

. .
sthr in orb'it arbund'mother star;
' example. In '197 1, &trononiers' .. .
...... . ...
. .. . W e have now learned .that most .. . learned that Cygnus Xrl was.associi . . . . ..
' ,; .. '

. ._.: . X-fay emitting neutron'.sk&.:are..in. - '-.akd with a vbib1e.sta.r that also isa .: : - - . . . . .+ . . . .. . .'. . , . . ,

. .orbit around other, otherwise normal

.
radio source. his discovery is .an irn- '

. , . .. . .
. .. .. .
stars.'ln some
c,&6 that th&&,tens&
-'
,
cases the s&is
'
are so po-t
af t.~ -.' ' '$tical m+iv exaitjple of how ground-based -
teleseo$e3iwa1;k.fn .: ;. . .. . .
. '
'
.
. : , .! . .*
' '
. ,
.
.*a* . '

'

.: neutron star aetually pulls gas Away consort uith orbiting X-ray telescopes.
'
. . . ..,
"
froiiitheatrii.O~phere'dfi t s c o i n p ~ o n. to
~ solve the proUiems'.ofSpace Age . :. . - . .. .
.', .. . .: ... .
. . . .,;. _ ,Eve!! when.P!~s.tars:.!ve ~ W . 9 r r a p 9. ,?..astr:onomy.
. The.ide@ity:?f.%e stellar
the neutron stars may collect mdenal comp&on'wa;s' confirmed when both '.
.?- . .. ,, , , . ,: ,...:*:. .+<,. . ; + ,% , .s,a!.....,:,

.
&om the stellar winds of the compan- the radio source and the X-ray source . .
.. . : . .. . .. .. ..
.
.. ions. As the gas is pulled from the. .. ': were cubsexxed to changedpmatieally.
' ' ' , . :... ., . ,

normal star down to the surface of the and simultaneouslyin intensity. Ob-
neutron star, the gravitational energy servations of the spectrum of the visi-
of the neutron star heats the gas to ble star and its changes in velocity as
millions of degrees. The hot gas gives it and its X-ray source companion.
off X-rays that mark for us the loca- followed their orbits led to an esti-
, tion of the otherwise invisible neutron mate of the mass of the X-ray source.
star. X-ray pulsars derive their energy This unseen star that does produce
from the accretion of matter; the pul- X-rays appears to have at least six
sars discovered by the radio astrono- times the mass of our Sun, much more
mers are mostly single stars that are than can possibly be supported by
, using up their energy of rotation and the resistance of neutrons. Comparing
thus are gradually slowing down. the deduced mass with the theoreti-
cal limits on the masses of neutron
. . ..
...
. '
:.. Black holes: the end point stars, we conclude that the unseen
.. .
. . . ..
. X-ray source in the Cygnus X-1 binary
..
When the gravity of a collapsing star star system must be a black hole.
. ...,
. . .
, . is too strong for even neutrons to re- However, the proof necessarily is
, sist, a black hole may be formed. A limited-you can't see a black hole-
. , black hole is a point mass in space, and further studies of this and other
surrounded by a literally black region cosmic X-ray sources are needed.

. . . . . . . . . . . . :. .
'Empt;y'Spnce: The
Birthplace of Stars
Our firs't exploration of the deep
space beyond the solar system is ap-
proaching. Our spacecraft- Voyagers
1and 2, Pioneers 10and 11,and still
others to come-are moving out to-
ward the space between the stars.
Thanks to Space Age astronomy, and
especially to observations made in ul-
traviolet wavelengths from satellites,
.. . . . .
. - .. ., . . we already know something about
. . . .. .. . . . . . . . ,
' . > , ,
. :-. . . . . . ,

- .. ; **- **
> .
+.
.....:fi$+e>.sag&~+8?.f
. . . .
,
$
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&&+$~$~.:..>f~
... .. ..*+: .%, . .w.
=
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~ * + :..
3 ~ '
~ j : > -~ * ~ ,
%%q-~'&**'jf*.- , r ~ : t...w
~ ~
i * t .
., . $ ~ @ ~ I~
-C
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;. tL:;r-ti;~
tJ&LG;3.u':t $
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, ;~ C;

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: +.r ~ r
Our
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e ~
'view
~
dftfie'ktebte11&:space
?
.. : ' ...
%
..

" ,*. ' . . .. ... .. -. . : : :

, . "
. . . . . . . .. . . " . .. . . .',.-. -. .. . . .'. that they are approachinghas .: .
+ .

. : . c . - .
. ,
. . . -.
' ' ' '

. . . .. .. .. . -. . cha&ged completely since the Pio-'

. . ... . .' . . . . . .. . . .; ..:. . . . ... . .
. . .. , . . .: . . ' . : .. . . . . i..
'
;r
b ' .
.. .
., .
:. neersaiid Voghgks werelaunched 6 s -; '
- '

. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . ... . ..:.. . . .. ... ... ... .. .. . .

. ,
-r . . . solar system studies several years ago. . . .
. . . t .
.#%
' .I.

. : ...o. . . : . . : ... :. .-.,.. I: , .. ..-.. ... .......

. . v
,..
. . . . ,.. . .. . ..:. . ,..;., ... .:. . .For ope thhg?we nowknow that ................ : ..
+
*

.. . . . k .

..
.. .*
"empty" space isn't empty and quiet.
. . . . . .-. .- . . . . . . . . . .. ....
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.. . , ,: .True,you can count on you^ fingers. .:. .
. . . .
. .
'
. . ... "'. , . .. -
< : , ,

. . the number of atoms in a cubic inch of .

. . . . . . .. . .. . .; .. . ::.;;-.. .......**.;*.a: .,.>" . .>. **::*....5...<.%.l".. .... >,*,i.?;;.: ... .; . .-1-c:&i.: - . . ~ ~ e P s $ e ~ ~ . . s p ~ 8 , i sb u . :,;.+,-: . :.t. ~ e
:

.... . .
- 1 - -
.- ..5
.. .+,.,.&.:<&*..
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. . . . . . . . . . -..
+

.
- C . ,*
..:'
..* .
. '.- . ,
L

. . .
?*.

;.
are subjected to violent processes.
, ,
t.
. ..,.:

.
.... . . . ' . . . . . . . . . .
.
',.;:.'.
... .. . . . . .; .............. ?: r;
..
.. :;....i . .: ..
. . . . . ;. . . " .
C
.... . .
<
.Some are heated to more,,than z mik . ,: . ;
. ..... " . -, .
. . .
-*
. " lion degrees,.whileothers fiay cool ' ' '

,. . . 4 '
. . to within fifty degrees of absolute
.-
, - * i. *:,.

. .
. . . zero. Within this thin gas, winds blow
.

. . ,. . . . .. . ... .. .'b. . .. , . .
' . - and bubbles are formed, expanding '

. . . . . . ' - . and sometimes popping out of our gal-

.. ,
. \
.. axy altogether.
- . .-a.

+ . 4SZGlWtU PAG'E
cgult4 rnOTOGRAPH

5 ,

A bubble in space.Massive, rapid winds

' J -
. > . .r h. "
..
.
't.;
.
'
-
pouring
7 .*:-
3 ..
cnct over several million yearsj'mm
three bright blue starsf o m d a large, hot gas .
.+
-
*.
,,
,
a

...
*.

:
-
1)

*
=
. *
* . 1

,
.
. -. bubble in interstellar space, its periphery
seen as a series of irregular arcs around theF .
:.?.
.-
-
- . -. : . &*. - - . .* * .. ' .. - ., .' ,r much
-+

-
+

>

. I
two of smaller "planetary "nebulae expelled
blue by
. . " ,-".
%

. :.-.- .<.. +... the stars, now shrunk into hot, I\

&

-
- ..'. -
- * .*

..
# *%

stars called subclwa@. On one side of the

.: a ..f * .
.
%

" 'L': . bubble the boundary arcs (which yepesent v

I
js%

-:
+
-

. . .r.,:..? '- --.< ' .:- - .* . 1 .- * . * . ; the

, - . , ..
-
;-- 3 , :s * . L

'
intqf?acebetween the bubblegas and the
rx
3 %
a

. - . , . P :' -
I cooler interstellar material)are not seen,
A,

.L

-- . . . perhaps due to overlying dust clouds or

k 4 .
became the bubble has merged there with
<.

- e

a larger one not readily discerned in the

- I

photograph. (Photographbj the U.K.Schmidt

. . . Telescope Unit,copyright 1978,Royal Observ-
- . . . . . , * ... -. I. atory, Edinbuygh; used by pemzission.)
105
PRECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED
 As the spacecraft move out, they to the spacecraft in interstellar space ['
will first enter a region of warm gas will be that of getting too cold. . . . .i. .

t.
, ,

that surrounds the solar system to at The recent discovery of 1-

least 10 light years in all directions .,-. . .,
bubbles of hot, very thin gas has pro- < '< . :.
r-'. :
.
, ... ..
from the Sun and which contains our duced a radically new view of what's -

..:...,,.. .......
<...
:
-
; <..
, 7

nearest neighbor stars such as alpha going on in the space between the .. ...., ...: S:I

.r
.t , ,

Centauri and Sirius. We have been stars. In the old view, gas in interstel- :::,
.._ ,:..._
.%.. . .. . .
. ,..
.. :>.I: -1.

.:,
able to measure the temperature of lar space was either warm or cold. :,.. :.:. ..!. a, -,. , ,

the cloud (about 12,000"C) and its Now, with X-rays and ultraviolet light, %:; i;'':!:.
<.:......
density, about 100,000atoms per we find that most of the space be- ., . . , .. .
cubic meter (1.6 atoms per cubic tween the stars is much hotter than ... ..
inch). Since the Sun is moving we had suspected. In the old view, ..
. . .....: .. I , '

.. ... .. ... ......

. ...... .:,.
,... ,..., .:.. ..:;
+. ;.P . ,::L;i:ti&~@:the d~&-~Gkmem.$as: :,.-..pre@ukes+ft h i n , : w a r m . g a s ~ ~ e r i a. *?$: ~.~i.;:.:
..a- ~ ,

. . . . . streaming though-the solar system. . . w e d against those. of denser cold '.

. . . - ....
. . . . ..
It will take voy& 1more than .gas,and the situHon was,stable.
' . . : ...-200,000yW tp leafe this.cloud,..but telescopes in space now telLus that, . . . ... ....*.... .._. OF :. .: ,

' . .. . .
, ,
. . .
whgn it does itwill enter.a region of this is not trite; pressuks' are out of ... .
,
' . '

. . . . .much higher tempedture.and.much . . balance. There is a great deal of intei- . .. :..-.. '. . ,

:....:. .. .... r.t . " . ..

' -
.
. ... . . ..,. . .. ,. lc>Ner Fjknsity, a.bubb1e.otvex-y fhy :
. :: .. stellar: pushing and sh~tring.goingon: .:. .. . . -. -..;.L.'a;

.va.cuum,inspace. The bubble extends Matter gathem and cools in some . . .

.. ... . at 1'&t 100,light years.@d l directions : places because mamr elsewhere is -. . . . ' -...:-. . . ' '
5 ,
..
.aroundthe smaller "warm" cloud: It heat'kd and dispeked.'Besides dis-
.. ..., . .;. ->.. ....willbe Wens-ofyeam until5Voyager ' cotrerkng.the.very'hot@sff the orbiting .' r . . :.':
. . . . ..... .. '
, . .>..
. . ;

leaves the bubble and enters another telescopes discovered two sources of . .
. .. .. .zone. of denser jnte@$eHw:gas.The . the gas: the intensestellar m d s that . .
-
' ' " '-

high ten$eratures in the bubble off

boil hot stars, and the rarer but
more than 10,000"C - pose no threat more violent blasts of matter from
to the spacecraft (which will have exploding supernovae.
ceased operating several hundred The hot bubbles of very thin gas
thousand years earlier) because the pile up colder matter at their bounda- . .

gas is an alrnost-perfectvacuum. ries as they spread out into space,

There are less than 10 atoms per much as a soap bubble collects a film ..
cubic meter (1 atom in 6100 cubic of dust from the air. All over the gal- ... .

inches) in the bubble. Even if the tem- axjr,these bubbles have piled up mat-
' .. s .

.; .. ...: . .I.;
. . . : i..!..
. ...........
. . .pemture of the gas is
.. .. :: .. . . ..>,...... ,;.
"degree+,, t ~ e - h fthk
,,,
,. .
i ~g ~g conkeys
~
..,;ter.~~,.s~ep$.it:int~.f:~~.rl.d~~+~)q
. " 'these.col'd"doucissare enormous b d
..:2...:-.
of.&.:.:-. ,. . .-..... . ,

- '
.
-?

.
..
to the spacecraft will be quickly radi- contain enough matter to make mil-
ated into space. The greatest danger lions of suns. Our own solar system . .
...
 formed out ofjust such a cloud. We
.: have even found-evidencein meteor? . : , .... . ' . . ~ .. . . . .
ites telling us that the solar system . . . .
itself formed only a few d o n years
after the very h t stars had formed
in the cloud that was to be our Sun's
nursery.
. . Although infrared astronomy re-
search satellites have not yet been
launched, m e d astronomy.con-
ducted from balloons, airplanes, and
mouqtaintop obsevatories has.given . . . .
*. .;$ + ;.;:*;.: ?, ....
"'...: "'.>..;-.;..:
:u- ' ;..; . ... .. - :.*+. i,g6*:&&$ ,..?,.;;<,T;;~:,Q>~. .i~,~;i~:j...&>~;$>;:2~;+. $,
,?, .:w<.;>L?
I ...y.132...: * .':':::<...*. ;.$.:;
. ".;:&?< ;:*i",:
7- .
....
:>;.... .?:-,.-
6 .
. :-,
.
1 . .

.
. . . . . . the cool1interste~1 c1ouds:It has . . . . . . ... . . . . . .

.. been.discoveredthat.thetiny inter- : :.'. -. . . . . .

, . . , . . . . . . . . . ...
. . , . . . . . s ~ e l l a r . ~ s , c o ~ isilicon t a i a cob- .... :. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. ':. . .:., .. . . . . . .. .. . .
: . .
. .
. .
pourids six&& to clay minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . :... . . . . . . .
.. . These particles czin s&Ve tempera- . . . . .
. - - . . . c ...... . m r a up to Psow C.a+id:may'p&ibly. '.$ -. . .+ . . . ......................... -... ..... ......+ . .
..
come from the atmospheres of-red ..
; .. . gimt sbis.'Tbe:ofigin of t.e ijnte*teii . . . '-..,. ... . . . . . . . .. : . :.. . . . . . . . _ . -.. .. + . _ *.:
': . I.. , '

. L
lar grains is one of the
.. . . . .. ,,: :*. :.. "ofmti6pKysics.h&
great *&$-
ck.&.ed questlqns .. ..,....
.
;. .. ..: .* . .-::. ,,-:;. . ,....i. .: 6 :.........
#
.::
'
! :..: ..,;- %.- :....:.
,.>>
.. ... \.. .. .. .,:,. . . . ....
..e J.. :... P ,: - . .t.::, 1..*..

gate by space astronomy. Very re-,

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. . ... ,..cently, ult&wiglet telescopes inorbit... . . :. . . .. ..+. I..-
. . - + . . .
...
. . .
. .

found evidence for a covering of

graphite (a form of carbon) on the sili-
cate grains. Our best picture of inter-
stellar space is that half its matter
(other than the predominant hydro-
. gen gas) is in the form of sooty sand
grains the size of tiny smoke particles.
It is possible that comets are made of
accreted interstellar material, and so
we hope that someday grains like this
.? will be brought back from a comet
. . sample-return mission.

.... . . . . . . . . .
i r...
g&ff$;
~~~@;g i.f<; .
OF '"'".*. y ,t-:
TheGalaxies:hGanak afStars s# cj, ab a ;I
Beyond the Milky Way are spiral galaxies with a bar across
the middle, the spiral arms trailing .
Stars are not scattered uniformly like pennants'at the end of the bar.
across the seas of space. They are As ground-based investigations
collected into huge disks, spirals, and of galaxies proceeded, it was soon
globular forms that may contain bil- learned that far-off galaxies are re-
lions of stars. These may be more than ceding, and that the more distant the
100,000light years across, but they galaxy, the faster it is moving away
are often millions of light years apart. from us. This discovery was a major
Hence, they have occasionally been achievement of the 100-inch tele-
called "island universes." scope at Mount Wilson, and it pro-
W~s
..i;,. A G6&Y
~ Q o~wOfice~eaw;itfi"fi"
w ~bYe. f p$e.e@?q sGAge.sind . * yid$ ,thhe.
va
-..., i n r p e t ~ s - Q . ~Ejijgi9B~g
~th~ * .' '
-.,-A
'
tgeory of fohation of th&universe.*
star clusters. 1t was not until 1924 Studies of the detailed appearance of '
that the existence of galaxies beyond . galaxies also revealed several new
..: our own Milky Way was firmly estah- .types.Amongthese are the Seyfelllt ' . '
lished by the then-new 100-inch tele- galaxies.(namedfor the American as- .
scope at Mount Wilson. O n ~ seien- e trqnomer Carl Seyfeqt),. y h have .
'tists +re coiivhiced that thohe &; 'verjr bh&t Centd. nuclei. The sp&- '
' ' '
fuzzy patches in the sky actually.con- Qa ofthese nuclei reveal the presence .
tained hundreds of billions of stars, a of hot gaies in rapid niotion.
'
new astronomy was started. . . Other remarkable aspects of gal:,., ,; ,
It was quickly realized that gal- axies were found when radio telq
axies come in differentshapes and . scopes were developed. After some
sizes. The most numerous ones are galaxies were found to emit intense
d w a ? f g a W s like the Magellanic radio waves, more detailed observa-
Clouds, two satellites of our own gal- tions of these radio galaxies showed
axy. Dwarf galaxies are small and a characteristic double-lobe structure
often irregular, but even they can of the radio-emitting regions. These
contain a million to a billion stars. At lobes typically are located far beyond
the other end of the scale, some of the the visible structure of the galaxy.
very biggest galaxies are elliptical in The amount of energy required to
shape,.rangingfrom almost spherical ' produce the lobes is.irnmense,some-.
to .very elongated like a football. Many times equal to the output of a galaxy
*r.. . . , ~ . o p l e , . s c i e ~ t i s ~qoqcientjists:..
md .; . Q V ~ Sitstentire,WJla$pzitw+:f4txnQ.... : '
alike, feel that the mast beautiful gal- . that at the centers of some radio gal-
axies are the spirals, such as the fa- axies there are very intense radio-
mous Andromeda galaxy, whose mass emitting cores which could not be spa-
amounts to half a trillion suns. Our tially resolved even with the biggest
own galaxy, the Milky Way, is a com- radio telescopes. The character of the
parable spiral, although the details of radio waves showed that these
its structure are hard to determine sources must be very small -in some
from within. Besides the normal spiral cases as small as the solar system-
galaxies such as Andromeda, there and yet somehow they produce enor-
 mous amounts of energy. This has size of the full Moon, but the Magel-
been furthep corroborated.by '. lanic Clouds '!+ere not.well explored .:. '

measurements. . . . . . until recently, when large telescopes

Another unusual known were built in the Southern Hemi-
as Centaurus A, has been the subject sphere and airborne telescopes con-
of some exciting space observations. ducted far-inftared observations. In
Centaurus A has a typical double-lobe the Magellanic Clouds, our satellite
radio source, but in addition there is observatories are fmding the kinds
an inner pair of lobes, spaced along of X-ray sources that we earlier dis-
the same axis as the outer lobes. covered in our own galaxy: binary
Within these inner lobes there is yet stars, suDernova remnants. and
.;
' s. . ..j$.i
. s . . ;. $; 'c.
.. .
? *~2 .~ 'fc&.(&w
.:. .e ~~. '' ~~e b . ;.?..$!&&
:~ ~ ~0 ~ ~ @ m,y y'ef'&se&a;
-.,..,..$ 8 ~ f,$;yl$ti?p,the
t ~burst
$ ~ ~ o . !Itost b$!%?@s,d; . . +..
the. . .,.;* ,;,: .2
. ..
- produces a tremendous amount of ' ,:event of March 5,1979,apparently
high-energy radiation: The gamma ct~me'fromthe . .Large Magellanic
ray telescope on HEA'O-1 reveded + .Cloud.'

that Centaurus A emits gamma iays Gamma ray bursts are a relatively
., . .with egefgies..upto.l..milgonqle- - . . new @scpveryfrom orbiting satellites:. .. I ..
tron volts. h o t h e r expkriment de- ' hf&y o ~ ' ~iri'theuhiv&kemiit'
~ c ~ s
. .tected gaqma rays fropCentaurus , ' gamma rays fairly steadily, but these
A with even higher energies of 100. . sudden eniptions of gamma kiys from
. . Wioadectron x~lts,llkaa latter,scxe~.
+ . a singlepoint typicauy last a few sec- .
high-energy gamma rays produce onds to tens of seconds, during which
showers of electrons in.the Earth's they outshine the rest of the universe
' atmosphere. ' . in gamma ra*. Wethink that the
X-rays are also emitted from the sources of typical gamma ray bursts
inner radio lobes of Centaurus A. In are somewhere in our own galaxy,
addition, there is ajet, visible to X-ray perhaps as close as 20 to 50 light years
telescopes, that extends from the in- from Earth. But if the intense burst
nermost core to the northern inner on March 5,1979 came from as far
lobe. The existence of the jet indicates away as the Large Magellanic Cloud,
that the lobes are constantly being the release of energy must have been
resupplied with energy from the truly enormous for the event to seem
active, but still mysterious nucleus of so bright at a distance of 150,000light
the galaxy. years. The direction of the source of
this burst has been determined with
Normal galaxies great precision by combining mea-
surements from nine different space-
The nearest neighbors to our own craft, and it lies near the heart of a
Milky Way galaxy are the Magellanic supernova remnant in the Large Mag-
Clouds, about 150,000and 190,000 ellanic Cloud. Perhaps an unusual
light years away. To observers in the neutron star left behind by the su-
I
I
i
southern hemisphere they resemble pernova explosion was the actual
I
luminous clouds several times the source of the gamma rays.
 Our next neighbor galaxy is the
Great Spiral Galaxy in Andromeda, .
the most distant object visible to tkie
naked eye. It is as large as or I&er
than our galaxy and is about 2 million
light years distant, yet emits only
about one-tenth as much e n e w in
the form of ed radiation as o w
galaxy. X-ray images taken with a
telescope on the MEAO-2 satellite
revealed more than 70 X-ray sources,
which appear to be binary stars and

. . .. . .. .: .. .. * ... ..
. . . . .
Deep in the he& ofA8ehmCea.X-ray
en~issionmarks the locations ofpowerjkl
energy sources in the Andromeda galmy.
Top left:Photographed in visible light, M31,
the Great Spiral Galmy inAndromeda,
resembles our oum Milky Way as it might
appear to a distant observer. Two small ellip-
tical g a W s are satellites of M31. (Copy-
right, Calz@rnia Institute of Technologyand
C a m g i e Institution of Washington.) Top .
right: Compositeof two photogfaphs made in
ultraviokt lightfrom a n Astrobee rochwt in
.A.ug.ust, .I@3Oippiysizzs r~gipnswhqe.ht,..-
stars are preserit, notdbly i n spiral a m . ' -
Central bulge of thegalmy, largely consist-
ing of cooler stars, is less prominent than in
photo at k$. (Courtesy of R. C. Bohlin qnd
3: R Stecher, Goddard Space Flight Center.)
Lower left Short exposure on bright central
region of M31 revealsfaint dust lanes thread-
ing an aggregation of innumerable stars, one
seemingly indistinguishableJ?om the other.
(OFzcial U.S. Naval Observatoryphotograph.)
Bottom right:Seen in a new way, M31 centml
region was imaged in its own X-rays by a n
instru?mt on the HEAO-2 satellite. Strwzy
sources ofX-rays(brqht spots)arefew enough
to count, but more common near Andromeda
galmy k center than in the nuclear region of
our own Milky Way. Observations made at
intervalsshow that the intensities of many
X-ray sources are changing.

110
 ... ., . .
wag. . . . ..'. .
. . . . .. . . .*.:: ... . . .. . . .. .
.

ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOG
 ORMIfi!A\I Pzjcp 18
OF BOOR QUALKY

We havejust discovered that our axies is typically a few million light

o m Milky ,Wayis surrounded by.a .
corona, a very fh atmosphere of hot
gas.The sources of the corona proba-
bly are the bubbles of hot, thin gas
that pervade the interstellar space in
our galaxy. Some of the bubbles prob-
ably expand to such enormous sizes
(thousands of light years in diameter)
that they must actually break out of
the disk of the galaxy altogether,in-
. . . . hot gas into intergalactic
jecting
<,:&-.:',"s::':.f;m
.,% I. , s f $ h & b ei*+ ~
years, a million times the average dis-
tance between stars in our galaxy.
Even if Voyager, with its great speed,
could escape our galaxy, it would take
30 billion years for it to reach the
Andromeda galaxy, much longer than
the present age of the universe!
In places where galaxies cluster
together to form a group millions of
light years across, the escaping hot
gas between the galaxies is revealed
14: ? " & ~ ' ~ ~ v&&&&nj
~ ~ - j z .- -:. "I$.:-.*:. ;. :-+L'

'j . bound to the galaxy by gravitation telescopes of HEAO-2, we obtained- .

. and thus forms the invisible corona at images of the gas in such dusters of
. . . . a temperature of about 100,000qC , . galaxies. We have wen found clues to
~;e&usethe galactic corona produces the age of the gas. For example, in
- no visible'light; it coul@notbe seen.. clusters wherethe gas' has only re- . '

;. .. .: until thekarneh-dthie$ h % r k -~cently

t emerged fMli.litsparent galax-. ..
Ultraviolet ,?bpher(IUE) satellite in. ies, it is still clumped around them, as
. . .Jmuary,.1978. IUE found e\iidence.oE revealed by the patchy appearance of .
the corona in the form of ultraviolet the X-ray imageq. In more evolved
' "'
a'bsarf,i&n
, k b s .iA'.~e.3pei:m.of - - ' ' chsters, the hages ai-eai.esmooth,
' '."' '

bright blue stars in the Magellanic showing a diffuse, centrally-peaked

Clouds. The.measured Dpppler shifts. distribution of hot gas. These differ-
of the lines proved that they are pro- ences in the X-ray images of clusters
duced by foreground gas around the of galaxles are correlated with differ-
Milky Way, rather than in the Clouds. ences in the types of galaxies in-
Some coronal gas is not gravita- volved. Spirals seem to be associated
tionally bound to our galaxy and must with the patchy X-ray emission. Thus,
, expand into the space between the X-ray observations are providing
galaxies. The scales of distance here basic clues to the evolution of giant
are immense. Galaxies are tens to systems of galaxies. We have only a
hundreds of thousands of light years few tantalizing cluesjust now, but the
across, but the distance between gal- picture should become clearer after
the launch of the planned Advanced
X-ray Astrophysics Facility in the
late 1980s.
,
I

Thegalactic corona. OurMi& Wayga-

is surrounded b a galactic comna oj-thin
hot gas. The corona wasfound when the
i
, International Ultraviolet Explorer (lower kfi)
1
wcwrdt?dthe spectra of hot, bright stars in the
i Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, two
:
1 ndghborgakries of the Milky Way. lk? spec-
? t m showed dark lines i d e n t W as absorp
1
tions by gas in the corona. The gas rotates
along with the Milky Way,so it is not simply
a medium in which the ga1a.q~is embedded.
Similar observations now reveal coronae
around each of the fMngellanicClouds a d at
k m t one other, more distant g a l w .
 . . . As NASAlaunched succes&velymore-
O R ~ mag
G ~ ~ ~ ~ powerful X-ray observatories, more .
C ~ ~ ~HOTOGR~'~ O R and more cosmic x-ray sources were
found. h addition we investigated a
background of cosmic X-rays that
seem to come &om all directions in
space. As it became quite clear that
these background X-rays were very
uniformly distributed, astronomers
wondered whether they were pro-
...:.. ,,.. . -::. ...:.:'...;:...... .';. :"-.
, . <
..;.;";. ::. . : ; ~ d u ~ ~ - b p a ~ . ~ a q dj ~~. .L: ~i o ~ . ~ & p ~ ~
?..

. . sources at great disizpces, so nurner-

...... . . . . . .ous that hdividual ones could,not,be ,.
' . . . . s e e n , .whethik
~~ the enii~ion~source
' .
is g e n ~ e l y ' s p r e a out
h over.& of'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .intergalactic space. Toanswer this . . .
. .. : ........' :.i......: ..... .-. :. ,'.,.qu$sl$on,the %-rary.asi~oma~:to.ok;~
"
.
....
yery l6ng exposures of portions of
' '

.., . . . the sky. With one type.of h s t n m e n t

. 1
. ..

ed that the.backgrouhd
. . .
. .. . .,. . :. ... . . . . . . . . . . : ra&aQ;ion is mmmkably
'

.:

another they found a surprisingly

. .
. . . ' large number of quasars that emit X- .' :
rays. Quasars,first-discoveredin the
early 1960s,appear almost like stars,
although vastly more distant than any
individual star that we can see. They
were called "quasi-stellar radio
sources" (shortened to "quasars")
when they were detected with radio
telescopes. They emit tremendous .
..
,

amounis of energy from very small

....a,.. : .,-i
. '........' .*, .?-. . ."volumes.
.:. .... sg6$af g:gb The.&$.most distant quasars.,;?:.,,-.
.&.:wzt.thgj ,

ceding at more than 90 percent of the

Bemom of dktant spaceeTwo of the most powerful known energy

sources, a quasar and a S w i gatmy (inset) are shown here as
photographed in visible light. 3C273,thefirst quasarfound, has a
noticeablejet, extending toward the lower leJSt.Most of the radiation
from a S w e r t gatmy comesfrom the central nucleus. Thus, at a
w@iu:iently great distance, a S&& g w might resemble a point-
like quasar. Both 3C273 and NGC 4151 (tlte S&& galmg) are
strong sources of infrared waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. Although
the two oig'ects are about equally bright in visible light as seenfimn
Earth, the quasar isperhaps 80 times asfar away, and hence about
6400 times more luminous.
 speed of light. As bright, concentrated locity electrons spiraling in magnetic
radiation sources, they resemble the fields. By contrast, in ordinary .I . .
nucleiof Seyfert'galaxies,but are far quasars there are prominent iisual
more luminous. emissions from hot gas. However, in
iC - %

Remarkably, the visual brightness their compact dimensions, rapid in- ,.. --
of some quasars can change by a fac- tensity variations, and emissions of .
tor of two in about a week, and no- X-rays, gamma rays, infrared and .,+ ..;:,
.-. sL

ticeable changes can occur even in radio waves, the BL Lac objects re- - -- .
one day. Since a source of light cannot semble quasars and constitute yet an- :.
:
r r
#.

change brightness significantly in a other mystery of distant space that

time shorter than it takes light to we are only beginning to explore.
cross it, these quasars cannot be . Quasars,galaxies, and the X-ray
. & . . ~ & . k , ~ r : ~ 6ugh$ f i d s 4,. :.;- j:*-&seem-& klfnk&& 5t .. i:kk'.=.-&-.;"
across, only twice the size ofour solar gether. By.malafrgsome reasonable -- .
. . system. The pcoblem, then, is to ex- guesses.about how quasars.;nd gaf- . . ,.- ., .
plain hbair a quasar can produce vastly : axies.evolve-that is,'how they change . . .
more e n e m than a galaxy in such a their X-ray brightness as they grow:
.- small region. .. older-it is possible $0account for all . . . '

.
-.: -. :Xhe.b@&kst 4uawn & $een from- :Gfae obse- k L ~ d . W t i & :- .-. . . :-+
X.

.. E&, 1.5 to 3 billion light years away, But this idea is not easy to confirm.
'is~called3C2.73; frQmits number in a ' ThehagingX-ray telescopes. .
' , .
- catalogue of radio Sources. It is launched thus far are sensitiveonly'to ..
- s p e e & g ' ~ y us ~m at n e d y I6 : .relatively"soft"X-rays, with energies .
' ' '

percent of the speed of light. It has of about one kilovolt, in physicists' . . _-

'
. 'been 'detectedasa.source of radio, ' terms. At higher energies there is a
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X- "bump" of enhanced intensity in the
ray, and even gamma ray emission. X-ray spectrum of the X-ray back-
Some of the new quasars found by the ground near 40 kilovolts, but none of
HEAO-2 satellite are much further the quasars observed so far have such
away, with recession velocities of two- bumps in their spectra. If this bump is
thirds the speed of light. not from quasars, what is it from? One
Another distinctive type of X-ray suggestion is that very young galaxies
source is closely related to the qua- formed shortly after the creation of .
sarseandmay even be an unusual type the universe would have a great mariy . . . ,
'
of quasar.They are cded "BLLac" pulsars ind neutron s h s in &em to
., .-.* :-..... .,, .
I
..-)....*bj*~ mer:t~ij~t'Knd~..rh.&b.& ..+,s u ~ p l m ~ ~ ~ T~ ~ ~ X X ~ Y b
of the class, BL Lacertae, which for one of several possible descriptions of
years was listed as an ordinary vari- the very early universe to be tested by
able star of the Milky Way in astrono- the Cosmic Background Explorer
mers' catalogues. More recently, we mission planned for mid-1980s. There
learned that it is in fact a distant ob- is also a diffusebackground of gamma
ject in extragalactic space, which re- rays, with a bump at the energy of
sembles a star until studied in detail. 1000kilovolts. Is it due to the quasars
The visible light of BL Lac objects is once again or to something even more
dominated by radiation Erom high-ve- exotic?
 There is no place in the universe filled with hot glowing gas, and it was
. . . . &at is truly empty; but the'spacebe-. . . apaque. At some point during .the. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ? .,'

tween clusters of galaxies comes ... h t million or so years after the Big
close. These regions contain less than Bang occurred, the expanding and
one atom in every 10 cubic meters cooling gas became transparent.
(350 cubic feet), or only three atoms Hence, we can see out into space and
in a space about the size of a small back in time only until we come to
room. Although galaxies continually the distant region that we observe as
supply new material to intergalactic it was in the era when the universe
space, the continuous expansion of cleared. Beyond that point, space is
-theuniverse makes the net effect nil. opaque so light waves cannot reach
. Intleqp4cticsgace..isveyy:e m ~ Q , . q .d.
. ,ea
we
.gi!emg,,.,:.-...m p t..&; .l.s e. t ~ f f & & & ~ + i i i i ~ ~ seqtheaow from the.hot
- gas . ...
-
t..;:+$>$~:.&;..~.x
.
.
.
. ..:.+:+.-
7

expands. . . .
#.,,%

....
:&t-e&w:wiw8f&i@ .e..scrf;L...;.>;;>:.4'i;:;. .I;
.
.
.
++.,;*.
* . ., .... .#
. . ....
...... ..-.w.:~,?-
. - 4
"%>* a
...

.' then cfeared, but we carinok see'

.
. . . .. . . .
. The more we learn.ab& it, the . further. Thisglow wai emitted as:ul- . . . . . . . . .- ,..
of.. . ..: .ta%Goletlight,.lquthas.been shiftea . . ' . . . . . . . .. .. ... ... ... .. . .. . .. . .. .
,
more complic~t~d.~e.ti?xpansibri
. . . . . . . the univeqe seems to be. In t ~ e , .. to longer wavelengths by the'expan- .
.. . . .
'

. @on neG.our-galaxy, the expansion sion i;f'the.univepe; so that we. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . ‘s&ms'i&s ~ $ ~ i d' f 'o ~
' .
y thh &
~ ~v+& .'obsbm&3 to'day a; diffuse &k-. ;'. . ,... . . . . . . - . . .. . . .
'

. . . as awhole..In fact, it appears that the groundof microwave (short-wave- .

. .. . . . . .- $ n i _ b ~gravibtiona1p . d of,a'.ve@' le;ri@h.r&jio)and -red
... radbtfon. .. . ;.. .. . . . . .. .: . . . . .. .. .I . . . . . .
r.

.,.... I ........ ,,..large.cly@rofggliqies.+,$he.copst$;, ... .fj,h,&tidh This microwave .thatbackground

eo'.es.to.iisis thus ,." .:A.L.. ..... ....' e'."t.J. ..- '..:.......... i <.. ., ..
lation Virgo is actually retarding the
. ..local rate of expansion to half the rate the limits of the observable universe.
,

a whole. W&re : . . . We cammever see beyondit to more..:: . . . . . . . ' . . . . . .' . . .. ...;.. . : .

,
.:.for the-uni.vers;e'as:
finding evidence of how gravity distant regions or earlier times. ~ u e . t o
attracts even over distances of hun- the redshift, the background radiation
dreds of millions of light years. resembles the emission from a dense
Although there must be many gas at only 2.7" C above absolute zero.
very distant galaxies and quasars that You can think of the source of
we are not yet able to detect, astrono- the microwave background as a dis-
mers have observed radiation from an tant, spherical wall that surrounds us
even more remote source, literally at and delimits the observable universe.
the edge of the observable universe. If an observer is moving with respect
As we look f&rout in space, we are to the wall, then the spectrum of the
looking back in time, since light radiation coming from the region of
. . :
waves take time to cross space from the wall that he is approaching will be
their source to the observer. Hence, shifted toward shorter wavelengths,
. . .. . .
. . . . we view distant regions of the uni- while radiation from the opposite
. . .
.
:. , verse as they were long ago. Accord- direction will be shifted toward longer
':. . ... .. . ':..
. .
ing to the Big Bang theory, the uni- wavelengths. Thus, the existence of
. . . . I. verse originated in a great explosion the microwave background allows us
. . . ,I?
1
and has been expanding ever since. to determine whether the solar sys-
.j At a very early epoch, before galaxies tem is moving with respect to a basic
: and stars formed, the universe was frame of reference in the universe.
... ~ ~ * .~. ' ~ i. i ..a . r. r. .~ . ~
. . (-13,QOO Million
 The next major development in Space
Age astronomy will be the launching
ofthe Space Telescope in the mid-
1980s.We will finally have an optical
telescope above the disturbing influ-
ployed on the Spaceshuttle. With
these instruments, we can study for , . !i . .
the &-st time the coolest matter in our
galaxy: the clouds of interstellarmole- . i
cules and the dense condensing . .- , s

ence of the atmosphere, thus increas- masses of dust and gas from which ': P.
ing the sharpness of images and stars are born.The Cosmic Back- .: ' ,....
+.
& >-

allowing us to see more distant galax- ground Explorer (COBE) will concen- .- .-;
ies than can be photographed, even trate on the study of the microwave .. -
with larger telescopes, from the background and other sources of
ground. The Space Tekcqm will be widely distributed infrared and
able to tell a spiral galaxy from a microwave radiation. Planning now
..., b m e d s p W . g d ~ a $ a ; d i s ~ e ;
.billick light years,or take photo-
~.g:6W 6 . $ 0 q . e 1 d & ~ ~ .l;.a.t..-:.
. for a mission that will last about .
e. .... .
.*+.I... -a.

graphs of Mercury from Earth orbit . one * . . .$ear. ...........

.that show as much detail as those he' advari&bf space Age astroq:
made from Maririer 10,when it flew . omyis being supported by new instru-
past the planet. . . . ments on the ground, notably the -
.......After space , 'next. ..., ~ q y - ~ a g e . ~ ,(u-1
~ e l e ~ c qai e m i y ofmtio te1e .: . .-:. . .
, major astronomy mission planned is scopes.in New Mexico. The VLA con-
the.GC6mmaJbg Obseruatory CGRO). sists of 27 radio dish antennethat . . .
.-*
'
This satellite wiil cany instruments simulate a single radio telescope.31
designed to detect gammarapover . kiiometers.irr diameter:-Thissame' . ..
the entire range of energies from a few principle, that a set of small radio tele-
hundred to severalhundred million . scopes can be designed to act like a
kilovolts. The GRO will be a powe&ul very large telescope, may eventually
tool for investigatingthe most baffiing be exploited in space. Operatinga
and puzzling objects in space: pulsars, radio telescope in orbit in conjunction
quasars, and active galaxies. with radio telescopes on the ground
To learn more about dust in the would produce a system that acts in
universe and about the whisper from some respects like a radio telescope
the Big Bang, we are developingor- larger than Earth! At the same time,
biting infrared telescopes, There are . new techniques in photography and
still some technical problems. For ex- in electronically recorded optical
ample, infrared detectors have to be . images -aregreatly irnprwing the
'd .. ebl-d;.iirGC6isswbfi-gif s'r $eM $s~tjvli$iif~~Onb;r;i&alal. - .. -. %--.
. ‘
s.

difficult on an Earth-orbiting space- observations made on the ground.

craft. The first planned NASA mission Space Age astronomy is a joint effort
is called IRAS (for Inpared Astron- of all astronomers to elucidate the
omy Satellite); it will cany a small nature of the universe. In spite of all
telescope in a low-temperature cham- that we have learned in the last few
ber. Later, a SpacelabInpared Tek- years, we have onlyjust begun to see.
scopeFacility (SIRTF) will be de-
 Table 1 Typical dimensions ofthe stars
.. , 5 . . . . . . . .
Star Mass ~imeter
(Mass of Sun = 1) (km) (miles) .

N0mu;clStars:
Red dwarf
Sun
Sirius
Young blue star
Evolved Giqcnts: . . . . . .
-5 .1..
2&*.j+;.. . ...
....<i.... . .
, .-4~ ~ ; ~ + t ? < i : ~ ~ i Q l c ! @ - : : * C i ' . 4 : . ; ~j.%.ri*iI:
,
. . .
:.';$:.+... .:... . . . ..-,. 9.. . ,u*.*..$*...:, "". ..*r: .:k;*
,,..
,:.: i..
a ; . .
-.. , 4 :
!r1;.*fi,. ..
. . 4.
. . . .
~ed~u~ergiant . . . . . ~ d. . . ' ~,000,000,000 620,000,00d' . . .
'

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . . .. . .... .. .. . .. . . . . . .. .... . . . . .. .. . .
. . . .Dyingstars: . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . :..:. . . . . .. . .. . . : . . . . . . .. .. . . . .....
. . . . ; . . . . . . .:. . .
. . . ,
.,. .
Black'hole '4 24 . ' 1 5 . '
' '

; Nkutron !tar
' ' ' :.' 1 . 1.5 . ' 2O 12,. . % . . . . . .
,:'
a

'. - . . _ - ..... '.., 3 - . . .,'.--.: . :! .....:1 . u,Qm .,. ... . .

. :. *. mfjeay,+arfarf. '::.::.-. ......2Q,oQo . . . . . . .. .',...
'
1

. e.!.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .plawry c ~ ~ o r Z s ; ..
;:.. . . - . . . . . ., ' . . . . . . L . ' . . .
.........a . .. .... . .......
. , .t . . : . .
..5

. . . . .. . ......:J.Earth: 0.000003
upit&^ ' :... : . . . . c.,:. *.::. . .,.; 3 . .:.:"(J~i. 12,760 7,930
..:,:h::>':,?&.v .. .:
'
';"" :i
'

...:.... kpJ:@J(?j...;.;.',:,' .-. '... . g @ m .:..; ..........,. . :. :'-:. > -iV., ,; :&.;:

Earth's orbit: - 299,000:000 186,000:000 . ....

. . . .. . . . . ,:.
.
." . . . . : . ..
< . : . . . . . . . .. . . . r.:
*
. . . . . . ... . .. . .. .
. . ..-. . .: . . . . . . . . .. . .;. .. .. .. . . . ...-.
..
. . .. . . .. . .>
Selected Readings
Friedman, H. 1975, The Amazing
Universe (Washington, D.C.: The
National Geographic Society).
Kaufmann, W. J. I11 1978,Stars and
Nebulas (San Francisco:
Freeman).
Maffei, P. 1978,Beyond the Moon
(Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press).
Rowan-Robinson,M. 1979,The Cosmic
Landscape (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press).
Sullivan, W. 1979,Black Holes: The
.- .. -I Edge of Space, the End of Time
(NewYork: Doubleday).
Weinberg, S. 1977, The First Three
1
i
Minutes (New York: Bantam).
i
Paul C.mmbaut

:&
on the wm;v.gw*vi&pw.c*
Mmn.Astronaut Gene.
%. :

early {n tbfirst exikavehicular activity of '.

. thu ApoUo 17 missim. The location is close by
W%zw&-Littrow
.. .. landing s<tebn thelMoc~t.
. .. ... .. .. . . . . ... .
..
:
'
 Domain
OzlrNa~ CgiclNAE P&G=
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

wcely twenty years have .. S& scorches anything that it strikes,

passed since Russian cosmo-
naut ~ u rGagarin
i became the first
person to orbit the Earth. In less than
a single generation, human beings
have extended their domain from the
upper fringes of the Earth's atmos-
phere to the mountains of the Moon. If
this human progress continues, we
can expect that some of those already
.%at's
:*81r'iC~.@m?$.1m1. ..b'&~O~d&m~gC@ '>.?.
and the temperature of shaded ob-'
jects approaches absolute zero. In
the almost perfect vacuum of space,
an unprotected human would survive
less than a minute before his blood
would boil.
We are already quite familiar with
many effects involved in space f ' t .
Exposure t.0 hhrghly accelerative forces
~~s~ 6..: r.

'walkon Mars and that some of their pilots of experimentaljet and rdcket -
grandchildren be born, live, and. @reraft. w.e same for~es.arf3 proL .
die in colonies beyond the Earth. . duced on rocket-propelled sleds g d
There has always been a human drive in centrifuges, where their biological
to expand and explore. The last . ' . effects & be studied in great detail..
Cuc;en&y yeais havii!.showlr that.spaxse '. *Thedawsling of theAtomid. Age; c&m-
travel is feasible. Now a more pro- . bining the threat of nuclear devasta-
found question faces us: will our o k ..tion with the promise of unlimited.. -,

biology permit us to become full-time

.
useful energy, has given great empha-.
resiklents of outer spade?.' -
' .$isto studies oftheeffiects of ibnizing
Spaceflight produces many severe atomicradiation on living things. In-
stresses on thebody and mind. The cessant noise, vibration, and jet lag .
astronaut is subject to high accelera- are common accompaniments to
tions (Gfwces) on launch and reen- modern civilization, and despite all
try; in between these are long periods the teeming billions of humanity we
of weightlessness. In space, there is need only to recall that people live
radiation more intense, dangerous, and work in isolation on the polar ice-
and sometimes quite unlike anything caps, under the oceans, and on the
encountered on Earth. Inside a space- windswept slopes of the Himalayas to
craft, high noise levels are produced be reassured.of our capacity to adapt
by the powerful rocket motors and by to the most lonely environments. .
the wnt@uouso~eratiovof:l$@ .sup- .. a ,". :.. *T$9 y l q y ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ f ~ ~ . ~ w L ~
pori'mac%i&er$~Spiceflight wolves so faras the human body is-concerned;
long periods of isolation, nagging vi- are weightlessness and the heavy, en-
brations, and disturbances in normal ergetic atomic particles (known as
day-night cycles. BZEmdiation)that are sprayed out of
Beyond these specific problems is the Sun and other stars and that fill
the ever present element of physical the spacearound us. The key to under-
danger. Only the thin wall of the standing the effects of spaceflight on
spacecraft separates the occupants humans comes from the reactions of
from an environment more hostile astronauts to weightlessness and HZE
than any on Earth. Above the atmo- radiation, and the evaluation of how
sphere, the unfettered energy of the much of each they can tolerate.
E*avehiculeer Astronaut Ed Whiteoutsicle his Gemini 4 spacecrafi in 1965, in America'sfirst uspucewalk."
afl~ir.
 Fossils in the geological record reveal predicted many dire consequencesif I
i .
. .that &xnans have existed on Earth a human being were suddenly,thrust .L
for over three million years. Further, into weightless flight. Often, the pre-
we know that vertebrates roamed the dictions contradicted each other. Var-
;.='
....:. -. :.I,. .
!> .: .
1:
i

Earth for hundreds of millions of ious specialists said that the heart .:>.:.:. . ...
,..:. . . .....
i? . . .;:
. :;2 ..
years before the emergence of Man. would race or that it would stop, that .:i., _..
.....
e ., .

.:jC
Throughout these eons,all evolution a person could not sleep or would !., ....;; y.
5.: ;?
I.. ;i.-
.'?.
and human development have been sleep constantly, and that an astro- i_.: ._._,.
:..;
influenced by the Earth's gravita- naut would become euphoric or pro- ;-. ..:- ...
..........
s.

.. - .... . :,
.
tional field. In countless subtle ways, foundly depressed. It was said that . .. .. .. .
humans have responded to this ubiq- the bones would soften, that eating .. . ./. .
. .%
. uitous force.and have learned to.cope . would be impassible,.and %at $he . . . . .. .
. . ."';2iiitK'iE'~;~O~
. . .
4weerii.*dd&;&d. ;..&bw@*:dr;.8u3a 6 . & ,w m ...;.' .... . ,
. +.,.. -.::2.;r-
G ... -*. 5:
. ..
. ........
.constrainedby gravity, but Earth's - .;Qd acute was.the concern for the' " . :. ....'.;.. -' .

., . whole.blanket of life, the biosphere,. . . . . unknown .pedicaleffects bf weigh%- . . . .. .. .. .. . .

. .
yith dl its cpmponentsweies, is in . .kssness..thatnumerous .animalswerv. .: . -.:. .. . '
-... .

some respekts a prduct of the effects flown,'first in ballistic suborbital t k ~ . . -

<, " .

. . ofgravity. . ' .. - .jectories and finally in .complete . . .. .. . ....

... : " . .f :' .. ...
. ' ' " ' .

. . <.:... ..so & m a t e & &&Lefjnshij?:b& ':'Ea& orbie,. befdte e i ~ e r

.
.A.

i
. . . . tween jpavity and life that, before the . Gagarin or @Shepard first flew
-
.-
. advent of spamf&$jht,no-hne cpuld . their Vostok and.Mercuryspapxraft.
predict p d e l bioio"@dal
any .pgrti.ular y h.ow.or even

would function iq the absence of .

whether
.*i.o:6es.i.
'

. . . . Happily, most of the predicted dan- ...::.,,. ... .-;:

'
gers did not occur. ~eight;les&essin .
gene* turned put ,to be surprisingly .
i.
1
,'

'gravity-Weightlessness cannot be ex- benign h d tolerable. However, some

perimentally produced within the significant changes in the human I

Earth's atmosphere for more than a body were noted, even in the earliest
few seconds at a time in aircraft. We flights. How long these changes last,
had to wait until spacecraft could be and how serious they are in the long
launched into orbit around the Earth run,continue to be the subjects of in- . .
before the effects of prolonged weight- tense investigation by space medicine
lessness could be investigated. specialistsin both the United States
Before the.Space . Age, scientists and the Soviet Union. . . . .. .. . .. .
. . . .. . . . . _ .
_ : . . . . . ., .
.
. . .._...
*.-.-:.:. .t-: .....:.:::.. .* &:;. - 4 : ::;A ;:,.y *.*:;.*. . . ,.?.; ??; :.." ;*-.>:.*& .*;.<..:, . . . *..kg;-.?"j<*...:--
. .. ... .-..;..:.$:' -' .... : . ... !..-.-&A:.. . . .;.
..*:..4..7>.2
. . . ' . - '... . r
.!*:.:+j?:.:
. . I ' :' . ,. .. . . . . . . . .
...
. . I
.
. .
. . . . 7 . .
 &fa;+ %.&7jipamee .jya;iE.".
1. ' :
was the live test suMectfor the Mercury-
Redstona2$@ht mJmm:32, 196d:'Hm.-'?.. :-
the 17-kg (37-pound)prhnate isfitted into a
special "biopackWcouch prior toflight. 7'7~ . .
680-kil07pzem(4.20-statutemiles) suborbital .
mission was a signiJTwantaccoirtptishme?ttin
the Arnerican route to manned spaceflight.

lhzveler's reward Ham reachesfor an applefollowing his brief ride i n space.

 . . . . . .
. . . .. " . ) .......
I ' . :... . . . .;..'.. .,!..,., ".. - . 7.. . . ...: ' .. .n ...
hidmedical research hi&we. 0wen'~arriottlies in the'&r&$Body .
Negative Pressure Device aboard the Earth-orbiting Skylab. The
c-:,-.*tfi*- F~~G " E
. . . . . ~ . ~ . ~. i n. s t n i m t was used to'mdnitorthe time cou& ofcard%d&&lar ....... '
adaptation to spaceflight and to predict the degree of d@Tmltyto be
C5LSz F i i c ~ a ~ ~ A P H encountered during and a m return to Earth.

C k e d a W y changes the circulatory changes which occur

level off after four to six weeks of
The first impairments observed in as- flight. After that, no further changes
tronauts that were definitely caused occur, nor do the changes impair crew
by space flight were the changes in health or performance aloft. Exercise
heart rate and blood pressure exhib- : tolerance during the space-flightitself --
ited by Walter Schirra following.his . is unaffected, but the ability to per- . .:
.hd&&?1:p!9 .
&. .:.:-.=fbm,+g&eus e g e r d ~ ~ ~'-... .p....-.
~ :.~ &
..
ooper a'fter a subseque&t 'diminished ifter return to Eakh.
34-hour flight, each in a Mercury Scientists and doctors are begin-
spacecraft. Immediately after return- ning to understand these changes.
ing to Earth the astronauts tended When a human is suddenly thrust into
to become dizzy on standing, and weightlessness, apparently blood
each showed a decrease in the total shifts from the legs and lower parts of
volume of blood. These effects were the body, where it is normally held
confirmed by medical studies of by gravity, upward toward the head.
other astronauts during the later Sensitive receptors, located in the
Geminiand Apollo flights, and they upper part of the body, mistakenly
were investigated in much greater de- interpret this sudden and sustained
tail over a period of months during shift of blood as an increase in total
the long-duration Skylab flights in blood volume. The body then &es to
1973-1974. reduce the blood volume to its "nor- *
The Skylab studies showed that mal" value by eliminatingfluid and
some electrolytes, either by increas-
ing urine flow or by cutting water in-
take (reducingthe feeling of thirst).
These changes lower the blood vol-
ume to a level that is perfectly com-
patible with weightless life in space
but that is too low to support vigor-
ous activity back on Earth. Just after
return, the astronaut is like someone
who has just given a blood transfusion
and cannot immediately engage in
heavy exercise. This diminished per-
formance after return from space con-
tinues for a few days until the miss-
ing blood volume is restored; there
seem to be no long-term effects.
If the circulatory changes, techni-
cally called "cardiovascular decondi-
tioning," are caused entirely by
lowered blood volume, simple precau-
tionary measures can be used to cor-
rect the problem during critical reen-
try maneuvers and immediately after
return to Earth. However, because it
it possible that other, more serious
circulatory changes may occur in
space, scientists monitor the cardio-
vascular system of an astronaut in
flight as well as the red and white
cells and other components of the
blood.
The opportunites to study
humans in space are still somewhat
limited and can involve only a few
subjects, so methods have been
devised for simulating some of the
physiological effects of spaceflight
here on Earth. By immersing humans
and animals in water baths for ex-
tended periods or by confining them
to bed or in plaster casts in a slightly
head-down position, many of the
same cardiovascular changes that
occur in space can be produced on
the ground and studied in detail.
 Using his head Weightlessin Skylab, Owen Garriott supports him-'
-- selfon the bicycle ergometer by pressing against the compartment
- ........ ,- a - .,.
",,-3a"- ~F-P-
\

.
.
--zH
&.LC. 'above"him.
- .--.,< ; : I d ~ L . " G ' . ' ~ ' ~
.-.

Bone m d muscle bss to enable space missions of from six

to twelve months to be undertaken
.When they are not used to work . . . . . . .withoutinstituting.anppreventive or ..
. . . . against the gravity field of Eaxth, . iremedial measures. On longer figtats -
. .-.
> . % *._.
..... ...
.- .
.;.: ...+<
.. ..
..
-w .
...
. e.
4 ; te.
..p2,.&4!ne~:~ttqg.$!eFf!$om$.~ ~nd~~y~cks~.~~.Ao~.eyesY:ste~.smu& be:Wen.b-~e..:.. .... .-
-
t e n & ~atrophy, that.is;.to shrink or . : vent.these.losses; hifight kz&rcise .
'

waste away. Similar problems occur was tried on the Skylab and is being
in space. The limited mobility within used by the cosmonauts aboard
the small earlier spacecraft and the Salyut missions, but so far the correct
lack of appropriate stress, even in the combination of measures to ?x applied
larger Skylab and Salyut space sta- to prevent bone and muscle bss has
tions, produced a continuous loss of not been found. The search is continu-
bone and muscle tissue in the astro- ing in the Spuce Shuttle missions as
nauts. The loss appears slow enough well as in laboratories on the ground.
 ha&h is O P ~ R ,David Scott's extravehicular activity cm the
fourth day of the Apollo 9 Earth orbital mission t a b s place with the
M M p P i River valley in the center background.
. ..c,,,,( , .';ri3~0GRApH
": p-
. * = . .I. . - we&bmP* i~~sp~..~easur~ ts~f~as
mhungea&.&rt . .. : . ..
.. activiEy are made as astmnaut Bean pedals t& bicycle ergometer.
 . . sickness. . .
Motion forthcomingS p e Shuttleflights,
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . many af which last only a few days. ..
Starting in 1968,eleven missions in- Unfortunately, at the present
volving astronauts were undertaken time, the factors responsible for
during the five-year span of the Apollo motion sickness are unknown. Scien-
program. These missions added tists believe that the vestibular appa-
motion sickness (the "space sickness" ratus, or machinery of the inner ear
of generations of science fiction writ- which controls our sense of balance,
ers) to the sigmficant biomedical is profoundly influenced by weight-
problems produced by space flight. lessness. Humans are not the only
Although nausea had been noted ear- creatures affected. Experiments
- i&7$:&5&"f"3$J$2#$:fl:11t
>.-..; . -*.:,, -.~.*-@-~I?$;?QP
w ~ ~ .&be p Sc.~gi.&=&,$&~~
b bc b apaS,!?craft- .:,,...: .ii,*.,a,.Jc,.i:i A ...:.-. fy. . . .: ....!'.'...?...>:'. .....
t ~ $j'&h;.r;.
. . .
.
'-
.:
..ia.,.s..?

- . flight on August 6,196 1,as'well as by swimming bloops in'theii'containkrs. . .

..
some crew membep'of subsequent . . . . Furious nemaus &tivity.was-re- . . . . . . . . . . .
".Sovietflighk, no AmeriC&dastronauG 'ajidt2tI'frointhe.bralrl-6fa.frog.that . ..', . . . .. .. .. . .. . .. . .,. .. '

. had.yet experienced the symptoms. . was suddefly rocketed into weight- .. . .! . . . . . .

. (In retrospecG howe?r,.the lack of. .lessness. In humans, the disorients- ......'.. <. ... . ..... . . .. . .. . .,.. _.-.
, , .. . .
ap.petiteobserved on cei%ain Gemini. tion d s e s when'ge~isdtion~&d& the "
.... !

vay'baye.been an:eyiy si@.,@ : eyes and from.other,partsof the body

.'fl.igh@. ..
. . . . . ...( . . .. . .. . .. . . . .
'
'

. this illness,) The crewinen of Apollo 8' 'conflicthth'thdse 6 m .tNe vestib'u: " ' '

.... and 9:meree s p ~ i ~ p l a g u e d ~ w .j: ......

t h JaJr:
. . (mq..ew) apparatus a d viri.thin- ...."..$
. . . . ., . . . . .."..,' '.!: ......:..:.,,. ...
:'
. ...:. .
stomach uneasiness, nauseq.and vom- formation stored'inour tirains' as a
iting. In ApoClo 9, Earth wbit mis-. . . result . of experience at " 1G.7 This . . . . .
'
. .
&pohaut Rusty sijhGeiekart ...; c(jfidi&.apparentl$ c m .beover- . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1

:,

was sick for a considerable time and come. After a few days in space, a re-
had to postpone the Erst test of the patterning of the central memory net-
Lunar Module in space. work occurs so that unfamiliar sensa-
Throughout the remainder of the tions from eyes and ears start to be
Apollo program, during subsequent correctly interpreted and the person
Skylab missions, and during Soviet adjusts to his new environment. More
missions, symptoms of motion sick- effective means whereby adaptation
ness continued to manifest them- can be accelerated and motion sick-
selves. It is a serious problem; almost ness symptoms suppressed are being
halfof the astronauts sent into space sought in many laboratories. Hopes
have been affected. The illness are high that this search will be suc-
appears to last for only the first two or cessful and that, unlike so many hap-
three days in space and in almost all less sailors,aviators, and other travel-
cases disappears within a week. The ers, future astronauts will be £reed of
occurrence of motion sickness during space motion sickness as an occupa-
the first few days of space flight is of tional nuisance.
great operational concern during the
 Food and diet energy as it did on Earth. The com- ii
mander of one lunar flight insisted . . .
-
It is h o s t always true that an astro- that he.wanted nothing but a few can- C .- .
naut or cosmonaut who returns from dies on the way to the Moon. Some !-:. ,./ '..
!:..;..,$.'. .

space to Earth weighs from one to Gemini astronauts traded their indi- -,,.,.~..... .
:!, : ::.
ten pounds less than upon launch. ;,.. ,.. .::.: ..
vidually planned metabolic rations ... '..;,.:..*,<< I:
r..
.**

Spring-loadedmass measuring de- with each other, much to the conster- :.. .:
'-
.>-
. ..., . . .
....I

>.. .
vices, canied aboard the American nation of the dietitians. In later long- :. - t
>;,':'..';?: :
Skylab and Russian Salyut spacecraft, term flights such as Skglab, food was . .._....
.. . .. -
;*.....
...
were used to "weigh" the astronauts .. ..: - . .
taken more seriously. Daily intakes '
.
. I , .

in the absence of gravity. These re- were calculated by computer, and . .

. . ,. ..
cords showed that about half of the , supplements were au5omatically p r e . .
. . 23 ,.,-. ;.
*
x*G*
?'.
,;
. . . .+&e;fi&y&+ 2 .. s+&ba+j,. &&&ti.&i...&.6&&-.h.fi2, <j?>:b ;.?:;!.: ...... '
,

' . -days.offlight while the remaining loss . deficits 'incurri3d the'previlok day. . . .
.. . _ . ..... . . . . . takes place much more slowly.Scien~
. ' ... . . . Insuring.that the space,foodtastes-. . . .:. ..,"
;
. . .-.

. '. , tists believe that, just =.in any per- ., .good is one way to promote eating. . . . .. . .
, ,: , .

son wha starts to lose weight, the 'enough. This always has been difiicult . . .:',
,
. . .. . . . . early losses consist mainls:'ofwater, because-of.&&needto process the . . . ,
. . . ....
...: . - t..' . : .. p ~ e l f r ~ s c l e , . ~.tj.he'c~$riS&
+ ff~d .. fa^^ tb a V &aeh ~ i&b+afid k&@t" ' - '. .: . - ,

.the later losses. as possible;but the individualmeals . ,

.
. . . . . .- : Weight.loss.canbe.reduc& by - . . ...prrSlcyla6were'.a~ma&r.adv~ceover,
.
.
.
. "
.. .
combining appropriate exercise with the p ..w_ .t. i .v e edibles available to the . .
.I . .. .:..., ." ..' a.completearid baIWced diet. HOW-'
'

" ' ~ e r castionauts.

u~ Food prep&-
; % . , ,~,

. . ever, most of the earlyastrqnauts paid, tion and use will provide increasingly . . .
- little hentien to the dietary advice complex challenges in the future,
"

they received prior to flight and could when "closed ecology" food systems
not be convinced that life in welght- will generate food from the waste pro-
less flight required just as much food ducts of human metabolism.
'.:
.. .
yi
I . . .
-. .

Mess call. Owen Garriott reconstitutes a ccmtaiw ofji-eeze-dried

food at the mew quarters wardroom table in Skylab.

ORlGlNAU FK8C
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Noflks hem. The spider"Ambella"spinsa web on Skylab.

ORIGINAL PAbC
COLOR PW69"OGRAPH
 Beyond the protective blanket of the great detail, using a variety of detec-
Earth's atmosphere,space is filled tors carried into space. One very sen-
with radiation of all kinds: the light sitive detector turned out to be the
and heat from the Sun, radio waves human eye. Cosmic rays apparently
from Jupiter, X-rays and gamma rays are the cause of the "light flashes,"
from the Sun and from energetic, bright streaks seen by the astronauts
poorly-understood objects beyond when their eyes were closed. Some
our solar system. This radiation not of the displays were striking. On one
only spans the electromagneticspec- lunar trip, brilliant green flashes were
trum,but also includes atomic and seen, causing the astronauts to report,
subatomic particles of all dimensions "It looks like St. Patrick's Day."
and energies. Much of the radiation There is no doubt that such pene-
.- . is. .a.sWlvJQ trating radiation can produce biologi- :
-.:; .:.,>d r'.;..,... wh#!~~~i)". & J ~ Z ? ~ C.:.:.&
. d u c d on Eaith;ding ratid, cplo-
-. ..a&&&. li $&o.t.fet~61& ~& :.; . .. .*.,.,&- .... ,. .....
. "t...'
trons, or radioactive materials. The bi- this radiation is any barrier to our .
ological effects of these radiations can progress into space, but we will need
be studied in great detail. Other space to be protected against it. How the
radiations, such as the highly ener- radiation causes damage, what the
getic HZE atomic particles, or cosmic dangerous exposure times are, and
rays, are unique to space and can be what the possible protective mea-
duplicated only imprecisely and with sures may be are all subjects of in-
the greatest diaculty on Earth. tense scrutiny.
Cosmic rays have been studied in
 There no longer is any doubt that hu-
mans can both survive in space and
work hard and productively in this
exotic environment for periods of
many months. A sizable number of
biological responses to weightless-
ness do take place fairly promptly but
are reversible when the space traveler
resumes his or her accustomed place
on the surface of the Earth. Yet it is
equc@yclqq tha,t.sgmg.pf th.9 ~Qyst:...
w: ..-
~&by&& Sl&,t.*d d~ n&$e&C~ gqul-
libdurn even &er many months of
weightlessness. There also is concern *

that a,few of these processes, if al- .

lowed to go on long enough, may pro-
duce @eversible chwges. This could ..
b;e'$ai;tiii~iiar~~
worrisome when olaer '

individuals or persons in' different'

'pkiysicdcondition from the astrob ' *

naup travel into space. Many scien-

tists are seeking to detect, to under-
stand, and ultimately to prevent these
changes, so that long voyages into
space will be both safe and feasible.
We still do not know whether
weightlessness or reduced-gravity en-
vironments are suitable for indefinite
lengths of time for any terrestrial spe-
cies. All plants and animals not only
are endowed with specialized grav-
ity sensing devices, but also possess
many cellular and subcellular struc-
tures whose orientation and perhaps
evenfunctionwillbeinfluencedby
the withdrawal of gravity. Actual
spaceflight data are sparse, bpt so far
gross anomalies in basic living proc-
esses have not been detected in the
space environment. Much work, of
course, remains to be done before the
role of gravity in living processes is
completely understood and before hu-
manity can erect cities in the sky with
the same impunity with which the OWIGINWC PAGE
spiders Arabella and Anita spun webs COLOR PHOfO G S ~ P W
in Skylab.
i
Habi&t ofW&hsse?Part of a torus-shaped space colanypqmsed
j for t h f i t u r e by members of a stwly gmup. Famzs would raisefood
i for 100,000inhabitants,while rotation at 1 rpm would provide
I artificial gravity. ORIGINAL PAGE
.WLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 ORIGINAL PAGE
2OLOR PHOTOGRAPH

B a ~ iBm
An artist's depzction
of afiture space
colony somaohere
between the Earth
and tlte Moon.
 ORIGIpJ.JPL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

The physiological and psycholog-

ical barriers to space flight are being
methodically and successfully chal-
lenged. A major dividend of these t:,
% . .:., -.
::-..: ... :
. .....-
space medicine studies is that much . _..
..
&.
,
.
.,
L.
.
:?: :. ..",..
of what is learned is directly applica- :,' ....',
..
.,
'.

ble to ordinary people who may never .r:..: .- ., ?<,\>

,:A
.-'f
7'
. . .:.: .:-.
.,,:
leave the Earth. The technology that :. _- .'..
>.:*

permits the flight surgeon to monitor ;y;.,:L...: .,

::-:.:.
..-. . .-
the heart rate of an astronaut walk- ,
. . . .. . .

ing on the Moon can be used to keep a , . _ .. .

carefui and continuous watch on car-
a$out,-8 daily*;:,.
work. The space suits that-cooledarid
protected astronauts during extrave-
hiculafacthity have been adapted to '

treat the cancer patient and to guard .

the immune-deficientchildfrom the
g e m against which it has .noaatu-;. ..
ral defense. Even an astronaut's ad-
verse reactions to weightlessness are .
in many ways similar to diseases on
Earth. Such diseases are thus seen in
a different light from the viewpoint of
space. Their underlying mechanisms .
may become more apparent, and ef-
fective treatment may be developed.
Much must be learned, much
must be done before humans can
spend indefmite periods of time be-
yond the confines of the Earth. It is
still conceivable that prolonged or re-
petitive exposure to space may.ulti-
mately present an impassable barrier '
to our surviyd in that environrpent..
~a~~;.fi;d+~r'3fi;dm a;;.'&n~6'e!e!: '"
point of twenty years of space flight
operations, many thousands of hours
of flight experience, more than one
hundred aStrOnautsand c0sm0nauts7 LVRB~V-salt A child born with severe combined immune
and many other living creatures, 2-10 d e m , a rare hereditary disease, isprotected- potentially
such barrier is in view. ha-1 microorganimns by a miniature space suit.
 Selected Readings
Belew, L. F. 1977,Skylab, Our First
Space Station (Washington, D.C.:
NASA), SP-400.
Cooper, H.S.F., Jr. 1976,A House in
Space(New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston).
Gordon, S.A. and M. J. Cohen 1971,
Gravity and the Organism
(Chicago: University of Chicago
Press).
..,..i . . . . . .h. t ;. e . e . ; . . . . . . . . .. .. . : . . . . I . . ....
.... .:..............
. .
: :..
.......... : -. . .
. . 1977,~iomedical'R&lz% .
, . 1. .I'
, Skylab (wa&ngton, D.C.: NASA), . . .
SP-377.
'
07Neill,G. K. 1977, The ~ i Frontier:
~ h '

H u m n Colonies in Space (New

..... . . . . Kork.:43ant&n). .. .. . . . . . . . ......
Sharpe, M.R. 1969,Living in space
(New York: Doubleday). .
Sumrnerlin, L.B. (ed.) 1977,Skylab,
Classroom in Space (Washington,
D.C.: NASA), SP-401.
 Chapter 6

Violent beginnings. Heat, moisture, and

gasesfiom volcanic eruptions on the early
.Earth.csu@havep?vvi&d the environ-?ynta~ .
..&:ir)eitWr&.p&wd.j3phfticiti~'~It&tM. ' 5 J

evolution reactions which'led to lve. (Photo-

graph courtesy of Richard S. Fiske, National
Museum.of Natzlral History, Smithioninn
Institution.)
 1
P .
lanets seem to be reasonable
places for life. Thev are neither
as hot and deadly as thesurfaces of
stars, nor as cold and empty as the
i
:.. .:. -
. .:
..
$._-

! "
I

a > a <I

space between them. The only life i ...-*. . .

-.
:*.,

we know of in the universe has devel- .... .

oped on a planet, the Earth. Thus, ....
other planets have always been the . .. .. . .
major focus of our search for other . . ..
. ,
forms of life. If planets are abundant .,. . ... . . .
. . . . . ... .* :.,;. . ..I.; .......: \.
.. -.. ..: ............. . : .. . .... . . . . c.-, . :..;.;h.&etp@v&rse;ue ~ ~ ' ' ~ ~ m i j ' n i j?.
. . :;.+...... .::*.-..... ' n i "..'L
j .......
'n ....i .
+$. , '
, . , : > . . ..P.
'It
'.,.
e .

. . .
. , . . lfplanets are rare;we and our fellow, . . . . . .. . . . .

. . . . . . . ..:..... ' . .. . . . . . '. . . . E.arWingsway be .ynique... :. . ..'.. . . . ... . n.

. .... ...
. . . . .. . . . , .. . . . 0nly.thirtyyears ago, .most.asbon- . . . . 1 . .
' omers believed that planetary systems .. -. .

were extremely rare:It was' even .. .. ... .

+ . . . .... . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .: . . . . . - . ....* .. a 't :.. .....: ..-.... . . . + ..... :~bught.t;hat#esol'&system.&~..'.. . -.-;.::-:..

. . . .
habitat that Earth provides might well ,
. . . . . . .. .... . .. ,. . . . . ... . . . . . .. be unique in ihe enthe galaxy. At . . . .. .

the same time almost nothing was . .

. . . . . . . . . . . :, .. ' * :- .' known abo&~ec,emia bds.for . c. :r .. .

.. . . the origin of life. Since then, our q e w

; ' has changed drastically. Nuxtierous' .. .
studies have eroded the reasons why
planetary systems and the develop-
ment of life on suitable planets should
be unlikely. Today, the leading theo- . .

ries for star formation suggest that .. ..

planets may be the rule rather than
the exception and that the formation
. .
. . . of planets is expected to accompany . . . . . . . :.
. . . . .theformation of s.tars. At the same.. . . . r . .
.... .... :.-2,. . . ? .*;.. . . .: .
..:.. :.>. ..:-...A .~ . . 1 ? ~ ~ ~ d i S c ~ v ~ ~ h a v;:. e ~
-.
. . . . . . .. _,
i :.:.F.- .::... ..I-::.:.;, .;., .:.:. ;
:;..:.*:. ....;s;h.....
' ;o:w ;n
.
.a: ; : .
. ;.i. .%. j.b
. . . . ...:I: r i; .>
'
.. . . ..? , ..;..
that ttie chemicals fiecc3ssaf$f& life .. '
. . .

are abundant beyond the Earth. Inter-

 stellar gas clouds have been found to This integrated attack includes
contain biologically important organic disciplines as diverse as astronomy,
molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, biology, chemistry, geology, and engi-
and other elements. Similar molecules neering. Ground-based laboratory re-
have been detected in comets and search, astronomical observations,
meteorites. Therefore, today's theo- and space missions have all been
ries suggest that life could be wide- brought to bear on the questions of
spread in the universe. Growing the uniqueness of life on Earth, the
numbers of scientists are now con- origin of life in the universe, and the
..:-...pe&?&$**&'~:di;a-go;i'=,&d$&<
.mced.that extraterrgstfial life.must =;. place
4 ":*
...,IW..&y&..&.tui
of .lifein the general
. @..&&..cosmolo-
$jtfr*.:.. .
. :'*:
;
,

that corttact with othe~civilizationsis scientists can now devise e'xp6rimep1ts

no longer something beyond.our .. .. . . 'to answer such fundamental ques-.. .. ,

dreams but.will.bea natural event in tions'as: "Where' did life co'me from?)':
'

the history of mankind. . .':Why is life like it is?" "Are there other
.: . and ~ . ~ . ~ol
Thetexistence of~ & +.$o-.ibe$ : .forms
hgre
extratiexkestrial
lif6 tf;;i!~ iof.l'ife
r ; ~ +in & ~there
~ the.soiq
? , , system or.@... ..
ii,telligem ' '

tions that are intimately related. The lifeelsewhere?:'

major problem is the origin of life. hi's'*
topic is intrinsically fascinating..It is
surrounded by mystery, philosophy,
and religion, and it has been the sub-
ject of contemplation and speculation
since the beginning of human histo-
ry. Only in the last century has the
question become recognized as a sub-
ject suitable for direct scientific in-
quiry. Individual researchers and
groups of scientists have considered
the problem for years, but NASA was
the first organization to provide a co-
hesive, interdisciplinary approach,
combining the various scientific pro-
grams that had investigated the ques-
tion since the early 1960s.
.. , .
This new science of exobiology
, , , has several goals. It,seeksto under-
stand the origin, evolution, and distri-
bution of life and of the chemicals
' necessary for life, both on Earth and
throughout the universe, and it seeks
to determine the relationship of life
to the evolution of planets. Through
research in chemistry, geology, and
biochemistry, and from our explora-
tion of the planets, we have begun to
pull together some parts of the origin-
of-life puzzle. Pieces of the puzzle are
being gathered from throughout the
universe, from interplanetary and in-
terstellar space, from other worlds,
and naturally, from the Earth.
 LifeintheSohrSystem
From molecules to Man after the Earth and the solar system
formed. From that point on, the record
It now is generally accepted that the preserved in Earth's rocks constitutes
origin of life on Earth was closely tied the raw material for laboratory studies
to the origin of the solar system itself. because it is the repository for all ev-
From this concept, combined with olutionary information from the time
experimental findings, a general of the first living cells through the
model for the beginnings of life on evolution of today's complex life
Earth is emerging. It starts, almost im- forms. As the details of this process
mediately after the original accretion are being unravelled in terrestrial lab-
of the Earth, with a period of chemical oratories by scientists using sophisti-
evolution,which resulted in the for- . cated instruments and experiments, . . .
.:4 &ti61?.;eSs i n ~ & r @ p & ! ~ j q &r& -.:*.::@gf@!kqy#&e$.-*
+
, ;; +$plca=p%++ .*: ..; .
that are essential for life. These mole- .impGrtait kata questioniAI+ the' '.. .
cules were synthesized from the gases .s e e or similar processes producing
that.made up the primitive atmos- .' life elsewhere,.beyond the Earth? .
phere. This first atmosphere, which
'surrounded the itewly formed Barth,
I (Comets, ~ l a r ~ e t a~trnospheres
'is'belieted to'hav~beeirreduekig irP . . . . . . . . iwzd.lnteys@JlarSpace)
nature. That is, it contained no free .
oxygen and was i~omposedniainiy of
. . Carbon.
ry

gases such as hydrogen, methane, am-

monia, and water vapor.
As time passed, these gases were
activated by energy sources like light-
ning discharges and ultraviolet radia- (Satellites, Comets,Asteroids,
Planetam S u ~ a c e sDust
, Particles)
tion from the Sun. The original mole- Carbhydrates
cules broke apart, and their atoms Proteins
recombined to make new, more com- Lipids
plex molecules, thus beginning the
prebiotic synthesis of organic matter, I
meaning the reactions that preceded
the development of life.
(Surlfaces of CertainPlanets)
Life I
Under the influence of primitive
planetary environmental conditions
the organic molecules combined to
I Simple cells and
Biochemical Reactions
I
1

form larger, even more complex mole- Environmental Variables

(e.g., Gravity)
cules. Finally, thousands and millions Natural Selection-Evolution
of molecules were assembled into I
structures exhibiting key properties (Certain Planetary Surfaces)
of living things: metabolism, respira- Increasingly Complex Systems
tion, reproduction, and the transfer of I

genetic information. This stage was -

reached on Earth about 3.5 to 4 billion (Certain Planets)
years ago, about 0.5 to 1billion years - -
"IntelligentLife"?

Ancientprocesslmodem lubomtory.Elec- Sequence of cosmic evolution. Thisscheme

tric discharge apparatus is used to simulate places the theory of the chemical origin of
conditions in the primitive amnOsl,he?-eof the life on Earth into the broader context that
Earth that may have produced the chemicals similar evats may occur elsewherein the
of life. universe. ..
 From theory to search This is probably due to the destruc-
tive power of the intense ultraviolet
The first opportunity to search di- radiation from the Sun, which de-
rectly for extraterrestriallife was pro- stroys any exposed organic material.
vided by the Apollo missions to the The second instrument, intended to
Moon. Rock and soil samples returned detect biological reactions in the Mar-
from the Moon were analyzed exten- tian soil, did not detect life on Mars.
sively,but neither living nor fossil It did uncover an intriguing chemical
life forms were found. Further studies property of the soil that, at least in
show that the Moon, which has no part, does mimic some simple lifelike
water, no atmosphere, and no protec- reactions. Among these are the break-
tion from the radiations of space, down of nutrient chemicals and the
.-> .-.;. .: ... ..-. ..t.' -3. .:. : - .. p ~ ~ b &*h
.
-*
. > gEud t~pkysiM-chdr-.
i.
- s i p n r ; l i e s i s @ b ~ e m e tfro;mF!&s&.
~r
. acteristicsneeded to begin the synthe- ous substances. . .
... sis 0f.o-c matterparequiredpre- All in all-,Mars remains a planet of
cursory step to the origin of life. ;*heme interest to exobiologists. Al-
Mars provided our second oppor- though vikingdid not d e k t life,
tunity. With itsobvious atniosphere Mars continues $0tantalize us. Why
,. ... -. .... r
...axid p& &pg Mars wasdeemed were-noorganicmal&ules d&cW? :-
both scientificpapers and the popu- Were conditions in Mars' past history
lar press) a much more likely location more fa;vor&bleforprebioticchemical
in the solar system to harbor extra- syntheses than those present today?.
terrestrial We. The search for Martian Are there other locations on Mars
life began in earnest when the Viking today where conditions are more con-
Project landed two robot spacecraft. ducive to life or to life-related chemis-
on the planet in 1976 to photograph try? These questions and more require
the surface material and analyze it in continued exploration of Mars. After
detail. These missions increased our all, the Earth is not the most favorable
knowledge of the physical and chemi- place to look for clues about life's ori-
cal properties of the remarkable red gin, since life itself has altered the
planet tremendously. Perhaps the planet so drastically that much neces-
most unexpected and fascinatingfind- sary information has been obliterated.
ings, however, were returned by the - Mars, then, provides us an essential
two instruments designed to search , .pow for comparison with Earth: an
." . . ...
..I
- . ';.
.;* .* .>;*, .=.,. $w:$fe *!$fpre.@er*& m~1.wa.e.$:;..,.mwirom-ent~$;extapimiy.wWed.
One instrument showed that,-quite' 'by widespread life, and perhaps still .
'

unexpectedly, the Mars soil samples harboring secrets about the relation-
contained no organic materials, not ship of the origin of life to the origin of
even traces of carbon from meteorites the solar system.
that must hit the planet's surface.
 CRIGi?!A PAGE
il Sample Processor
COLO2 PYOTOCRAFH

Outline of a searchfor life. Three Zve detectim experiments,sche-

mutically &scribed here, were conducted by the biology .instrumts
on the Mars' Viking landers.
 The CkmicadsOfLife
In addition to searchingfor extrater- life are also present in meteorites, and
restrial life, we pursue the search for it.now seems clear that the chemis-
extraterrestrial life-related molecules try of life is not unique to the Earth.
in order to establish the universal na- Future studies of meteorites should
ture of prebiotic chemical synthesis. greatly contribute to the eventual un-
Recent discoveries show that comets, derstanding of the conditionsand
which seem to have remained un- processes during the formation of the
changed since the formation of the solar system and should provide clues
solar system, may represent a unique to the relations between the origin of
storehouse of information about or- the solar system and the origin of life.
ganic synthesis at the time of forma- The atmospheres of the outer gas
tion. We now have evidence that the giant planets (Jupiter, Satum, Um.us,
. : m e &*lec&lm&a&& &&.p& ::* - m d .Nepf&@ efi'pes(i-& yef&*Nef '-'
'

-
-cursorsof molecules essential for life extraterrestrid environment in which
. are prevalentin comets. These discov- prebioticchemistry can occur; fn.fact,.
eries have provided fWther support &om our knowledge of the composi-:
for the view that chemical evolution tion of Jupiter's atmosphere;many
has occurred Widely beyond the scientists consider it to be a g o d:
Earth. Comets may even have play&. h d e r for the priinoraiai atmosphere-.-
a major role in the organic chemical of the Earth. Jupiter's atmosphere
evolution:of the primitive Earth itself... contains the same gases (hydiogen;.
Significant amounts of important pre- methane, ammonia) that may have .
cursor rnBleCdes coutd havebeen ' ' been present when 'the Earth's atmo- '

deposited on the primitive Earth by sphere formed, and violent lightning

cometary impacts. flashes were detected in Jupiter's
Meteorites, which provide us with clouds by the Voyager spacecraft.
solid samples of extraterrestrial ma- With its abundant organic molecules
terial, represent another source of in- and electrical energy, Jupiter may be
formation about the occurrence of the site of extensive prebiotic chem-
prebiotic chemistry beyond the Earth. ical reactions that reproduce what
In 1969,meteorite analyses provided occurred on our own planet 4 to 4.5
the first convincingproof for the exist- billion years ago. We expect that fur-
ence of extraterrestrial amino acids, a ther important information on this
group of molecules necessary for life. question d l .beprovided by $he
'fiG1
..,...-.
Since then, a.largebody ~f&at'
6.sh6& informawn. -.
man.y :.. . q @ @ . p & . makes 4Wct. :::
zihaljses of tk;k tuibulent 'atmosphere"
more of the molecules necessary for of this giant gaseous world.
GEue irr a c w m k mysrterlg.A ~of the Murchison
~ t
meteorite,
whichfell on Australia in 1969. Organic matter of a type not pro-
duced lriologically wasfound in tlze meteorite.

CRIGINAE PA=
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 mk of chgs. Chemists studying possible mechanismf w the
0R169NAL PAGE o w i n of liSfehuve emphasized the likely role of clays in providing a
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH suitable environmentfor the necessary reactions.Experiments with
various clay solutions demonstrate the validity of this system as a
W e 1for the synthesis of p l y m essentialfor life under condi-
tions simulating the pmpmmOTdial ocean environment.
 CB)c%wx.- PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
We are actively exploring the origin
of life on the surface of our own plan- '
. .
et. Several recent discoveries have
provided new insights into the mecha-
nisms which may have acted to syn-
thesize biomolecules on the primitive
Earth. We have discovered that,
under geologically reasonable condi-
tions, the surfaces of certain clay min-
erals can select specific biomolecules
(molecules necessary for life) from a
can . .-
.#&gehGt&&6&;*d:s;&g&::i?:
dilute solu$ion li@,sea.wate~~
, :,.c;~:>~;:
?

them to poly-herize, or grow into

chains of more complex molecules.
Model systems based on'thisresearch
simulate a primitive tidal basin and. .
-
s.hau;ice fordf-sVaea~
proGde the b t time ari attractive
explsn fidw -
large molecules, likeproteins and .
nudeic acids, could form from*simpler
molecules present in small amounts
in the primordial oceans. These find-
ings indicate that clays could have
played'a vital role in the origin of life
on Earth.
We have also come to understand
better the puzzling data sent to us
from Mars by the Vilcing landers. Dur-
ing 1979, experiments conducted in
several university laboratories finally
reproduced the controversial mea-
surements from one of the life detec-
tion instruments. Specially prepared
clays, when mixed with salts in an
amount determined by other Viking
instruments to be present in the Mar-
tian soil, released carbon dioxide in a
fashion like that observed in the
Viking labeled release (LB) experi-
ment. More recently, it has been
shown that the activity of these same
clay-salt mixtures can be destroyed
by heat sterilization. This strong sen-
sitivity to heat, also observed in the
LR experiment, was the most lifelike
response observed in the Martian soil,
and it had been the most difficult fea-
ture to simulate on Earth up to this
 time. The discovery on Mars that a
non-biological system could exhibit
driest and coldest climates. At the
same time,the discovery suggests
1
Me-like behavior was a s&nifica.nt that Me may exist in similar environ- i
F.
finding with implications for the exo- ments on a planet like Mars, where J. '- .
t.

biological history of Mars that remain the climate closely resembles that of :. ;
- '

to be determined. These findings the dry valleys of Antarctica. The sur- t

+ - ..-q>
.'. r : -

highlight the need for continued ex- face of Martian rocks could provide .-
. . _ -
ploration of Mars, including the an effective shield from the harmful ..... ._. *
return of samples for detailed study radiation of the Sun for microbes - - -
on Earth. The data also reinforce the dwelling inside.
central role that clays may have
played
;.*>. : j;;.: . :.-.. . . ::*,-,. :..*..ingeqqatingc~e@@,re.ac-
dons of exdbblogical ipiportance;
,;.: :
Another new line of investigation
p 4p age_rrlp.t.mQer:ipher;?.".... -". .
initiated
. t&elong sekes of kvents that took .
. :
both on Earth and on the other plan- place in early biological history after
.. .
, . ets: .. . .. . . . ~ e f o ~ a t ; i o n o f t & ~ t l i ~ g.'.c e l ~ *.'
"

' ' : a ' ' '

. . Our present knowledge of the ~multidisciplinary,internationd . '

.. Mars environment indictatesthat it is team of specialists vsembled for a fif-
... . . . .
:
. . quite hostile as far as the ssurviv@of teen-month project to djscover qe,de-*.. . .
" ' ~ h h - l i kd~robrgdsms
e is con- tails of sortie of the most signific-ht
. . cerned. Mars is cold, dry,and bom-, eyents in.theeqly biological evolution..
barded.by ultravioletradiation fr6m ' of the Earth.Some of these even&in- . '

'. the S.W.However,.Earth-basedre- . clude..the origin of early microorgan- . .. . .

search continues to discover microor- isms that did not use oxygen;the
ganisms with unique abilities to development of the photosynthetic
thrive in environments previously capability to produce food-enerigr
considered to be too severe or extreme from sunlight;and the advent of oxy-
for life. The interior of Antarctica was gen-using or aerobic microrganisms.
once believed to be devoid of indige- This group is searching the Earth's
nous life forms because of its cold and ancient rocks for evidence of the
dryness. But recent work in the dry chemical reactions which preceded
valleys of the Antarctic has revealed the appearance of the first Me forms.
native microbes of three different They have already succeeded in ..
kinds. Algae, bacteria, and fungi were pushing back ht h e the direct evi- . , n

. . . discovered living comfortably, em- ' dence for lifeeon.Earthby.discovering .

,.... .:J- . .:. .:. ..~d&ecf&,cjt&&w aes&.e.ofx& mhks&&f~3:5 b&53? $'+. - ":.;.G
4 .

de&&$h.
t;
. .> A

strewn over more than 100locations lion years d;ld.'~hisunique research

'

in these frozen deserts. The finding of team approach should have a major
life in Antarctica's dry valleys extends impact on futureinvestigationsof the
the known limits of life on Earth to its organic geochemistry of early Earth.
Down thrcaugh the ages. This geologic "clockndiagramsummarizes
the histmy oj.lge on Earth and its relation to the geologic eras.(m
Pro$ J. W.SchopJ UCLA.)
 Things to Come
The new information on planetary understanding of the phenomenon i
. formation, extraterntrial chemistry, of life as a whole. .Wenow have con- .
and the effect of the Earth's environ- siderably more details than we did b!--....:: >; . . .
ment on the origin and development thirty years ago. We have direct .. .. .. .... -.:.
6.-. :
.
:
....,,:, ..:r.
. ..-
, .-
7. .
of life now provides a strong basis for knowledge of the properties of the :'
:.-.."".
.."
. ..,
looking for life (in fact, intelligent life) Moon, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Jup- .. . .;2,zh.i
;.. .
% .
...
.:...-..
..:
.

beyond the solar system. Such a iter. We have a wealth of information u .. _.,.+......-
:.>._._ +._.
.,..
/

.. ....,- .. ..
search requires a much different ap- on proteins and cells, on the low like- ;;:.:. ;:,.::....:....
...,..
. ....
-. ,

preach than sending astronauts and lihood of life on other planets in the . ._ .. ..
i.
.;>

. ,

spacecraft to nearby worlds. Because splar system,and on the forces that . _. .

...:.
of the incredible distances to even led to the formation of the solar sys- . . .:.. L. .
..
. .
... .
-
..... '.*.. ....-...... .. . ... ....... : . . -.. .fdi nearest stars, vrje.mdeS2atj-dg
theg~*sjb'&~2~4~ n*. to s ~ a rI'.c h3 :;,:...f;f?m
k i qnd,
m :bi~moleculcy.
~ Z ~ : o ~ ~W~e ~have s ~ E .g"..S.
u ~found .% ;,,~..~ ~ e
.
. .....
.

. .-...

. life'that can be detected from Emarth. be the,precursors of Me, in planet-

..
:-
. '

.. . .. ; - , . :: ., , . . :.We need.tod e t e t radi'o sign& rather . atmosph&es,.in meteorites, in.corrie%,-.' . . .:*-.. . .

"

.. .. '-

.. than metabolic Chemical reactions. .. . ind in interstellar space:We.can also .- - .

,
.. . . . ,.. . ' ' . ' .

We need to explore different stars' synthesh them qqiteereadily labo- , . . - .

rather thari just the planets around .ratory experiments. ...... .. ..

. . . . . . , . :.. . . .. . . ..
'
- .
. -
$
.
5
.'. 'ohr'Sun. And fi'naliy,we need'to'use : .- . To-discov&ah independed life " . ' '

. . a different technology, radio &on- form on another planet, 0.r even.bq- _. .. ' ,

:.omy,Ather than spacecraft.We.can' yorid the b l a i system,.still presents . . . . . '

. .,. . . , . . . ... . . .now define a program to search.for ,.achallenge unequalled inthe history.
. , ,

intelligent signals'of extraterrestrial' of scienti'gc inquiry. Although our

.. origin by using our.existingradio tele- - knowledge has increased dramat-.
scope antennas with only a small i d y over the past few decades, our '

amount of sophisticated auxiliary ability to obtain new knowledge has

equipment. The technology needed increased even more. The Earth's old-
for such a search is clearly at hand at est rocks, newly found meteorites, our
. .
this very moment. laboratories, and our huge, sensitive
After only two decades of active radio telescopes all have important . . . ..

research, scientists have compiled an roles to play as we continue our efforts

impressive list of accomplishments to learn the chemical and biological
'
.. .
and discoveries.inthe search forthe . secrets of ancient Earth and our . .
' . .. . .

.. origin of life. Studies pursued under .. . studies an the existence, nature, and . .' .. . . ,

. . .. ..;... <-:. $..

.....,.., ::.
;i
<i
. . .:.,. :&. e ' a u q $ q ~ o f ~ y.;.:.~
-e.:,':.l+.
; 2 &&&~.tion
~ ~. .:i$.
... . .. . . . .~ ~ % ~ e , - . .-.'. ;.~...=C.;.<
. p.. r ~. ~pf..u~:&.th ~~:: .

have contributed'toa &re hive&al. . '

 Selected Readings Miller, S. and L. Orgel 1974, The
. . : ...... . . . . . Origins of Life on Earth (Engel- ..
Cooper, H.S.F., 1980, The Searchfor . wood Cliffs, N. J. :Prentice-
Life on Mars: Evolution of a n Idea Hall).
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Morrison, P., J. Billingham, and 3.
Winston). Wolfe (eds.) 1977, The Searchfor
DeVincenzi, D. 1976,"Extraterres- Extraterrestrial intelligence
trial Life," in McGmw-HiU ,Year- (Washington, D.C.: NASA),
book of Science and Technology SP-419 (reprinted 1979,New
(New York: McGraw-Hill), p. 237. York: Dover).
Feinberg, G. and R. Shapiro 1980,LZfe Sagan, C. 1975, The Cosmic Connec-
'
.';: ... 4 -:.-. .4.;;.;.*-i
.
. ~ C Y &Earth (New York
::. :::>:.:;:>:-?.;';ii>.;.+,;-
. L&&$&$y;
b .
.. :i*,*~'!.:t~f~,:;~~{r.+~2~f
r..yk .
t- 4 n . E m . e e s t r @ .l Per-
f6k z ~ ~ , ~ . + g g & & ~ ~ ~ $ n e l & :muy,.:
% .
:s;.w:.
.

$,
. ::-. .*.>$G..:.:. .
~ & , & ..J: . .yf.: .:y-:&:,;! ..wA..,p . yp. . ..+ ,;. .:*.?.:. -.

.' . -
' .~renbh, B.M. 1977,M&W: l W ~ d k $ n s. : . Schopf,J.W. 1978,"TheEvoluti6n . -.

.. . . . . . . . . D i s e m d s (Washingtoni D.C,: :... .,.:..-. of the Eatliest Cells,.?.Shti@.:.. . . . . . .. . . . . . ..... ., . ...... .

... .
'
.
. NASA), EP-146.
' .
. . . . . . . ~ ~ a n , : 2 3 9 , ~ N o . 3 , p . , 1 1.0. ; .'. ...: .~. . . . . .
. . .
a , . .

Goldsmith, b.and T.Owen 1980, %' Shklovskii, 1:s. and C. Sagan 1968, .
. . . : SearchfbLi,fei n the Universe
'

. . : Inteiligenti;@?ein the Universe

-.. . . .;1 ...........
.(~+jjb hr&,.~&.f.
'

me ..-.. : :; . * . . . .*(N~'+y*r~Rfku,I~dfta:)..5
, ,

.
...... ..+.. .-:-. ... . .. . : .. :. * : ;. .>: .**. ... . . .,
. .. . .
. . . ' .
.. BenjaminlCummings Pfiblishirag
: . . '. . .
. . . .*
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . : . ...:.. . . . .
. .
" .
..
.............
. .

. . . LZfe:
. Origin and ~volution1979,(San . . . . . I / . ...', . . '.: .
, , ,.: .: ,,
" ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frahcisco: W.H. Freeinah. * '

..and Co.). ,
. . _ : . . ... . . . . >
 Chapter 7

THE .. . ,

LONG

~hlb~kh~ hid&* s&k&. TheVenus

Orbiting k & n g h d a r (VOLR) spaceyaft .
wozild give scientists theirfirst detailed uiew
of thesurfacee'tqpographyof V m b . A power-.
.@l.amelar, camrZrLed on the ~ ~ & % . , , w d L . . ;'':
9-ate detailed images of the planet k can: '

&m mountains,
, .and corztin~t-*ed lu@ .. '
masses iiy i y c i n g through the ,multiple-
cloud layers that always shroud Earth k sis-
terworld. . . -.' . ' ' . .

ORIGINAL; PAG9
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 I

T he climb into space has made

us unique. We are the h t gen-
eration of human beings to study the
universe directlyfrom the high ground
!.
C- .
L . .:
v!>.. .:.,
L.

k:..
? ...'..
:.
: .
.......
!; -.-;.:
.;a:

.-
;,':r.:. ;>;tc
of space itself. From this new perch, ?..- ......
.. :. ,!..:.
.. ..., .. .
. ....... ..
we have made discoveries that would .-•
,.. ~.
::.: .:,; -> . .
have seemed impossible to the an- . ... . ... . .
. ............
-,. .,
.. . ., .
cients and unbelievable even to the : .. .,. .. .
scientists of a generation ago. .. . . .. ...
.. . .. "The past i$ but the.beginning of..., ."". .- . .. ;*.. . '.. ,.. . For all our climbing, we have not . . . .
...... ". a.b e " . ~ g. , ~&a is h ~ . '
, . *. :.&aEhQ.&.%&&.., onlj. an..gb.fr.m. ' '.* . ' -..-' -"
"

been is but the twilight of the dawn." . .. ' . which we'cai~betterglimpse the . . . .

. .. .. .. .. H.G-Ws.,.TheD i s c o v q : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : -..momtains.bey~nd:'Weha~e.seached.. . . . .-- -.'.i

. . . .. . _ . ~oftiiFuture,l901. .. . .. .. . .... ... .. :-apoint from which to observe; a b a e . .: . . . . ?
. .
. . .. from which to explore further,.and we
. .. . . ..
. . .. . . . . . . . . . .
*
:. ,. > , . . . ... I
.. .
. ? .. .." have
0'-
learned how best to continue.. . .
our'Mvestigati6ririofthe hniverse. . . . .
. .
(I

-. . .. .. . . Because we.have found so much,. . . . .

. . . - .
: we'nowknowHow'muchli.lorethere .' .: , . ' '-

is to learn and how to proceed to . .

. . ......::..... . . . ?
,
.'
. i . C ,

'study it. The necessary 601s exist or

can be built. The spacecraft can be .
flowniand their data deciphered. A
few new missions, already approved,
are under development Many more
are being intensively studied, so that
they too may come to fruition. The
future missions, and the research that . . . .
...
they will undertake, concern the sub-
jects that we have already begun to
explore: the solar system, Earth-Sun . .. . .. .
. . .. .
. . . . relations, the outside universe, and ... . . _
.... .:,:...
:
. . -. . .: ).
S*.... .* .....
,.
<.',.$:,.: .... ..
,.:.... .-...
,
. -
. .'
...._
....
T.....;. . ..*+;
. -
,
..::D.
. .
..;
. . .
., -....
..;.: . -:... . ,
. . .
....
y..,i.e..?~-MeL_: s:
L i :
.:!
. . . . . .. . .:;
l;.,;_..ft
.
:
..
. : .&
. . .
<..:i+.~.::~*:.>..
. . .
l z

....
P ,.
:yz..;..
.:'. .
'
 The Voyager 2 Saturn encounter in
August, 1981,marks the end of an era
in planetary exploration. All of the
planets known to the ancient astron-
omers have been visited by spacecraft;
the reconnaissanceof the inner solar
system will be finished. There will be
no new planetfall until Voyager 2
succeeds in getting a close view of
Uranus in 1986: ..
::;
-.--i * .Reconimis;sance.i+.n& e h d & , ;,.
- however. Many tantalizing-questions
cannot-beanswered by spacecraft .
flashing quickly past these worlds, and
new and unexpected questions have
been raised by the very data sent back
to us.
We are now ready to begin a dif-
ferent phase in the exploration of the
solar system, a period of careful,sys-
tematic study. For this we will need
heavier, more sophisticated space-
craft, longer observation times, and
much larger data returns. Such mis-
sions and their new generations of
instruments will be based on the
immense knowledge that we have al-
ready obtained.
The next generation of planetary
exploration missions which will be
launched in the mid-1980s and beyond
will begin with the Gulileo mission to
Jupiter, which is intended to begin
the detailed exploration of the outer
gas giant planets.
The concept for Gulileo is a two-
spacecraft mission. One is a probe that
would plunge into the Jovian atmos-
phere, measuring the chemical com-
position as it descends, until, more
than 100kilometers (62 miles) down,
it succumbs to the intense pressure.
The second spacecraft vlrquld go into . . :
. - --,... ,.:.:..
'*&bit.m d . J u p i - a n t h u ~ w 1 y . .; .- ..... :, d. ... -1 :. i-i::,.
photographing the planet's clouds-
and weather, measuring the magnetic
field, and taking close-up pictures of
its moons. Galileo would study Jupiter
in detail, not on a quick flyby, but
over a period of a year or two, and
it will bring us a long way toward
understanding this giant planet, its
huge magnetic field, and its mysteri-
ous moons.
Although we have explored the
inner terrestrial planets in some de-
tail,one remains hidden. The surface
of Venus, beneath its thick, opaque
atmosphere, is still largely unknown.
We have some crude radar maps made
by Pioneer Vexus, but their resolution
is only a few kilometers, not enough
to let us compare the details of Venus
with those of the other worlds whose
surfacesare in full view.
 A new spacecraft mission has plunge into Saturn's atmosphere and a
been proposed to fill this gap. Called second to analyze the atmosphere of
VOIR (for Venus Orbiting Inmging the large moon, Titan.
Radar), it would carry a large radar Closer to Earth,among the ter-
into orbit around Venus. The radar restrial planets, Mars still demands
waves can penetrate the clouds and our attention. It is better understood
make accurate images of the surface, and more hospitable than Venus, but
detecting features as small as a foot- it is still a puzzle in many ways. We
ball field. The resulting maps would need to find out the nature of its
cover almost the entire surface of rocks and soil and to search more
Venus, an area four times as large as thoroughly for possible life. A more
the total land area of the Earth, and sophisticated lander, a sort of super-
. . . . .. . .. wquld.4)seadequate to show such fea- < ...-Viking, is o m pbssibipify..A more'ex- .
. tures volcanoes, meteorite craters, .citingand advanced, yet wholly feasi-
d channels,. . .ble, idea is to send a robot spacecraft .
crustal fractures, a ~ river
We wib then be able to'com$are'the . to land, collect a load of Martian rocks
geology andhistory of Venus in detail and sou, and return to Earth, just as
with what we have learned from other the USSR Luna spacecraft collected'
.. . . worlds, to discover.how Venus fits in' samples fromthe Moon. It-maybe ' . "
with the rest of the terrestrial planets. that only on Earth,with the full re-
. The year 1985will be a special. sources of our laboratoriesfocused - :
occasion for the study of small bodies on returned Mat.tian samples, can we
in the solar system. It will mask the fihally settle the ancient questions
return of Halley's Comet to the neigh- about Mars: its composition, its his-
borhood of the Sun. This bright comet, tory, and its life or lack thereof.
which returns about once every 76
years, has been sighted on over two
dozen visits to the inner solar system
since its first recorded appearance in
the year 240 B.C. Now, however, for
the first time we may go out to meet
it. Several countries, including Japan
and the USSR, are planning to send
spacecraft out to investigatethe comet
. .. ... itp + y ~ q q y d @.eSF.. .NA.% ., . .
is considering a coordhated progi-am
of Earth- and satellite-based obser- Prosgectr'ryr tneplains o f M m . A Mars
vations when the comet appears in Sample Return mission,shown here accord-
our sky. ing to one design concept, would carry on'
Other missions are under study where the Viking mission k f 08This mis-
sion would continue th.e stwlu af the chemi-
for the more distant future. After cal, geological, and physical &&perties of
Galilee explores Jupiter, Saturn Mars and would search.hwther.fwevidence
should be the next step in our de- of past or present lve byrevisiting the red
tailed investigation of the gas-giant planet. Upon landing, the robot spacecraf
would install instruments and qpemte a
planets. Plans are under discussion smaU Rmer vehicle ( k f fweground). Most
for a Saturn Orbiter, resembling important,it would collect rock and soil
Galilee, that would make a lonasur-
vey of the ringed planet and its-family
of at least 15moons. The Orbiter
~ ~ ~ " , ~ ~
Gci- that u~ouldbe W h t to

ascent stage Cstreamlined deuice atov lander

might also carry two probes, one to spacecraftatright).
 The small bodies of the solar sys- will be not fuel but sunlight. Large
tem-thousands of asteroids and bil- solar panels on the engine convert I
lions of comets-are also important sunlight into electricity. The electric- \
targets for future space exploration. ity is applied to a supply of atoms, I .-
None of them has ever been visited by perhaps of the element mercury. The ..- .
a spacecraft,and their compositions atoms become ionized (electrically .., . ...._
and detailed natures are largely un- charged) and are hurled out of the ; .,-:;. ,
_ ..
. -.-
known. They are primitive objects engine. The reaction &om thisjet of
that date back to the earliest days of departing atoms pushes the rocket .. - .
..
the solar system. Comets, preserved in inlinitesimally forward. A SEPS en-
the cold regions beyond Pluto, may gine can produce only a weak thrust,
give us an unchanged sample of what but the thrust can be applied contin-
". .'. ' '
,

. .. . ... . . - . u . . $hqor@nal.901ar tle5tll6'was-Ue.The. uously forweeks or inbnths,~zhtil'tti'&~ '

'

asteroids retain the history of how all supply of mercury runs out Even a
. . .. . . .. .originalthe tiny:bodies forqed and.grewin *e .very small force W.accelerate the . .
solir'system; before.they .spacecraft to a surprisinglyhigh ppeed :
. . were collected into larger worlds like when it acts over a lorig time.
.. . . the Earth. SEPS, or something like it, is es- .
. .
. .. Even after the quick flybyspast sentid if exploratiofi of the solar sys-. . "

-Halley'sComet in 1986, we will still tem is to continue. Without it, we can

. need.to send out more spacecrart.to do litt1e:more than we have done, and' , -
scan'theseobjects at close range, to many aspects of the solar system will
rendezvous with other comets dnd remain a closed book. Our accessto
study them for long periods of time, to distant worlds, and our ability to make
determine the exact nature and com- more thorough studies of nearby
position of asteroidal surfaces, and worlds, depend on the thrust that
even to collect and return samples of SEPS, or a comparable system, can
these bodies to Earth. provide.
To orbit distant worlds like Some of the future of space ex-
Saturn and Uranus, or to go out to ploration may lie closer to home, on
rendemous with comets or asteroids, the Moon. We have learned much
we need a boost, a more powerful about the Moon, but it remains mys-
means of propulsion than we now terious in many ways. We actually
have. One possible solution is a pro- have sampled only nine lunar loca-
pulsion system that would operate tions. Thenature and composition of
only in space, the SolarElectric Pro- the rest of the Moon are unknown and
pulsion System or SEPS. SEPS could much debated. We have no samples
be used to carry spacecraft launched at all from the far side of the Moon,
from the S p e Shuttle even further that never faces Earth. We do not
and faster into space. know what causes the mysterious
' .
The energy source for SEPS glows and clouds that have appeared
 and disappeared on the Moon on var- study stage. Other countries, includ-
ious occasions over the past 200 years. ing the European Space Agency
We have not explained the fossil mag- (ESA), are also considerjng the polar
netism preserved in lunar rocks, nor orbiter project.
unraveled the mystery of whether the The Moon may some day be more
Moon has an iron core. We have virtu- than just a scientilictreasure. A major
ally no information about the Moon's concern of our long-term future in
polar regions, where water and other space is the question of resources. If
gases may still remain as frozen de- we decide to build large structures-
posits in the permanent shadows. power satellites, research stations, or
Apollo was a glorious beginning habitats-in space, where will we get
$oJunage~ploration,but.we cannot,. the materials? Will we lift them up out . ..
r;;. . .... ..: .. :.:........; . . .
a

. ' & e C ~ e ~ + C C Q ~ & ~ . ~ ~ - +.Io.b$@tk-l$~l&~tz$tig&vi@ fieida&a

::,a
?
. :? -;.?. .:.
* .
. study the Moon on a systematic global great cost in fuel, launch facilities,
basis. The RussianA have already dem- and.possible environmentalimpacts?
onstrated, W i t h their automatic Luna Or can we .use materials that are.al-
spacecraff, how samples can be ready present 'fup there" in space?
brought back, at relatively low cost, Studies of moon roc@ and mete-
'

from additional regions'of the Moon: orites teli'us that the Moon and the ... LI .
Another method of global lunar ex- asteroids da contain criticaland nee-
ploration involves a spacecraft that essary elements: aluminum, silicon,
would be placed in an orbit that . iron, titanium, and oxygen, and even
passes over the Moon from pole to hydrogen and carbon in some aster-
pole. In such an orbit, the spacecraft oids. There is a continuing contro-
would eventually scan the entirelunar versy over whether, how, and when
surface. A battery of instruments these materials can be mined and
would map the chemistry,gravity, used in space. So far, no fundamental
magnetism, and thermal properties of barriers have been identified,but
the whole Moon. Other instruments there are a host of technical, eco-
would search the polar regions for nomic, and social problems to be re-
frozen water in the permanently solved before a new generation of
shadowed areas. This project would "forty-niners"goes into space. These
complete the mapping begun by discussions and studies should con-
Apollo. It would give us the h t tinue, so that we will understand bet-
thorough scientific data base for a ter what we can now do in space if we
whole new world, with which we can want to. Only a generation ago, the
better understand the global proper- idea of going to the Moon was science
ties not only of the Moon but of other fiction.A generation from now, the
planets as well. mining of the Moon might be routine.
NASA's consideration of such a
mission has not proceeded beyond the
 uv t0i&4:;.!;:
. as,;-? i.g'
\. .. -.' " ...
TheSufi,theEarth, and6TnBetueefi" 08; $;c;<z.F;
-4 ,.*."
; ; , ; 'c (I.,!*,.
<.

c.
;,.
.c,...r

We now know that the Sun touches
the Earth not only with heat and .
light but with magnetic fields and
streams of charged atoms that fill what
we once thought of as empty space.
In the near future, for both scientific
and practical reasons, we need to
study both the Sun itself and the
dynamic phenomena in space that
bind us to it.
In the past, we have always had
L.
a spacecraft over the poles of the Sun.
Nevertheless, a mission isnow
being planned to send spacecraft over
the Sun's poles. The extra thrust
needed will come, not from a new
kind of thruster, but from the planet
Jupiter! In this program to explore the
Sun's polar regions, spacecraft would
be launched, not toward the Sun, but
toward Jupiter. On reaching the giant
planet, the spacecraft would cross

- . .
'
. .
-:, .*-:* "4 .-.?
'..
"
to look at the Sun sideways. The
.'......
- . B&$8*it.&~e&i&*ia&
-'
over its north or south pole and be . . ..
'.:~~wbjr.~a~~&s;@~&~!gra$~~
solar equator, and from Earth we see. field back toward the Sun like a pebble
;,. :,...:. yi.
'
" ..:(:::i.:di.
;. >If;..<. ,

clearly only the Sun's midsection..The whirled from.a slingshot. (Similar

higher latitudes are harder to se6, and grawity-assist maneuvers around Jup-. . .
. the polar regions of the Sun we ex- iter were used with the Pioneer 11,
. . ..
%. tremely dif5eul.t to study from the
Earth. sp$sc&& Ia~ched.frdmy.
Voyager 1-and Voyager2 spacecraft :
. to propel-themtmafd satom:)
' . .. , .- . - . ...
. Earth generally are constrained to re- . With the extra speed provided by - . . ..
main neak the plane of the Earth's Jupiter, the spacecraft wodd be aimed'
.. orbit, and @us are subject to the to pass over the Sun's north or south
same viewing limitations. pole. A battery of instruments would
Yet it i;s at the Sun's poles, as we be used to measure the streams of
learned from observations in space, solar wind particles and to record the
that some of the most significant and magnetic fields associated with the
unexpected solar processes occur. solar-wind.A variety of other measure-
Above the Sun's poles, streams of ments would be carried out as well.
charged particles pour out into space This mission would give us our first
through the coronal holes. To under- indication of what the Sun and its
stand the Sun and its effects on surroundings are like in three dimen-
Earth, we need somehow to rise up sions, thus literally adding a new di-
and look at the Sun from above and mension to our understanding of the
below. But we do not have an existing interactions between the Sun and the
propulsion system capable of carrying Earth.

Getting a boustjbrn Jupiter. lb learn more about the Sun, we need to investigate itfrom
closer range and especiallyjbnabove its polar regions, the last u w l o r e d zones of the
solar atmosphere. Present spacm2wopuk;ion devices are not adequate to send a craft
directly over the solar poles, but it would be possible to launch a spacerraftfrom Earth out
around Jupiter, w h a s e p o w ~gravity
l can boost a spacecraftout of the plane of the planets'
orbits (page 168) and into a new tmjectory that would send i t racing over thesun (page 171).
ThisJigureshows a mission concept involving two spacecraft,which would s-imultaneously
explore the north and southpoles of the Sun.
 Understanding all the details of more would be placed in orbits (one
the Sun-Earth interactions is a d B - polar, one equatorrial) around the
cult problem. The volume of space to observe the interaction of
that is involved is huge and filled with the solar-originated particles and
complex phenomena: magnetic fields, fields with the Earth's atmosphere
solar-wind streams, the Earth's mag- and magnetic field. The fourth would
netosphere,and belts of high-energy be located on the side of the Earth
radiation. These features change con- opposite the Sun, to record distwb-
g positions and varying ances that take place in the Earth's
in intensity. To follow and understand magnetic tail downstream from the
these changes, we need to make con- Sun.
tinuous measurements at widely-sep- With thesegpacecraft makingsirn- .
arbted locations simuItanebusly~SO -" rul~eous'me'mur6meiits, we would
far, we only have data from a few . the data to construct a "movie"
isoM.ed spacecraft moving on limited - interactions: We
orbits. Txying to comprehend the full could detect changes in the Sun's
'

complexities of the Sun-Earth inter- . forces and see how the Earth responds
action curre'ntly is like trying to re- to thiem. We could match the-data
construct a motion picture from a few with infonhation from weather satel-
individual frames. Inevitably,there are .lites and ground-based weather sta-
still great gaps in our hderstanding. . tions to gauge the effects of the Sun
' We now need to make a system- on the weather. This project would be
atic study of the Sun-Earth region. A an expedition to explore the space
mission under study would involve the between Earth and Sun, but its dis-
simultaneous launch and operation of coveries would be used on Earth,
four heavily instrumented spacecraft. hopefully to improve weather predic-
One would be located between the tion, to understand and perhaps
Earth and Sun to measure approach- prevent communications interference,
ing disturbancesin the solar wind and and to discover the Sun's long-term
the interplanetarymagnetic field. Two effects on our climate.

ORlGlNAL P
Bm
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
 O%SIO!MAI, PAGE
60COR PHOTOGRAPH
 The universe beyond the solar system
has become almost unrecognizable
since the Space Age began. It is no
longer viewed as the peaceful stellar
background that earlier astronomers
envisioned; instead, it is a region billed
ge forces, turbdent clouds
of dispersed matter, and unexplained
floods of energy. How can we begin to
comprehend it all?
First, we need to observe the uni-
verse from space over longer periods
of .time..$!luch of QW kqowledge comes:
&om instrumints lifted above our at-
mosphere, on rockets or satellites,for
short periods of tim'e,,a few'mhutes; a'
few months and; in a 'few cases; a year
or two. Each instrument has seen
only a w t e d spectral range-ultra- . .
violet or ~-riiy.s, for example-so that
it has been W c u l t to observe differ-
ent radiations:froi a single' object at
the same time. We have many b g - . . .
mentary and exciting observations,
but still no systematic view of the
puzzling and awesome phenomena
that have been discovered.
This knowledge gap will be partly
filled in the mid- 1980s, when we fi-
nally realize the age-old dream of
astronomers to place a long-lived ob-
servatory outside the Earth's atmo-
sphere, where it would command an
unobstructed view of space. This pro-
ject, the Space...... Telescope,is now .
. . . . . . a . *.. .; .> ** ;.*v. :.... ..<..--: . -:... .a;, ....::'
. .. ... ..".'
. .... . -..

kAM)-mwC&Fbk*hn
Telescope,with a planned launch into Earth
orbit in the mid-f980s, will give astronomers
the most poweful wiew yet of the universe
around us. Pr-d with a complement of
advanced cameras, spectrogmphs, and other
devices, it will see muchfurther than ground-
basal telescopes and withfar greater clarity,
obtaining pictures of unprecedented shaq-p-
ness and astrophysical measuremevhtsof
uniquesensitivity. Researchers can then ob-
s m e distant galaxies as they appeared when
light rays lefi them billions of years ago.
 under way and scheduled for launch many strange new thingsthat we can-
in the mid-1980saboard the Space not now imagine because we have
Shuttle.The spacecraft will cany a never been able to see so far or so well
mighty telescope2.4 meters (94 inches) before.
in diameter, highly automated, and Space Telescope m o t do every-
capable of seeing, not only in visible thing, however. It cannot detect aB
light, but in ultraviolet and eventually the radiations and energies that as-
in infrared as well. tronomers need to examine. Although
The hunch of Space Telescopewill it will be the heart of astronomical
be a maor event in astronomical his- research during the 1980sand 1990s,
tory, like the construction of the great other specialized space instruments
Mount Wilson and Mount Palomar re- are required to complement its work.
flectors several decades ago. It will Among these is IRAS (<nmred.As.-..
'truly bk a major observatory in space. ' & m y Sadlite), which is under de-
Although the Space -Telescopeis only velopment as a collaborative project
.abaut half the size of the 200-inch - by the 'UnitedState's, the Netherlands,.
(.5-meter)Hale ~elescope on Mdunt . and the Uiiited Kingdom. This is a
'
.
Palornar, it has no cloudy, wavering smaller telescope that can detect in-
air to look through, and it will see five frared radiation of types that the Space
times as far into the d v e r s e as well ~elescopecannot obseive. rrZAS will
as obtain images of unp~edented. give us a view of the cooler regions of
sharpness: with 'thespakee; ~ e l e s c o p , .the universe, the dust clouds that are
we can study many other galaxies . the birthplaces of the stars, and the
almost as easily as we now study the core of our galaxy, where intense and
stars of our own Milky Way. We will unseen energies apparently are hid-
see more clearly the distant, energetic den behind a screen of dust.
objects that puzzle us: quasars, active The Space Age has shown us not
galaxies, and neutron star binary sys- only a universe of light and heat, but a
tems. Because we will see galaxies so universe of high-energy radiations-
much further away, we will view the X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic-ray
universe as it was long ago, and we can particles-which come from violent
begin to better comprehend how it and mysterious sources. To study this
has evolved. We will doubtless see aspect of the universe, we need more
 sensitive and capable instnunents in make a systematic study of the X-ray
space. No single instrument or $pace- sky and its puzzling sourdes and ex- .
'

craft can record all of these radiations plosions. Another spacecraft,carrying

at once, so a series of projects is under instruments to detect weak microwave
consideration. Each would observe a and infixred radiation, would look
part of the complex array of radiation; . even further out and much further
together they would give us a better back in time. It would look for radia-
view of the energetic side of the uni- tion from the early expanding universe
verse. and would scan the sky for slight
One project would focus entirely differences in the background that
on the highest-energy radiations of all should give us clues to the details of
:,.
:. 5 *:-?* - -2 - g w w ~qy~..An
,y,,,iv
. .
2-2 spi&& E@e:bl@g ~ .6
((the &MRal/
.... . ~ W,G ~vy:ht.Wgeged
. .Y
?&d&+*&$g+&j b**;
sh~@y!,,-
..., ,..*>
>.? - ..
- .
3 ;+'*
a *

tory) wiU.canyseveral detectors to' When such advzinced instruments

look at gamma raysof all kinds and- .
energies. It will detect and observe. -
new gamma ray s0urces.h the sky, in-
.. ..:vestigate the gamma ray bacFcground
radiation that comes'towkd Eahh
from all directionsln space, and ana- .
lyze the "bursters," those mysterious
powerfully eruptingsources of intense
gamma rays. During the few seconds
of a typical gamma ray burst, its un-
known source briefly outshines the
whole universe in gamma rays.
Different instruments, canied by
other spacecraft, could make detailed
observations of the other powerful
radiations from space. A wide variety
of possible programs could be pur-
sued. For example, an advanced
system for detecting X-rays would
are finally placed in space, above t h e ,
.blanketing atmosphere in which we
five, we will have made a major step.
5.
forward @ seeing $he universe as i& ' '
reayis. We ccin'then sense all of its
energies, from the weakest microwave
(radio) radiations to the strongest
bursts of gamma rays.uWe will see
faint and mysterious objects dearly,
and we will be able to look steadily at
objects that have only been seen in
quick, snatched glances. We will then
begin to accumulate the facts we need
to answer the many questions about
the universe, to plan future experi-
ments and new missions, and to dis-
cover new mysteries and questions
whose existence we do not now even
suspect.
 A laboratow in space. Spacelab, an orbiting labomtorgfacility pnnrided by the European
Space Agency andjlown on NASA's Space Shuttle, will be i n s t m ~ t e with
d wperiments
designed by scientistsfmm many differentfields of space research.A few researchers, called
O ~ ! ~ :' h A pAGi payloadspeciaLists, mayjZy along with the astronaut crew,to conduct thtxzywriments.Shown
COLOR P H O T O G R A ~ ~here is an artist S conception of Spaceiab 2, which will conduct investigationsplanned by
eleven US.scientz@ii teams and by two groups i n the UnitedKingdom. Fields of study include
li,fesciences, astronomy,solar physics, plasma research, and liquid helium technology.
Return of theHumans. CZ!C,;r!t.L PAGE
COLOR Pt-iJTOGRAPH

The 1960s were the first decade of on human beings? Can humans read-
Man in Space. The 1980s w i l l be just just to Earth's gravity after long . .
as sigmflcant, but in a different way. periods spent in space? Some of the
The launch and operation of the Space answers can be found in studies on
Shuttle have begun a new kind of Earth. For most of them, however, we
space travel. Large numbers of men need the experience that flights of the
and women, astronauts and scientists, SpaceShuttle will provide.
will soon travel almost routinely into If humans are to live in space on a
space, not to explore an unknown and permanent basis, we must then de-
possibly dangerous environment, but sign the systems that they will need.
to observe, work, and live in space. Our spacecraft systems to date-
. . me &qce.Shutt& fli&ts, lasting -..* Gqmini,.Appll~,
h**&..M.&up*&&,**ybi2f@.:
even the SpaceShut:&; .>:&...-..
<,. . *.&&ae&&&h&f@.~f&&; s

time for long scientific arid biomedical ment of supplies needed for their short
experiments that have not been pos- missions, enough to allow for the con- .
sible since the SIcylab flights of 1973- sumption of food and the graduaI .
1974. In the natural or "shirtsleeve" exhaustion of oxygen. These systems
environment inside the Shuttle,in- are both Wasteful and inadequate for .
' s ~ ~ e l icari mudifled<.': long missions:E'of ion&r trips, we" ".: . .. "
t s beSaperk't;ed; "

and.even.repaired by scientists on the ' need to design life-support systems

spoa 'Among other missians, the Shut- thatwill recycle water and oxygen . .'
tle will carry a complete scientific over long periods of time. We also
1aGoratory called Spucelab into space. need to develop ways of producing
'

Chemical and materials-processingex- food in space, whether from plants,

periments will be done Eo investigate from small animal farms, or even from
'

suitable applications of the weightless the products of our own metabolism.

("zero G") environment. We do not need these systems to op-
A major advantage of the Space erate the SpaceShuttle,but we will
Shuttle is that it makes possible more need the experience from Space
detailed biomedical experiments on Shuttle to develop the systems for
the human ability to adapt and func- future use.
tion in space. These studies are espe- Because we have been so success-
cially important for the future, ful in going into space, serious con-
because they will provide the infor- sideration is now given to ideas that,
mation we need to plan longer mis- not long ago, were found only in sci-
sions for humans in space. ence fiction. Current scientific work-
Looking beyond the SpaceShut- shops and political debates focus on
tle, there is much to be done before such possibilities as mining the Moon,
astronauts can set out for Mars, be- building space-based solar power sta-
fore we can st& permanent space tions, even establishingsizable popu-
stations or build bases on the Moon. lations in space. We do not know yet if
We must first discover whether peo- these things are possible. In the next
ple truly can live in space for long few years, research, both on the
periods of time. What are the psycho- ground and in space, should provide
logical effects of weightlessness? Can the answer to whether humans can
calcium loss from bones in space be be permanent residents of space and
controlled or reversed? What are the should illuminate the prospects for
long-term effects of space radiations what can be accomplished there.
 ...And Others?
The discovery of extraterrestriallife,
whether intelligent or not, remains
for the future. The negative results
from the Moon and the ambiguous
results from Mars give no indication
that we have company in the solar
system, but the intense interest in
this subject leads us to explore other
possible habitats for life: Jupiter, Sat-
urn's moon Titan, and certain as.yet
unexplored regions of Mars. Space-
craft observations or the return of
samples to Earth may yield definite '
answers, even if they are negative.
. Regardless of whether.the solar
system outside the Earth proves.in-
hospitable and lifeless, there are bil-
lions of stars beyond.it. Here we must
deal both with speculation and with
probabilities. A certain percentage of
.the stars are like the Sim, a fraction of
those suns may have planets, a per-
centage of those planets may have life,
on a percentage of those planets life
may have evolved to the intelligent -
state, a percentage of those planets
with intelligent beings may be the
sites of technical civilizations. .. . The
odds against each individual step
may be tremendous, but there are so
many billions upon billions of stars in
our galaxy and so many galaxies in the
universe that the odds in favor of . that the solar system is not unique .
life- even intelligent life-somewhere
else in space seeem ove~helming. Just
as the radio and television signals
broadcast on Earth a few years ago
now are spreading out past the stars
in our own neighborhood, so rmght
signals fromother Ue-forms be passing
us at thisvery moment,
The stars are far away, and we
can't go to them to look for life, not for
awhile anyway. Even so there are
methods that we can adopt on Earth,
at modest cost, to look for life else-
where in the universe. One thing we
czin do is look for planets around the
nearer stars, to ch'eck our theory that
the s o h system is not unique, to
verify at least one link in the chain of
logic which suggests that intelligent
life must be common in the universe.
We may not be able to see plan-
ets around the nearest stars, even
with the S ' e Telescope. Planets are
too small and dim, and the nearest
stars are still too far. But we can
detect other planets-possibly even
from the ground-by making carefid
measurements of the motions of near-
by stars. Planets orbiting around a
star would cause tiny wiggles in its
motion across the sky. With high-pre-
cision observations,we perhaps can
determinethat a star has planets, even
though we could not see them. Proof
would be a major scientiiic discovery
in any case. It would also be an impor- .. .
Listening to the stars. Radio telescopes i n
NASA 'sI)eepSpace Network regularly track
interplanetar#spacecraf. Withm i w modi-
.f~atiqns,some day they could also be used to
searchfor s i g n a k m intelligent beings on
Uleplanets of distant stars.
tant step toward the eventual discov-
ery of life elsewhere. .
Another way to discover extra-
terrestrial life is simpler: sit back and
listen. The huge and highly developed
radio telescopes now operating on
Earth can be equipped to detect arti-
ficial signals amid the cacophony of
natural radio sources in the sky. (Suit-
ably instrumented antennas many
light years away could likewise pick
up .and recoep?ize the radio and video
,+:
.,s~*&~;l*3N;~e~&*iiiiggi~~tcaSir~,*~~~
the'~arth;) .'

. B few limited attempts to detect

communications from other civiliza-
tions have already been made. We can
begin now to listen more sensitively -
iiii8s~;rstematicalIy -
f o i ~ u c signah
h - ''

$.om other civilizations,and we could.

defect them whether they wkre ad- .
dressed to us or not. Some ideas for
doing this have already been de-
veloped, and most of the necessary
equipment is already in place. With a
modest investment for improvements
in existing radio telescopes, and some
shrewd guesses about where and how
to listen, a systematic search for other
life could be started now. The "First
Contact,"about which so many science
fiction stories have been written, may
yet come in our own lifetime, if we
take the trouble to listen.

CJC!Gif.:AL PAGE
COLOR pH0TOGRe.H
Space Scie~ceon the Ground
The future exploration of space will
need more than spacecraft and astro-
nauts. Much research and study can,
and must, be done on the ground if we
are to go further. Ground-based
studies and observations provide the
data needed to plan space missions, to
support the missions while they are in
progress, and to make detailed analy-
ses of the data that spacecraft gather.
In many cases, ground-based observa-
tions are our only source of data about
things that spacecraft cannot yet ex-
plore: the outermost planets, celestial
radio sources, and some aspects of
very husual and.distant objects in
the universe.
Ground-based astronomy will not
die out in the Space Telescopeera.
There are still many aspects of astro-
nomical research that cannot be ac-
commodated by observatories free of
the Earth's atmosphere. Our present
radio telescopes are much larger and
better equipped for many kinds of
observations than anything we can
send into space. They not only can
listen for the natural and artificial (if
any) sources in the radio sky, but they
also can transmit radio waves from
Earth, to bounce off distant moons,
asteroids, and planets, and even the
Sun itself. Such measurements can
yield hard information on the surface
structure and gross physical prop-
erties of large asteroids, well before
we can hope to explore them with a
spacecraft. Optical and inlhred tele-
scopes are needed to cany out sur-
veys, to analyze new problems, and to
conduct cooperative observationsin
support of X-ray telescopes and other
space instruments.
The collections of extraterrestrial
material that we now have-moon
rocks, meteorites, and cosmic dust-
are still important sources of new data
on problems that no spacecraft or
telescope currently can properly at-
tack: the physical and chemical na-
ture of asteroids, the early history of
planets, the past history of the Sun, '
and the nature of the solid materials
in comets. Even past mjssions still
have much to contribute. The data
from our recent Pioneers, Vikings,
and Voyagers, which arrived in such
floods, are still being studied, sifted,
and compared. The continuing analy-
sis of these data is providing further
information on the worlds that the
missions explored, as well as insight
A
for planning more extensive return
visits.
Ground-based scientific studies
are the foundation on which all of our
explorations of the universe from
space have been built. This work is
still essential in planning and canying
out future explorations. Just as a
spacecraft should not be flown from a
poorly. constructed and badly main-
tained launch pad, so our future
studies of the uriiverse will necessi-
tate that our ground-based facilities
and research capabilities be main-
tained.
 The fim~head
From our new vantage point, the uni-
.veme awaits us,,s.~.holdin
t e an: . . . . . .. .. . . . :. ,

swers to unexplored ques'tions; What ' . .

are the mechanisms that sustain the

tremendous energy sources that we
have found in space?What is the
surface of Venus like, and why is it
apparently so different from those of
the other terrestrial planets? How will
. the Sun aBect our weather and cli-
mate in the future?What are we doing
to our own atmosphere, and what are
..- . ; ; : i ~ ; $ ~ l..k.*
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the arkye- to theke' . . ' . ' . . ' . . .
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questions dephds on us. We see no .' . .

. technical barriers to going further into. . . . ' . . .. .. . .
. .
. ,
. . . ..
. . : . . . . -.;* @ a c e . o r . t o . l i t ~ ~ HQW
. ~ e rwe.pr0.:
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. . .
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.teed dependson our purpose, our . .
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. -.&, and,on,econornic,political, and.; ..: . . .. . - . . . . .. .. .. #. .
.............
. .: ......... . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. ... . .
a>. s
.

. 'k.3

cultural factors that are beyond scien- . .

... : . . . . ..I... ..> . - .
. .
.. ; tific calculation. The lessonbf space . '

. .
explorations so far is simple: We can . .
. go bn qwewant to. The future jii in.
' : ' . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

our hands.
 This appendix summarizes some significant
develspments in thejields of space science
that are discussed in the preceding chapters
of the book. In order to p t thefindings in the
appropriate scientific and historical con-
&xts, certain discoveries not stemmingj%vm
the Space Program are also included. L)ue to

. .
:......... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
a .( - .:. . . . . .
. . .
.
. .
:

....
........
1:. .. 5' ........ :.* . ::-. ,....... .,.. .$

. . . . .... . ... .. . .
:;. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . .

. . .. . .. . ... . .. . . . . . . ...). . . . . . . . . I .

From our naofoothold in space, we look bat,

at ourselves.

12%
 First spacecraft impact on the Moon:
Luna I (USSR), 1959.
Discovery that the lunar farside con-
sists h o s t entirely of highhnd
regions, with no maria (large dark
bash): Luna 3,1959.
Investigation of the details of the lunar
surface by the U.S. Ranger 7'8, and 9
spacecraft in 1964-1965revealed a
gently rolling terrain with no sharp
relief; there is a layer of powdery
rubble, with rocks and craters down
to at least one meter in diameter
everywhere.

L u m 9 and Surveyor 1landed on the

moon in 1966,found that the surface
is firm and capable of supporting
machines and astronauts.

Surveyor 5, in 1967,found that the

surface chemical composition of the
i'bday's Moon: a view from Apollo I Z maria resembles that of terrestrial
basalt lava.

Surveyor 7, in 1968,found that the

highlands composition dWers ftom
that of the maria a d is aluminum-
Rock hunting on the Moon. rich.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Data f h m five Lunar Orbiters showed

. in 196.8that mascons or concentra- . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
tions of excess mass exist under cir-
cular maria. This showed that the
lunar crust must be sufficiently cool
and strong to support the extra mass.

The manned Apollo missions to the

Moon from 1969 to 1972 succeeded
in collecting and returning rock and
soil samples, emplacing instruments,
.includingsensors for 10ng:term mea-
....+s*eb.&, & j d m ~ w O x + . ..:*....**.
:... ....; *., *..:?%:.;:c
<
. . . . . .
. :..;.-*;....;....
.. ...,~:,~~:.~;,.'.~:.......
$-.,

. .. ..-
' :

& h s h g h m lUnmorbit.prom 1968. , ~ ~ ' 16 cl&&&b iri O+kt &he ' . ,

.
',
,

., to the present time,'the samples and ..... ths M o m . . . . . .'.. . . .,_. .. . . . .. .. - . . . . . . .

4
,
. ,
. . . .. .

:. data have,,&n the subject of numer- .

. . . . *. . . .
. .
.
. . . .
. . studies on Earth.
ous scientific . . . . . . . . The l k a r sui-facecomposition'is faGly'
. -. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . ,
. ..: . ... uniform.over lai-ge areas;judged froin
tlhre'~&On>-. . --.the20.@&rcent.efthk Moon that' h a s ... .; .; . . -.. :.'..' . . . . . . .'s*. . ' ... . '
' ,

. ' iuaW;e
. 5 . . . .

The Moon was found to bea complex, been analwed from.orbit. There is a . .
' evolved planet, 'dth.tbr'e&bhiic rock basic dlvistbh behee~irorr- and mag- -* . . . ... .. ... . ... . . . . . . .
%

. types: (1)volcanic lavy the maria; nesium-rich lavas in the maria and . . . . . . . .
. . . '. .: . .
,

(2) a l d u m - A c h rocks in the high- calcium- and aluminum-rich rocks in ' A.

. . lands; (3) unusual rocks (called . . the. highlands.

. .. : . .
KREEP basalt$) that are:enriched in - . .. . . .... . .
silica and radioactive elements. The Rocks
All of the lunar rocks are igneous
Evidence was found relating to the (formed by cooling from molten lava)
early history of planetary develop- or derived from igneous rocks. There
ment (4.6 billion to 3.0 billion years are no sedimentary(derived from
ago): extensive primordial melting, water-deposited sediments) rocks.
catastrophicmeteorite impacts, and
major volcanic eruptions. The Moon The rocks are very fresh and chemi-
was formed 4.6 billion years ago, along cally unaltered, due to the lack of
with the Earth and the rest of the water.
solar system.
The rocks are generally like those of
It appears that the lunar surfake has Earth in chemistry and minerals, but
been basically quiet and unchanging are deficient in volatile elements such
over the past 3 billion years. as hydrogen, sodium, and potassium.
No life, past or present, was found on Three new minerals, never found on
the Moon. Earth, were discovered in the Moon
rocks: tranquillityite, armalcolite, and
The lunar surface material, or "soil," is pyroxferroite.
a layer of powdery rubble, 10 to 100
meters (about 33 to 330 feet) deep, The Moon rocks range in age from 3.0
formed by meteorite impacts over bil- billion to 4.6 billion years; the older
lions of years. ones thus are older than any remain-
ing rocks on Earth.
 The Lunar Interior
The Moon was found to be slightly
egg-shaped, with the small end
pointing toward Earth.

The interior of the Moon consists of a

crust, a mantle, and perhaps a core.
The possible core may be metallic.
The thick, rigid, outer portion of the
Moon, the lithosphere, was found to
lack the plate tectonic motions that
ORIGINAL PAGE occur on Earth.
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
It was found that the Moon is not
s e i s m i d y active. There are weak,
infrequent quakes, some triggered by
A dead, cratered Moon, seen by Apollo 8. tidal forces.
Fossil magnetism was found in lunar

magnetism is still unexplained.

A large magnetic anomaly was found

on the lunar farside, near the crater
Van de Graff.

the detection of radon from lunar orbit.

huge lunar cmter
Langrenus,photographed in
stereo by Apollo 8.

'Piny crystals line a

crack in a lunar rock.
 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Sol= =tow mdl spme

En-oment Dkeovedes
Bombardment by cosmic dust (which .
produces microcraters on the lunar
rocks) seems to have occurred at a
constant rate over the last few million
years.
Rocks have remained exposed on the
. lunar surface for periods as long as
500 million years without being de-
stroyed.
.:;: :> .:. ..:..
...
;. .,.. . . . . . .:. ;:. ....<,.: .';:,.:
......
."'.r.:<e. :.';i.. : :; j. ,.->-.L
; w:.,.. .*:!If:*.;. .. ..;. .';.*..,-t.....
i
%
, *"J+I*~;..-.;.+. .-;.,.f:,:G
...w*'

. , . Speci.6~impact erate+'on the Moon

. . . . .. have been dated: Copkrnicus was. ..
, . . formed 900 million years ago;.a'ycho, .
.' 100'millionyears ago; smallei ciaters '

.' at'the Apollo landing sites,2.million'

. . . .. . 3 . ,.~o.50fiOn..ye&.&~Q,.:..; ..
: + - a,'.. . + .
' ~ o...~ ~:. .. .,-:
. - . .. -: ~ i z ~ ~ ~ t e i ; . i i ; ; a d ~ w w h ~ & p ~ ~ .~.-J.. ~ . " : .. .. .eS.
+..,.a
'
,
cosmic dzist stWck a small.bead of lunar . . .
. . :. .- - ~ h ~ . ~ .st&,B.the i l ~ ~ :Moon ~ ~ d: & Z S 0% ths i?!fo@?&k~u@a~?
-, :
I . ,., .
,. .
, . . .
.' : . . . .
.I. . . . . . .. I. . .
found to have a higher hydrogen1 ..
helium ratio than the S U i~t s e ~ '

Lunar sdil analyses sh&.tha$ niajok -

variations in the amount and isotopic
composition of solar wind nitrogen
have occurred during the past 2.5
billion years.

There do not appear to have been

major changes in the intensity of solar
flares and the composition of particles
erupted from them over the past
100,000years.

Study of the Surveyor 3 television

camera lens, which was retrieved from
the Moon by the Apollo 12crew, re-
vealed that there is a higher ironlhy-
drogen ratio in solar flare particles
than in the Sun as a whole.

The flux:of galactic cosmic rays has

apparently been constamt on the Moon
over the past 1billion years.

Capturing the Sun: an aluminum panel ("the

windowshade*)traps atomic particlesfim
the Sun during the Apollo 2 1 rnfssicm.
 Planetary ExpIoration
Mercury derived by outgassing from Mercury's
Ground-based radar measurements interior, was found.
determined (1965) that the rotation It was discovered that Mercury has
period is 59 days, not 88 days as had an internal magnetic field, similar to
long been believed. but weaker than that of Earth.
Mercury's surface is heavily cratered
M a r i w 10made the first spacecraft and resembles that of the Moon.
flyby of Mercury in 1974(in fact, it A huge circular impact basin (Mare
flew past Mercury three times), and Caloris), about 1300kilometers (810
obtained several thousand photographs. miles) in diameter, was discovered.
A planetary feature unique to Mer-
Among the results of the M a r i w I0 cury was found, consisting of long
investigations were the following: scarps, or cliffs, that apparently were
The mass of Mercury was accurately produced by compression in a major
determined. shrinkage of the planet.
Any residual atmosphere has less Flat plains, perhaps lava flows, were
than a million-billionths the pressure found.
of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Mercury was found to be closer to a
However, a trace of helium, perhaps perfect sphere than is the Earth.

OR\GINAL PAGE
COLGR FH~TCGRAPH

sudace o f M m r y : ancient cratersand a stmnge trench.

 Venus Ground-based observations detected
Ground-based radar measurements in: various minor components of the . . .
the early and mid-1960s showed that Venus atmosphere, including the
the rotation period of Venus is about gases hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
240 days and that the rotation is ret- acid (1967), carbon monoxide (1968),
rograde, so that it spins in the oppo- water (1972), and sulfuric acid (1 978).
site sense with respect to the Earth. In 1973,it was found that the upper
cloud layer is composed of sulfuric
The 1962 flyby of Venus by Mariner 2 acid droplets.
led to an accurate determination of
the planet's mass. This spacecraft,and From the USSR's V m a 7 in 1970,
ground-based observations,also mea- it was found that the atmosphere is
. k:$,...,;.;.i*.::*i@~&
. ....... .... g..?e &
.... ~ h , ~ n~ , ~ ~. ;~. ~ ~*@~?rpGedxide.
: ~ 2.: *.......,.
.......... t a;: >
.' (2,.iiithe atmosphere:of Venras.. . . ' , 'theplanetarf surface about .- .

! %changing S W Z ~ TofI ~Vmus'thick a t m o s p h , recorded day by day

by the Pioneer Venus spacemy%.
100times that of the Earth's atmos-
phere. Venera 7also measured a sur-
face temperature of about 500" C.
M a r i w 10 flew past Venus in 1974.
Among the results were:
Venus has no signiscant magnetic
field.
A notable disturbance in the solar
wind is produced as it flows past Venus.
Venus is closer to a perfect sphere
than the Earth.
Ultraviolet images of the atmosphere
revealed streamline and circulation
patterns, including Y- and C-shaped
structures.
The upper atmosphere was found to
rotate much more rapidly (once in
about 4 Earth days) than Venus itself,
a result also suggested by ground-
based measurements.
Hydrogen and helium were detected
in the atmosphere.
In 1975,the Venera9 and 10 lander
spacecraft found that the surface of
the planet is firm and rocky. Their
other results included:
The measured surface winds had
velocities of about 3 to 13 kilometers
per hour (2 to 8 miles per hour).
A significant amount of sunlight
reaches the surface.
The surface rocks vary in radioac-
tivity and have compositions resem-
bling those of granite and basalt.
At least four distinct cloud and haze
layers were found at different altitudes.
The haze layers contain small aero-
sol particles, perhaps sulfuric acid
droplets.
Accurate measurements of the at-
mospheric composition showed that
it was about 96 percent carbon diox-
ide, 4 percent nitrogen, with small
amounts of water, oxygen, and sulfur
compounds. Rare gases such as argon
and neon detected in the atmosphere
suggest that Venus is richer in volatile
elements than the Earth or Mars.
The surface of Venus was found to
be generally smooth, much less irreg-
ular than that of the Earth.
Radar measurements from the Pio-
neer Venus Orbiter and from ground-
based observatories revealed the
presence of two broad plateaus as
well as apparent volcanic structures,
craters, and canyons.
Lightning and thunder are present on
Venus, according to results from the
Venera 11 and 12 landers in 1978.

The 1978Pioneer Venus mission in-

cluded both atmospheric probes and
an orbiting spacecraft. Among the re-
sults were:
The atmosphere was found to circu-
late in large planetwide systems,much
simpler than the circulation patterns
on the Earth.
A collar of polar clouds was dis-
covered, which may be part of a large
atmospheric circulation vortex.
 Martian sunset: the V i g 1 lander records the lastfading light on the red stqfi'ae of Mars.

ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTCGRAPH
Landforms resembling lava flows
occur in flat regions.
There are layered deposits in the The surface rocks resemble basalt
Martian polar regions, perhaps indi- lava, and the soil chemistry is like that
cating glacial periods in past times. of weathered,altered basalt.
Solar ultraviolet light is not absorbed There are water and sulfur com-
by the atmosphere and hence reaches pounds in the soil.
the surface of Mars. * The sky is not blue but pink, its
Periodic global dust storms were ob- color caused by fine suspended parti-
served in detail. cles of red dust.
The two small moons of Mars were The polar caps are largely made of
photographed and found to be very water ice.
dark and to have irregular shapes and ds at the surface of Mars are
cratered surfaces. light, about 24 kilometers per hour
(15 miles per hour).
The Viking 1 and 2 landers and * The supface temperature ranges
orbiters reached Mars in 1976. Among from about -84" C (- 120"F) at ni&t
their many findings were: to -29" C (-20" F) in the afternoon.
The highly oxidized soil produced Fog and clouds occur despite the
unique chemical reactions in the life- fact that the water content of the
detection instruments (see Appendix atmosphere is less than 0.1 percent
section on Exobiology). that of the air on Earth.
The reddish color of the soil is due to The surface pressure of the atmo-
oxidized iron. sphere, only about 0.8 percent that of
 's atmosphere,varies
seasonally in aeeord-withthe empo-'
ration of the polar caps.
The isotopic ratios of carbon and
oxygen in the Martian atmosphere
resemble those of the Earth's atmo-
sphere.
The atmosphere has been modified
over time by the escape of nitrogen to
space; this has produced nitrogen iso-
topic ratios that differ from those on
- :. ..:. 9.. :. .... -...:. .' .. ..:
: ; , . . I ..,. .*," ii...

a y h a ~ ~ . ~ d i . a ~ h u & .+ & $w
.; .,
atmosphkre in the past, 'md 'could '

have had liquid.water on ib.surface.-,. .

b The abundarnc&of m e gases such"' . :
as argon a d neon suggest that Mzg ..
hzq a lowex vplatile $gn!ent.l .than
. . . ei-.. .. .
the Barth oi Venus: '

a The.i%artian mwns are grooved; - : . . in- '

dicating that &cturiAg may .have' .

occured,;:they.m+y be asteroid§,that .:. ..
were captured by Mars.
.. . . . . .
. .
..
,
. . . . . , ._ . .

ORIE1NAL' PRGF
COLSR r , ..
i3GRAPH
i

The Viking 2 lander,mrrounded by a m d

of Martian rocks.
Jupiter At the poles, a thick, aerosol-iiee, or
"blue sky': atmosphere was found.
The Planet The bright zones consist of rising
cloud masses at higher altitudes,
According to a theory formulated while the belts are descending masses
in 1958,the interior of Jupiter in- that allow a deeper view into the at-
cludes a large core of metallic hydro- mosphere.
gen. Two cloud layers are present; the
thick, low cloud deck is topped by a
Pioneer 10, in 1973,and Pioneer 11, thinner, clearer region.
in 1974,made the first flybys of Detailed study showed rapid mo-
Jupiter; both spacecraft survived pas- tions among the clouds and changes
sage through the asteroid belt and in the wind speeds.
through the Jovian trapped radiation. Bright plumes of warm material were
Among the findings from these space- observed rising from deep in the at-
craft were: mosphere.
Aside from its polar flattening, Changes in the flow patterns of the
Jupiter is very symmetrical and has Red Spot were observed between
no gravitational anomalies;it behaves 1973and 1974;the Red Spot and
like a liquid planet. other features were interpreted as
Jupiter is slightly more massive than hurricane-like storms.
had been indicated from ground-based Helium was detected, confuming the
observations. earlier deduction of the Jovian atmo-
As suggested from ground-based spheric composition.
measurements,Jupiter emits twice as
much energy as it receives from the Voyager 1and Voyager 2 flew past
Sun. Jupiter and its moons in 1979;among
The temperature at the center of the the findings from this pair of space-
planet may be 30,000" C. craft were:
Eruptions of warmer material from
The Atmosphere below are signalled by brightenings
followed by cloud spreading.
From ground-based studies, it was Along the boundaries of the belts
deduced that the atmosphere of and zones, there occur atmospheric
Jupiter must consist mostly of hydro- jet streams,plumes, and extensive
gen and helium, in an approximately turbulence.
2 to 1ratio. The bright bands in the There is actual mass movement,
atmosphere ("zones") are cooler than rather than simply wave motions, in
the dark ones ("belts"). the Jovian atmosphere.
An east-west wind structure is pres-
A theory proposed in 1958interprets ent in the polar regions.
the great Red Spot as the top of a The Red Spot rotates counterclock-
rotating column in the atmosphere. wise in about 6 days, as estimated
from ground-based observations.
Among the results of the Pioneer 10 The fmction of helium by volume in
and 11missions were: the Jovian atmosphere is 0.11.
The general banded structure of the Aurorae were discovered in the polar
Jovian atmosphere is not present near regions and are related to the mag-
the poles; there, oval circulation pat- netic field lines and currents between
terns develop. Jupiter and its moons.
Swirls and s t m in Jupiter's atmosphere, recorded by Voyager 1.

ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTCGRAPH

Stonny weather amund Jupiter's great Red Spot.

 Jupiter'smoonlo, with a large active vobano.

* Lightming "superbolts" were de-

-
tected in the cloud tops.
There is intense ultraviolet emission
from the atmosphere.
Minor components of the Jovian atmo-
sphere that have been detected at
various times include deuterium
(heavy hydrogen) compounds; organic
molecules such as ethane and acety-
lene; water vapor (found using the
Kuiper Airborne Observatory in
1975);carbon monoxide; phosphine
(PH3); and germane (GeH4).
The Magnetic Field and Trapped Radi-
ation of Jupiter "north" magnetic pole is at the south
pole of Jupiter.
The discovery of naturally generated The magnetic field fluctuates rapidly
radio bursts from Jupiter was accom- in size on the sunward side of Jupiter
plished with a ground-based radio because of pressure variations in the
telescope in 1955. Theory indicated solar wind, an effect studied in fur-
that a strong magnetic field must be ther detail by the two Voyager space-
present in order to account for the craft.
bursts, and additional radio observa- * Energetic protons were found and
tions showed that the occurence of measured in the Jovian radiation belt.
many bursts is related to the position * It was discovered that streams of
of the Jovian moon 10. high-energy atomic particles are
ejected from the Jovian magneto-
Among the findings of Pioneer 10 and sphere and travel as far as the orbit of
11 were: the Earth.
The magnetic field was detected and * Electric currents were detected flow-
found to be huge. The bow shock of ing between Jupiter and some of its
02iC;if.lAL PAGE
the Jovian magnetosphere had a mea- moons, particularly 10.
sured width of 26 million kilometers
(16 million miles). The Jovian mag- Among the findings of Voyager 1and
netic tail extends to beyond the orbit 2 were:
of Saturn. If the magnetosphere were * Within the Jovian magnetosphere is
visible in the sky from Earth, it would a huge sheet of plasma (a gas of elec-
appear larger than the Sun or Moon. trically charged atomic particles), 4.8
* The Jovian magnetic field is 10 times million kilometers (3 million miles) in
stronger than Earth's and contains diameter. The plasma sheet rotates
20,000 times as much energy. along with Jupiter and its magnetic
The axis of the magnetic field is field.
tilted 11degrees from the Jovian rota- * Some of the magnetospheric plasma
tion axis and is offset from the center has a remarkably high temperature,in
of Jupiter in a manner similar to the the millions of degrees. Among the
axis of the Earth's field. high energy particles in the plasma
The Jovian magnetic field has the are ions of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxy-
opposite sense to Earth's field; the gen. -
 lo: a volcanic landscape sculptured by@s
and eruptions of molten sulfir lava.
.. * A sulfur-richplasma,,which was not
present in l973, was detected near'
10;tvith a temperature of about
100,000"C.
The electrical current between
Jupiter and 10 was measured at about
5 million amperes.
It was found that radio emissions
may be generated in the plasma near
10.
: ~~ohdbased'studies
' &thejoviak
inbons h ithe 1970's revealdthe pr&
sehce of two.ad&tionalsmalI.imons
and the existenceof water iceon the
swfitc,earxf-the:t h q e e - a u t ~ ~ ~
Galilean satellites,Europa, ~ k h e d e.
.andCallisto.. . . . . . ., ..., . :. . .':: . . . . . . .
.
Findingsabout the &vimsatellites- -*
from Pioneer 10and 11included:
The' two outermost Galilee moons, '.
Ganymede and Callisto, are less dense
than the Earth's Moon.
10 was found to be 28 percent more
massive than had been calculated
fYomgroundbased observations and
to be 1.22 times more massive than
our Moon.
A thin atmosphere, about 1120,000of
the density of Earth's atmosphere and
extending to about 115kilometers (70
miles) above the surface was dis-
covered on 10.
* A cloud of sodium vapor around 10
and its orbit, detected from the
ground, was detected and found to be
immersed in a cloud of hydrogen as
well.
Results of the Voyager 1 and 2
missions included:
Three additional moons were
discovered.
Arnalthea, the small inner moon of
Jupiter, was found to have an ellipti-
cal shape. In effect it is a big rock,
about 265 x 140 kilometers (165 x 87
'
'
milesyin Size.'
'. Volcanic eiuptiob were dischvered.
on 10, the first evidence of active vol-
.. :.t ~..s., .t canism found outside the Earth. The
,volc.q.nism is probably induced by 'tidal
heating.The erupted glwnes extend
up to 320 kilometers (200 miles) above.
the surface,and the volcanic a c t i ~ t y
varies over times of a few months.
A hot spot on 10,150"C wanner
than the rest of the surface, and assoc-
iated with volcanic features, was
discovered.
Europa was found to be a world of
essentially flat terrain, with virtually
no topographic relief. It is marked by
intersecting linear features, not
cracks, and the surface is very young,
as indicated by the lack of impact
craters.
Both cratered and grooved terrains
are present on Ganyrnede; the icy
crust of this moon appears to have
been globally deformed.
Ganyrnede was found to produce dis-
tinct disturbances in the jovian mag-
netic field and trapped radiation belts
as far as 200,000 kilometers (124,000
miles) away.
Callisto's crust is ancient and heav-
ily cratered, with large impact basins.
A ring around Jupiter was dis-
covered inside the orbit of the in-
nermost moon. It apparently extends
down to the top of the jovian atmo-
sphere.
 Ringwwid:giant Saturn and two ofits
moo125.

The axis of Saturn's magnetic field is

aligned parallel to the planet's rota-
tion axis, contrary to the circum-
stances in both the Earth and Jupiter.
* The boundary of the magnetic field
varies due to changes in the pressure
of the solar wind on the sunward side,
as was found in the case of Jupiter.
The atmosphere of Saturn has weak
bands, rather than the conspicuous
belts and zones seen on Jupiter.
There is a high haze, perhaps com-
posed of crystals of ammonia ice,
above the clouds.
Apparent high-speed jet streams
were detected in the atmosphere.
ConErming ground-based measure-
ments, the cloud-top temperatures
were measured at about -200" C
Saturn (-330" F), only about 73" C (130" F)
The Planet above absolute zero.
Radiation belts were discovered that
Among important recent findings are weaker than those of Jupiter. The
GXIGINAL PAGE fi-om Earth-based observations of the radiation is absorbed (cut off) by the
COLOR p H O ~ o ~ ~Saturn
~ p system
~ have been the detec- rings and moons of Saturn. Cutoffs in
tion of a deuterium compound in the the radiation data were used to infer
atmosphere of Saturn, indicationsthat the presence of additional rings and
the small ring particles are composed moons beyond those already known
of or covered by ice, the detection of from visual observations.
ice on the moons Rhea, Iapetus, and
Dione, and the discovery of methane The Voyager 1encounter (November,
in the atmosphere of Titan. 1980)provided a closer look at Saturn
The first spacecraft flyby was ac- and its surroundings. Some of the new
complished by Pioneer Saturn in discoverieswere:
1979.Among the findingswere: The details of Saturn's atmosphere
Confirmingground-based studies, appear similar to Jupiter's, with alter-
Saturn has an internal heat source nating light and dark bands and circu-
like Jupiter and radiates about twice lating storm systems.
as much energy as it receives from the Wind speeds up to 1500kilometers
Sun. per hour (930 miles per hour) were
As suspected, Saturn must have in- measured near Saturn's equator;
ternal shells of liquid and metallic these winds are four to five times as
hydrogen, small amounts of helium, fast as those measured on Jupiter.
ammonia, and water, and perhaps a Unusual atmospheric features in-
small rocky core. clude a ribbonlike wave feature, large
A magnetic field was discovered and small clouds, and a red oval similar
around Saturn, larger than the Earth's, to, but smaller than, Jupiter's Red
but smaller than that of Jupiter. It is Spot.
five times as weak as predicted by Aurorae were observed in the atmo-
theory. sphere above Saturn's poles.

. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . ' :
, .
*.~lthough,Ii~htnihg bolts were not.',
.. 1 .
observed on Saturn, lddio'si&als
.. '. .' . . .typicalof lightnikig.flashes,werere-
' '
'.'. . ' . ..:cdrded. ,Tki&~i~ds.rnay
>
tiirproduced ::.. .'therlhg&wticles og track betwemtkre..
. . .
,
,. . by.eJ&tric$ discharges in the rings
'
. . . .. . .. . . . .rath&i#&in Saturn's atmosphere::. : .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .
The ~ i o & ? . e r ~ a flyby
~ u r nin.1979
made several new discoveries about
the rings:
The rings consist largely of particles
severaI centimeters in diameter. They
are extremely cold and possibly com-
posed of frozen water and other ices.
An extensive cloud of hydrogen was
discovered around the rings.
Two new rings (called F and G) were
discovered, and a gap between rings
was conilrrned.
Voyager 1 provided much more detail
on the beauty, complexity, and some-
: times baffling nature of the rings.
Among the discoveries were:
The six known rings are actually
i composed of hundreds of tiny,thin
ringlets with intervening spaces, so
1
;1 that the whole ring system looks
i
somethinglike the grooves in a phono-
1 graph record. Even the Cassini divi-
sion, once thought to be empty space
between the A and B rings,contains
several dozen ringlets. There are far
Saturn3 atmosphere: belts of quiet colors.
too many rings to be explained by our
.present .theories of how planetary
rings form and remain stable.
* Elongated'&dial features that last for
hours to days were observed in the B-
ring. These "spokes" may be clouds of
electrified dust rotating around
Saturn above the plane of the rings.
The thin outer F-ring, discovered by
Rower Saturn,was resolved into
three distinct but intertwined ringlets.
This braided ring structure is very
yew,,
ij $eqjs,l%$~;*di,
i&al'&id gravl'tatio'nal@me;
are at work, _ ,. . . . ,
:q, Two small moons, one on each side7 ' '
,of the F-ring;may act'as "shepherds," '
their gravitatiolial attmcti0.n.keeping
orbits of the two moons. ..
. . ..
'r
. . . 0 '
The Moons
.... *.: ....:*. .... ..,. . .I: . . . :.. , . . ( '..
Nine (possibly ten) moons had
Geen detected from Earth. The en-
counter of Pioneer Saturn (Septem-
ber, 1979)provided several new
discoveries:
At least two new moons were dis-
covered by Pioneer and ground-based
observations.
Accurate masses were determined
for the moons Rhea and Iapetus.
The cloud-top temperature of Titan
was found to be very low, about
-200°C (-330°F), and a hydrogen
cloud was discovered around Titan.
A much closer look at several of
Saturn's moons was provided by
Voyager 1.The new results included:
Six tiny, unnamed moons were
photographed, some of them for the
first time. Satellites 10 and 11share
the same orbit and must frequently
undergo some orbital "evasive actions"
to avoid colliding. Satellite 12 shares
the orbit of the larger moon Dione. The
shepherd Satellites 13and 14,on
either side of the thin F-ring,may
 -nk atmosphei
enhawed to
' out d e ~ ~ .

G2IGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

exert gravitationalforces to keep the Jupiter's moon Ganymede. Titan's

ring in place, while Satellite 15,located
just outside the large A-ring, likewise
may help keep that ring in place.
The inner moons Mimas, Tethys,
Dione, and Rhea all have heavily
cratered surfaces l i e those of the
-Moonand Mercury, although Saturn's
moons are composed largely of water
ice. This shows that meteorite bom-
bardment, even as far out as Saturn,
has been a major process in shaping
the solar system. Mimas is marked by
a huge impact crater that is fully one-
fourth the diameter of Mimas itself.
This crater makes Mimas look like a
staring eyeball, and the impact that
formed it was almost intense enough
into fragments.
The inner moons also show traces of
internal geologicalactivity. Tethys has
a rift-like valley that stretches 800 kil-
ometers (500 miles) across its surface.
Dione shows several sinuous, branch-
ing valleys. Both Dione and Rhea have
bright, wispy streaks on their surfaces.
Although Enceladus orbits between
two heavily cratered moons, Mimas
and Dione, it seems smooth and en-
tirely uncratered, as viewed from
Voyager 1.
Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has a
diameter of 5120 kilometers (3180
miles), which makes it smaller than
dense, hazy atmosphere is at least 400
kilometers (250 miles) thick and com-
pletely shrouds the surface from view.
Titan's atmosphere was found to be
mostly nitrogen (like the Earth's),
with minor methane and other hydro-
carbons. At the surface, the pressure
of Titan's atmosphere is at least twice
that on the Earth. The surface temper-
ature, about -175°C (-280°F), is low
enough to permit lakes and streams of
liquid nitrogen to form on its surface.
Long-range Voyager 1photographs
of Iapetus, an outer satellite, con-
firmed Earth-based observations by
showingthat the satellite has light and
dark faces, but no explanation for this
puzzling difference was found.
s w r n k m o o n h e maiWtthe red h k -
ground oflaturn itself.
 UF~P~S
. . A wholly unanticipated system of thin
and narrow rings was discovered
around the planet Uranus in 1977 by
telescopic observations from the
Kuiper Airborne Observatory. There
may be as many as nine of the very
dark rings.
belt, have been discovered. Among
thern.w& Fb~Shalom, discovered in : .. .
.1?79.
Most asteroids have been found to be
very dark, perhaps a symptom of
carbon content, and chemically- G2:GIN&
bound water has been detected on COLOR P H ? Y G ~ x A ~ H
some of the darker surfaces.

~ l & dpatterns were detected in the

atm,osphere.ofNeptune by grpwd-
z,.;:; ; :;-
J&gd :Qb$&.s&~&g,f~*j??g.. T?
!.:

. . ...
;

.PButo . -. . .. . . . . . . . . . _ . .
All studies.of Pluto thus.far haye .been
'dope from the ground..1n recent years,
a surface layer of 'frozenmeth&e.lias
'been detkted, arid.a.indon(Cliahn) " -.
was discovered. It appears that Pluto
isrriuifh'$maller,.l&is'detis,e;&d less ':'
massive thanpreviously
*. .believed.
. .. - ,.. .. . -

Asteroids and Meteorites

Although nearly all asteroid observa- :
tions thus far have been made from
the ground, the asteroid belt was
safely traversed by Pioneer 10in 1973
and subsequently by other spaceprobes.

Based on the study of reflected sun-

light, asteroids have been classified
into six major compositional families
since 1970.

Since 1970,diameters have been esti-

mated for an increasing number of
asteroids by means of infkxed obser-
vations.
In 1968,a radar echo was successfully
obtained from the small asteroid
Icarus during its close approach to
the Earth. Another radar contact was
made in 1980.

S i c e 1976,several new Earth-

crossing i.e.ythose which Samplefim the stars: the Allende, Memko meteorite and a pvrled
CI'oss the orbit of the Earth, far .from Earthman. (Photographcourtesy of Brian Mason. ~Vationalmuseum
the inner boundary of the asteroid of Natural ~ i s t o r ySmithsonian
, Institution.)
The mass of the large asteroid Vesta The formation ages of meteorites date
has been determined, and it has been back 4.6 billion years, providing a firm
found that the surface composition of estimatefor the age of the solar system.
Vesta resembles that of basalt lava.
Gases from the solar wind have been
In 1979,a minor planet (Chiron) was found to be trapped and preserved in
discovered between the orbits of meteorites.
Saturn and Uranus, tkr outside the
known limits of the asteroid belt. The rates at which iron meteorites
cooled from the molten state within
Laboratory study of meteorites reveals their parent objects have been deter-
that they typically have spent only 10 mined; they range from 1to 20 degrees
million to 100million years exposed to centigrade per million years. This
the space environment,a finding that cooling is too rapid to have occurred
suggests that relatively recent colli- within the iron core of a large planet.
sions have occurred in the asteroid
belt. Comets
In 1970,the existence of huge hydro-
Somemeteorites are composed of lava, gen clouds around the comets Tago-
indicating that early melting and Sato-Kosaka (1969 M)and Bennett
volcanic eruptions occurred on their (1970 11) was discovered with the
parent asteroids. OAO-2 satellite. The clouds, also ob-
served by OGO-5, are detectable only
Daughter products of extinct,pri- in ultraviolet light. The existence of
mordial, radioactive isotopes,such such clouds had been predicted on
as iodine-129, plutonium-244, and the basis of the icy conglomerate or
aluminum-26, have been found in "dirty iceball" model of comets, and
meteorites. These isotopes, when still thus the discovery helped to confirm
present in the parent objects of the the theory.
meteorites, may have served as irnpor-
tant heat sources. The predicted presence within the
cometary hydrogen cloud of high ve-
Amino acids have been found in locity material, with speeds of about
meteorites (see Appendix section on 20 kilometers per second (12 miles
Exobiology). per second), was found to be consis-
tent with the intensity distribution of
White inclusions of minerals formed at the hydrogen clouds mapped by
high temperatures have been found OAO-2 and subsequent spacecraft. It
in the Allende meteorite. These may was recently confirmed by spec-
be samples of the first material to troscopic observationsfrom the
solidify in the original cloud from Copernicussatellite.
which the solar system was born.
The hydrogen clouds provide direct
Elemental anomalies found in the evidence for a rate of mass flow from
white Allende inclusions indicate that the nucleus of a comet that is adequate
some matter may have been intro- to account for the so-called "nongrav-
duced into the solar system cloud itational force" that disturbs the
from another star, presumably a su- motions of comets.
pernova.
 Radio telescopes have observed the
' '
Interplanetary Dust
hydroxyl (OH] radical in several' '
Pegasus 1,'in 1965,and other space-'
comets and have made apparent de- craft showed that interplanetary dust
tections of the substances CH3CN, particles are about 10,000times less
HCN, and CH in Comet Kohoutek abundant than had been indicated by
(1973 XII). early space experiments.
The first defhite-detectionsof carbon Pioneer 10and 11,in 1973and 1974,
and oxygen atoms in a comet were found that Mars sweeps up the inter-
made by ultraviolet spectroscopy from planetary dust near its orbit.
two sounding rockets launched to
: . : ~ Q ~ -Y..:;rt.::,;. - ~-:o;i
.~'::.JG>'.-< . .*..
I n

!'
Q -
~. ~. ,I.& . .~. W
: ..?-,-..:
>zw.f . 2.,:-t <' j
% .~ . ~
: ,@ . ,. ~ . :$ ~~ +
*.;,a.
~ *~ ~ ,s@Y@.:.
' & ~ ~ ~ e ~ . 3 ~ ~ ~ . ~ :....,
a f j . ~ ~;:... .. .:..:!:a .+,l.. ~
, ~:.: I.:. s
.; P
;.+ ,-~
.;.:,.- ~
":.; e.-:;*:.,d .*.. e
F.h. e .. ;. :..,: .: :. .
.. Infrared meas&rementsinadef r d the ~ dust that orbits the S&kt s e a t dis- . . . . .
ground have kevealed the pfesence of tances . . .Erorn.the
. Earth. . . .: . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . :. . . . . .. ..
'

silikte dustgrains in s e v e 4 comets; " . ...

The first definite samples inter- . . pf
:
.I?+di~.ob~ekyti6?s? f ~ ? ~I$?h&kk qt
and Comet Wesst (197511) revealed the b y high-altitude reseirrch &c*-': '
,

planetag.duqt have been collekt6d . . . '. :. >. .. . . . . .. ... . . . .< -

'
;
'
. . . .

.. prpsence.af..t~nsient microwave . . . . . , since 1978.. . . . . . . . . . ..

........ . .. . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . .:. ....- c47;C:r+:tk,e:.GB... . . . . .
emission apparently.producedby the . . - COLOR FHOTGGRA?H
icy-grain hala, a structural &eatw,af.,......". ,:.,.:.; ,:.:. .......... .-.: . . . . .....:.!.>. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. : . . . . . ..:.. . ... . .,
comets that had been predicted to
exist. . . .
...
Observations of Comets Seargent
(1978m) and Bradfield (19791) with
the IUE satelliterevealed the presence
of atomic sulfur and CS in the coma
and showed that these species are
produced from an extremely short-
lived (less than about 100 seconds)
parent molecule, perhaps CS2.The
forbidden neutral oxygen line at 2972
A was identified;it is thought to come
from photodissociation of water and
thus provides a means of determining
the spatial distribution of water vapor
in the coma.
A tiny bead ( c w r u k ) in a meteorite dis-
. . Using WE, the water vapor production plays ajauel-like arrangement of micmscopic
i rate of Comet Bradfield was deter- Leuml and glass (Photograph c a m of
crystalswilbing;
. ! mined over a range of heliocentric
: distance from 0.7 to 1.5 astronomical
7 units, the &st time this has been
measured for a comet. The variation
1
was inconsistent with the idea that
the vaporization might depend only on
the input of heat from the Sun.
 me Saaw OSO instruments revealed that bursts ,
The solar ultraviolet spectrum has
been mapped and studied, first with
soundingrockets in 1946 and later
of hard (higher energy) X-rays accom-
pmy solar f b x s . i-
g. .:,.:.,.. -:" ,'
.... ..:
.
with the Orbiting Solar Obsmatories Soundingrocket observations unex- .:.;..:..:
>&. :,.':;.-
:;;.
- . _.......;... .
,:

(OSO satellites). pectedly detected neutral hydrogen izS:..

;.- .:.?:?: ,
,', .!. .<;*-.:
. ....,,:.\... .
emission &om the solar corona, allow- i::.;3i~s
,

With radio telescopes, it was found . . ... ...

..-:"....* .
ing astronomers to measure the tern- :
.,..,-.... .
_ ..y*::. .
,.,I.

that radio bursts of many kinds are perature ofthe coronal hydrogen and ...::,.:...:....:.,..... ..:.
Y:?::. 3..

emitted by the Sun. to infer the speed of the solar wind .. ..:.....-. .
,..,.
, -. . . - ..
..-?

.
:>.
, ....
.. .::..,..
moving out through the corona. . - .. .
Ground-based telescopes discovered
"supergranulation,"the existence on Ground-based telescopes show that
the Sun of convection cells with the five-minute oscillations of the Sun
typical sizes of 30,000 kilometers are composed of superposed oscilla-
(19,000miles). tion modes.
Sounding rocket instruments dis- An OSO instrument discovered gamma
covered that solar soft (lower energy) ray emission lines, indicating that
X-rays are produced primarily by ac- nuclear reactions sometimes occur in
solar flares.
PAGE
~ R ~ ~ N A L tive regions.
C O L OHOTOGRAPH
~ ~

TheSun's huge conma, color-enhanced to distinguish different bright-

ness levels. (TheSun is the blacked-out disk in the center.)
 ORlGlNAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH

Observations from Skylab revealed

that: . .. . . . . :
.
1
. . .
The corona consists largely of
arcades of magnetic-field arches. . .
The basic structure of a solar flare is
a magnetic arch or loop.
Coronal holes do not exhibit the dg-
ferential rotation which characterizes
the solar photosphere, but rotate as
though they were solid objects.
The top of a flare loop is hottest, and
its foot points are relatively cool.
.'. q ~ T h $ ~ i ~ ~ ;.............
........ g m ~ r o...,....
$ W&@QW& ~ ~. .f...
emerging riiahefic flm,.wM& appear""
as bnght points on the Sup in soft . .
. .X-rays,yith lifetimes of t h e e .to sh,.. .....
hours: , .. . . . . . . .
- * .
. . . . . .
.Ohe.ma@ns from0~0-7.and §kYlab'
showed that large "solai bubbles" or.
. corona1:transients pass outward. .>. :.......
through the corona after flares and
prom&ences empea. .'.'; ...:.>.. .::. . . . ..
: ;
L

OSO-8 measurements Showed that, ;

contrary to earlier expectations,
acoustic waves do not carry sufficient
energy to heat the corona. Perhaps
the dissipation of magnetic energy is A giant prominence leaps outwardporn the Sun, disturbing the
responsible for the high temperature solar corona ( i n blue).
of the corona.
that the total light of the Sun varies
Sounding rocket observations showed from week to week by amounts of plus
that jets, perhaps related to the or minus 0.05 percent and that there
spicules seen with ground-based tele- are some larger variations as well.
scopes, are ejected from the solar
surface and reach speeds of 300 kilo- SMM observations revealed how solar
meters per second (190 miles per flares occur after hot plasma fills pre-
second). existing magnetic loops, which then
explode.
Combining the results of observations
from the Solar M d m u m MissimL ~ e ~ o s ~ h ePhysics
ric
(ShfM) satellite and ground-based Ground-based measurements found
radio telescopes, it was found that that there is an inverse correlation
hard X-rays are emitted at the foot between solar activity and cosmic ray
points of flare loops, while microwave intensity.
radio bursts are emitted at the tops of
the loops. Interplanetary spacecraft including
the Mariners detected and measured
An instrument on SMM discovered the solar wind.
The abundances of such atoms as The Earth's "bow shock," a collision-
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron less shock wave, was found to be
have been measured in the solar wind. slightly closer to the Sun than the
magnetopause and separated &om
Enhanced amounts of the isotope the latter by a region called the
helium-3 were discovered in the mat- magnetosheath.
ter ejected from solar flares and in
high-speed streams of the solar wind. The Earth's magnetic tail (magneto-
tail) was found to extend far into
Waves and discontinuities were dis- space, beyond the distance of the
covered in the solar wind. Moon.
The interplanetary magnetic field was Large electrical current systems were
found to possess sector structure that found to flow through the magneto-
rotates with the Sun. sphere.
Skylab obsemationsidentified coronal It was determined that sigruficant
holes as the sources of high-speed numbers of charged particles enter
wind streams and showed that cor- the magnetosphere directly from the
onal holes are the cause of recurrent solar wind.
geomagnetic storms on Earth.
Evidence was found for a magnetic-
Correlation of the interplanetary mag- field reconnection process in the mag-
netic field with the magnetic field at netotail, which accelerates charged
the solar surface was accomplished. particles to high velocities.
A warped-disk model for the magnetic Displays of the aurora on Earth were
neutral sheet in interplanetary space found to originate from disturbances
has been developed. in the magnetotail.
Pioneer 10has established that the Low-frequency waves were detected
heliosphere extends out beyond the in the magnetosphere.
orbit of Uranus.
It was found that electric currents
The Intemu;ctional Sun-EarthEx- move along the magnetic field lines
plorer (ISEE) mission discovered above the Earth's polar regions. These
electron bursts that originate in the currents are maintained by electric
outer corona and traced the paths of fields aligned along the magnetic field,
the bursts outward through the cor- which once were thought to be im-
ona, along the spiral magnetic field. possible.

Magnetospheric Physics Ionospheric Physics

The Van Allen radiation belts of the Rocket-borne ion mass spectrometers
Earth were discovered by Eqlorer 1. showed that molecular ions predomi-
nate among the charged particles in
The magnetopause, or boundary be- the lower layers of the Earth's iono-
tween the solar wind and the Earth's sphere, at altitudes of 90 to 200 kilo-
magnetosphere, was located at a dis- meters (about 55 to 125 miles).
tance of about 20 Earth radii toward
the Sun. Rocket observations showed that the
:;hw.ed partiCiesin the,&pet ;.' This allo&& variati&.is a;sS6C~tes . : . . . . . . . . .. ,.. . ...
,

of the ionosphere,.at altitudes of 20.0 .. with satellite.height,latitude,time of . ; . . .

. to.800.kilpmetq ($25tq 500 milqss), .. d?y.,4and.sftasont~ be s$.@ticey sep- . . . . .*. .: .. :i
. ..... . ..
.

k e m&ly ions'ofoxygen.. . , ' arafed. Three fact'ors.w e r ~

found to . . .
. . .... ..*: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . ~ontfibute,
i to,the .*t.er $o,@~;Y..', . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . .
. : .%

~etallic ions derived from meteor- . . First, there is an increase iil neutral
ites were discovered in the E.region :: atomicz,oxygen.due.tbatmospheric. . . . . . ...: .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
' .

of the ionosphere. - circulation and dynamics; this results '

. . . . inan increase i.n electron produetiqn :- , .

. . . . .
. .
~easurementsshckeh. t'hit the tern-' . due t6 more ioni'iitidn by the Suh
peratures of the ionospheric electrons Second, the temperature of the neu-
are higher than those of the ions; the tral nitrogen is lower in winter, so
ion temperatures are higher than that the existing ionizationis removed
those of the neutral gas. more slowly by a chemical recombin-
ation process. Third, there is a more
Observations by Explorer satellites rapid production of ionization in win-
showed a division between the polar ter due to increased quenching of an
ionosphere and the ionosphere over intermediate excited state of atomic
lower latitudes of the .Earth. oxygen.
Plasma instabilitieswere artiiicially Convectivebubbles that cause the
excited for study in the ionosphere by equatorial "spread-F" effect were de-
means of radio-wave injection. tected. These involve electron den-
sity variations by factors of 100within
Extensive satellitemeasurements scale sizes of approximately 10meters
solved the long-standing problem of (33 feet). The bubbles move at speeds
why there are more electrons in the of hundreds of meters per second.
winter ionosphere than in the sum-
mer ionosphere at the low- to medium- A "polar wind" of ions that are
activity phases of the sunspot cycle. convected rapidly upward &om the
(More electrons would be expected in ionosphere above polar regions was
the summer, since the Sun is then discovered. The ions either travel out
more nearly overhead.) Systematic along magnetic field lines to inter-
measurements by the Atmosphere planetary space or are transported
Explorers provided a large data base. into the magnetotail.
 Selected Results S w a e d
Historically
1964 Strong source Cygnus X-I&-
cowed with an X-ray kle- .
on a soundng
rocket.
1971 Uhumsatellite monit~redtime
dependence of Cyg X- 1 and
found periodicity matching
that of visible-light spectral
changes in a faint blue star in
the direction of the X-ray
source. A radio source also
found at this position. The
OZ~GI?!~.?-PpGE.1.7H
*I?
spectral changes revealed that
co~e;c;"' ~ ~ T G U I the blue star has a dark com-
panion star so massive that,
according to current theory, it
t be a neutron star and
presumably is a black hole.
11973 X-ray telescope on a somdhg
rocket found very rapid inten-
sity changes inCyg X-1 of type
p d c t e d to accompany accre-
tion ofmaaer onto a black hole.
1975 Analysis of X-ray kpptemity
cfaangesof Cyg X-1 showed
that flares of about 0.5 seconds
duration occur randomly, a
phenomenon not found in
other X-ray sources.
1973 Physicists announced that
celestial m m a ray bursts of
unknown origin, arriving from
random directions inspace,
were discovered with the Vela
satellites,a set of Earth-orbit-
ing spacecraft designed to
monitor the Limited Test Ban
Treaty. The bursts were first

The Planetary Nebula in Aquarius, a huge circular cloud of dust

amid the stars. (Copyright 1965 by Calz$ornia Institute of Dchnology
and C a m g i e Institution of Washington.)
 CRlGIN,",,L PAGE
CCLSR Pri3TGZRAPH

recorded in 1967,but were not

. "'imiriediately recognized as e%;
traterrestial events.'

1974 Study of a gamma ray burst

found in data recorded in 1972
by an instrument on Apollo 16
showed that it had more than
five prominent intensity peaks.
Earlier known bursts had one
or two peaks.

gamma.raybursts of weak in-

. .. . . .
tensity,,asmeasured with bd- .'
l00.g-boqe ipstrirmentati~n,'
.... shoked that the bursts must

--:. , '.
1979 : ~nterplanetarynk&brk of .
. . . I

a say detwh.rs on nine

s~aceeraftobserved the strong- - The mysterious o@ect SS433, glimpsed ji-om Earth by the Einstein
;st gamma rag burst yet on
March'5t14', with a rkmarkably . obseruatmysa~Uite. . . : .
fast rise time of less than one
thousandth of a second. The
source was pinned down to the
direction of a supernova rem-
nant in the Large Magellanic
Cloud, companion galaxy of the
Milky Way. The implication, if
this identification is correct, is
that the burst came from a
neutron star that remained
from the supernova. An eight-
second recurrence of intensity
peaks was observed, perhaps
to be interpreted as the rota-
tion period of the neutron star.
Astronomers cautioned that
the burst's properties were ex-
ceptional and that it might re-
present a Merent phenome-
non t h the other observed
gamma ray bursts.
. . . . .
1912 Cosmic rays discovered in a
balloon experiment. However,
it was thought that they were
gamma rays rather than sub-
atomic particles.
1929 Cosmic rays found to be elec-
trically charged, thanks to
measurements from the newly-
developed Geiger-Muller
counter.
1936 Muon recognized as a cosmic
ray that reaches the ground.
The first discovery of an un-
stable subatomic particle, this
finding launched the discipline
of elementary particle physics
and showed that the primary
cosmic rays which don't reach
the ground are something
other than muons.
1939 Primary cosmic rays found to
be positively charged, with the
flux of particles &om the west
slightly greater than that &om
the east, as would be predicted
for positively charged particles
moving in the Earth's magnetic
field.
1960 Balloon experiments at high
altitude discovered that about
one percent of the cosmic rays
are relativistic electrons.
1964 The flux of cosmic rays studied
over a complete solar cycle was
found to vary so that the flux
reaching the Earth is reduced
by as much as 20 percent when
the Sun is in its active phase.
1974 Balloon measurements deter-
mined the average amount of
matter traversed by cosmic
rays in space between their
sources and the Earth (five
grams per square centimeter)
by measuring the ratio of the
number of light nuclei in the
cosmic rays (lithium, beryl-
lium, boron) to the number of
heavy nuclei (carbon, oxygen).
Light nuclei are probably pro-
duced when the heavier ones
collide with interstellar matter,
thus the larger the ratio, the
more matter has been tra-
versed by the heavy nuclei.
1977 The age of cosmic rays was
found to be about 20 million
years from two kinds of exper-
iments. First, the IMP-7 and
IMP-8 satellites measured the
ratio of the beryllium-10 and
beryllium-9 isotopes in cosmic 1972 Variability of h h r e d radiation
rays; both are produced by the
interaction of carbon and oxy-
gen nuclei with the interstellar
matter, but beryllium-10 is un-
stable, with a half-life of 2.5
million years. Second, balloon-
borne telescopes observed the
energy spectrum of relativistic
cosmic ray electrons and
found it to bend at 20 GeV, a
result predicted for a 20-mil-
lion-year exposure to galactic
magnetic fields and the micro-
wave background radiation.
1979 Launch of HEAO-3 satellite
with two large cosmic ray ex-
periments, one to study iso-
topes and one to observe very
heavy nuclei. A new theory of
cosmic ray m t i o n s due to
phenomena of the solar wind
and interplanetary magnetic
fields was advanced on the
basis of data &ommany inter-
planetary spacecraft.
Quasars
1962 The position of radio source
3C273 was determined when it
was occulted by the Moon, and
a faint star-like object with a
jet was photographed at the
position. Its spectra showed
unusual emission lines.
1963 The spectral lines were identi-
fied as familiar hydrogen lines,
but redshifted by about 16 per-
cent of their wavelength, so
that 3C273 must be extremely
far away and hence thousands
of times more luminous than a
galaxy.
1970 Sounding rocket telescope dis-
covered X-rays from 3C273.
from 3C273 was reported; the
time scale of variation is too
short for the radiation to arise
from hot dust grains, so the
 . . . .
saa&tticic&sh~& . . . . . . . . . . ' .,* . .. ' . . . . . . . .
&cianedTest
...'&6kiat&&
.
space. (The t t q smuller~MQgellanicCloudsure actually satellit& of . %X?Gf?!,".i!!PF,GZ
..w o a u n g w . ) fQ-ght:l 950~bybyCd@iiia
nology and Camegie Institution of Washington.)
..........................
lnstiEuteof Tech:- . . . . . . . .

': . . . " . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .:.'. .... .:: : . . . .

mCQ2. ~ C~iiar'd -..
+ T ":. ~

I . . . . . . . . .. . .. .
..;...c.........

emission mechanism must be

nonthermal.
1978 COS-B satellite observations
revealed a weak gamma ray
source in the direction of
36273. X-ray observations of
the quasar OX 169 showed that 1968 Publication of theory that pul-
its intensity changed by a fac-
tor of six in only six hours. If
(as one theory maintains) the
source of the X-rays is matter
accreting onto a black hole,
then this rapid change implies 1969 Visible light pulses were dis-
that the bliack hole has a mass
at least a million times greater
than that ofthe Sun.
1979 An X-ray quasar reported to
have a redshift of 3.2, corre-
sponding to a velocity of reces-
sion of 97 percent of the speed
of light. (The most distant
known quasar has a redshift
of 3.5.)
1967 Discovery of the first radio
pulsar, CP 1919, with a pulse
period of 1.337 seconds and a
pulse width of 0.04 second.
sars are rotating, magnetized
neutron stars. Observations
showed that the pulsars are
gradually slowing down.
covered from the pulsar in the
Crab Nebula. Then, discovery
of X-ray pulses from this object
showed that the power mdi-
ated in the form of X-rays is
more than 10,000 times the
luminosity of the Sun at all
wavelengths.
1972 Gamma ray pulses at high en-
ergies observed from the Crab
 Nebula pulsar. There are two
gamma ray pulses per pulse
period, mimicking the X-ray
pulse behavior, and they are
exactly in phase with the radio
pulses. Radio studies of many
pulsars were sensitiveenough
to study them pulse by pulse;
these investigations dis-
covered a rich variety of phe-
nomena, including d r i f h g
subpulses, so-called "giant
pulses," and "nulling,"when
an entire pulse fails to occur.
1975 SAS-2 satellite discovered
gamma ray pulses from the
pulsar in the Vela X supernova
remnant Radio observations of
this object had shown one
pulse per period, although
there are two gamma ray
pulses in the same interval,
neither one coinciding with the
phase of the radio pulse. Also,
the h t radio pulsar in a bi-
nary system was discovered;
continued monitoring over
several years suggested that
the orbital period is slowly
changing, perhaps as the sys-
tem loses energy in the form of
gravitational waves, as pre-
dicted from the GeneralTheory
of Relativity.
1977 Optical pulses discovered from
the Vela pulsar. Again, two
pulses seen per pulse period,
but not coincident with either
of the gamma ray pulses nor
with the radio pulse.
Interstellar and Intergalactic
Media
1951 Detection of 21-cm (8.3-inch)
wavelength radio emission
h m interstellar atomic
hydrogen.
1966 Theory that there exists a ga-
lactic corona was proposed.
1969 Model of cold clouds and warm
intercloud medium in pressure
balance was proposed. The av-
erage density of interstellar
matter was found to be one
atom per cubic centimeter and
thought to be equally divided
between thin, warm gas and
cool, denser clouds.
1972 Another Orbiting AsCronom-
icalObseruatory (OAO-3),
also called Copernicus,was
launched, carrying the first in-
strumentation for ultraviolet
spectroscopy of stars from
Earth orbit.
1973 Coperr2icus results showed
that: (1) The ratio of deuterium
to hydrogen in interstellargas
is very low, a result that is evi-
dence for the "Open Universe"
theory, according to which the
expansion of the universe will
never end; (2) many of the
heavier elements are much less
abundant in the interstellargas
than in the stars that supply
mass to the gas, which indi-
cates that atoms of these ele-
ments have condensed to the
solid state and are present in
interstellar dust grains.
 1974 CopernW data lead to the Cosmic Background Radiation
theory that low-densiw.cavi- . .. . . . . . . .... . ..
'
. . . . ., ..
ties in interstellar space are 1946 Prediction made that a cosmic
caused by supernova explo- background radiation exists
sions and are filled with hotter due to the origin of the uni-
gas than the surrounding re- verse in the Big Bang.
gions.It was suggested that a
series of supernovaemay cause 1962 X-ray background radiation
cavities that connect to form discovered by an instrument
tunnels of hot gas, threading on a sounding rocket.
-
throuah the cold clouds and
. .
... ": -.-
... .,-*J ..-.,
:
.
%..:.,;
. .
. 3 :. .. ......... .....;.
h t...
...#... ,.:- ... .... .; . **.:.. ,.-.. e*.g
....r d.,...
. (. .?. u
.. .
f l . :;.:.. . ~ ..~:. ~19.65
.. ..! .... .'-.*.:.;.
~ ~ . .,Cosmic~ c r q w a back-
y.- .*. ..&&,$&4&+&&:G
. :..: ........
v~ & . & ., .....a: *:, .....4-*.::...-
. .' - a
.: .
..:. ..-.....
. . ., ,.*+..i
- . '
..,;.;,
:.
: *..
; 5 .I
. . . . .. . .
- . . : .197b White dwarf stars were d& . . -
,

. " ' telescope. . . .

tected with an extremedtra. .- . . . . .. . . ......

- ; . yiolet'tel6Scbfieon the ~ p i l b :: i968- : ~~as*ents.of theisotrbpy
. Soy~uzmission. The results ' , .. , ofthe X-ray background ' , .

. . show that ,thereis very little .. . . .. . . :ci>~ee P.. showed that'the dstari;de;,
radiat'i.on
vbrjr@eeat must
gas (less th'b'l atom per iOd;
.
. . . .....
. &6vic..t;Yt;Y
hundred d.t~~~k,.
cilbic centimeters) &-iti .iq, .... .,. .-. .because
, . tfie ~niverseis
,. .h&mo-.
. .
. .
gefi&is.&d i s o ~ p i ~ ~ n ~ y ~ o ~ -'

, :.
. . light'~e=.,.:. . .. : ...:.. : .. .y e q W e scale.. , ............ .*. .. ....
. . . . . . . at least;.20Q !.

. 1976 According to Copernicus re- 1977 Anisotropy found in the micro- .

. - 'sults, the bulk of the nelitral
interstellargas is contained in
small dense clouds rather than
uniformly distributed.
1979 Discovery of an X-ray "super-
bubble" in the constellation
Cygnus, made with an X-ray
telescope on HEAO-1. Discov- 1979 The diffuse X-ray background
ery by IUE of a corona of
100,000"C gas around the
Milky Way galaxy, as theorized
in 1956. The corona perhaps is
fed with hot material by super-
bubbles expandingfrom the ga-
lactic plane. Discovery by IUE
of coronae around the Magel-
lanic Clouds; coronae must be
very common around galaxies.
wave background. The meas-
. ..
urements indicate that our
galaxy is moving at about 300
to 400 kilometers per second
(190 to 250 miles per second)
in the direction of the constel-
lation Leo.
at energies around 1 keV was
found to be dominated by
emission from many very dis-
tant individual objects, per-
haps quasars and young
galaxies.
Early 1960s:Mercury, Vostok
Considerableweight loss of 3.5 kg
(8 pounds) postflight.
12 percent increase in heart rate,
normalizing after 9 to 19hours.
Mid-1960s: Gemini,Voskhod
Decreased capacity to work postflight. sensations; on occasion, functionally
12 to 15 percent decrease in bone
density; bone decomposition poten-
tially dangerous.
Heart rate as high as 180beats per
minute during extravehicular activi-
ty.
Blood abnormalities:
Loss of red cells and plasma volume.
Decrease in important electrolytes
(sodium, potassium).
Changes in hormone levels.
Abnormalities in urinary excretion:
Progressively increasing calcium
loss.
Increased nitrogen, aldosterone, and
catacholamines.
Reduced sodium and chlorine post-
flight.
Late 1960s-Early 1970s:Apollo,
sw
Adaptation to weightlessness; high
work capacity inflight, but signifi-
cantly lower capacity postflight; two
weeks needed to recover.
Muscle atrophy:
Decreased strength, reflexes, and
size of muscle.
Variable complaints of muscle pain
inflight and up to five days postflight.
Cardiovascularand hemodynamic
adaptation:
Decreased cardiac size and output.
Reduced blood pressure postflight.
Decline postflight in orthostatic
tolerance (ability to stand without
fainting).
Unpredictable incidence of motion
sickness, vomiting, andlor tumbling
incapacitating.
Changes in quaiity (types, viability)
and quantity of bacteria normally
associated with Man; significant impli-
cations for epidemiology of diseases,
immunity, and digestion.
Observations of visual light flashes by
all crew members, resulting from the
impact of cosmic rays.
Mid to Late 1970s:Skylab,Sulyut
Decreased rate of weight loss with
increased flight duration; pattern of
weight loss indicative of early fluid
loss and later tissue loss.
Roughly half the body volume loss
occurred in the legs alone.
Shift of blood toward head region early
inflight, contributing to a sensation of
fullness in the head that persisted
throughout flight.
Leg muscle atrophy;little or no change
in sizes of arms and chest.
Rigorous inflight exercises were suc-
cessful in facilitating recovery post-
flight.
No mineral loss in upper extremities,
although signiscant loss in heel bone
after 84-day flight.
 Postflight reduction in cardiac output
arid strdlce volume and increase in .
heart rate.
Red cell mass loss during first 30 days,
but gradual recovery after 60 days.
Thus, decrease in red cell mass im-
mediately after 84-dayflight was
approximately one-half that of earlier
(28-day and 59-day)Skylab flights.

-- . +&fv&.,~$&-bl*.ceu&.&&gi*....;;
.
:
..;a
Decreases in..vw@!p
. .k..... q v x q e s ._:,. .::, -*,

~. .
: Elevated white blwd eeil leveis in- :
.' 'night,'with rapid kecov'ery'posStf&&t. .
. ' .aso,slight .chGges in humoral @-

. ..J.Vy@o.b.*~r
.. ....... ., . .:. ........... .
Sensory.changes,pclu@ng slightly
decreased visual akuity arid depth ' '

perception.p~s$lXght~and differences *.
in taste of food samples between in-
flight and postflight periods.

Postflight impairment of coordination

and balance with eyes closed, although
fairly normal with eyes open; impli-
cations for vestibular adaptation
involving reliance on visual sensory
input.

Level of overall microbial contamina-

tion greater in 84-day flight than in
previous fights, mostly due to in-
creased population of fungi; implica-
tions for environmental control of fu-
ture long-duration qissions. A headstand in space: demonstrating weightlessness in Skylab.

+ *Theseare selected biomedicalfindings, not

an alli&lusive list. Results are noted only
j under thefirstflight program in which they
j werefound, except when sipijicantly modi-
1 fied by &ataj+wm subsequmtflights. Thus,
althoughweight loss was observed a m every
'j flight, it is mentioned herefor thefirst flight
program and then, when modimcd by longer
duration,for the last.
Amino acids have been synthesized A third kingdom of microorganisms,
non-biologicallyunder conditions that the Amhaebacteria, was shown to be
simulate those postulated for the distinct &om the prokaryotes and
primitive Earth, followed by the syn- eukaryotes, thus altering concepts of
thesis of most of the biologically im- the earliest lines of descent of species
portant molecules. on the Earth.
A laboratory model was developed Clay minerals were found to markedly
for the evolution of cell structure influence the rate and direction of
&om nonbiological precursors. chemical evolution processes.
Ammonia and water molecules were Algae, bacteria, and fungi were dis-
detected in interstellarspace with covered living inside rocks from the
radio telescopes,followed by the coldest and driest deserts of the Ant-
discovery of many more important arctic, which represent the closest
organic molecules and precursors. terrestrial analog to the environment
of Mars.
Amino acids and other biologically
significant organic substances have Microfossils were discovered in rocks
been found to occur indigenously in 3.5 billion years old, a finding that
meteorites and to be of nonbiogenic pushed back the estimate of the time
origin. when life originated on the Earth to
within the h t billion years after the
Analysis of rock and soil samples re- Earth was formed.
turned from the Moon provided no
evidencefor past or present life and Nucleic acid polymers in the biological
only traces of the precursors of amino size range were synthesized in a non-
acids. random manner, under geologically
plausible conditions.
Simulations of the atmospheric chem-
istry of the outer planets showed that
these atmospheres may be sites where
extensive abiotic synthesis of organic
molecules is presently occuning.
Spectroscopic observation of comets
has revealed the presence of biolog-
ically important ions, molecules, and
fragments.
Viking lander experiments found no
existing life or organic chemicals in
the soil at two locations on Mars.
The Martian soil was found to possess
intriguing chemical properties that
mimic, in some respects, certain re-
actions of biological systems.
 INDEX
(Namesof individwzl missionsand bacterial and microbial changes in Copemicantheory 5
... ~ a r e i n i ~ 1 i c s. .. ) .: . . .: space 214,215 . . . . . . . . . , :. . . , . C o p a W 202,212,213 .............
Bean,Alan 132 coronae, stellar 73,90,99
accretion energy 103 Betelgeuse (star) 95 COS-B satellite 211
Advanced X-ray Astrophysics bicycle ergometer 129,130,132 Cosmic Backpound Explorer
FaciEity(AXAF) 113 Big Bang 7,8,90,94,108,117,213 (COBE) 116,120
Aldebaran(star) 95 biomedical research 214ff cosmic evolution 149
AldriqEdwinE. 4 biosphere 126 cosmic rays 93,187,205,209,210,
alpha Centauri (star) 106 BL Lacertae objects 116 214
amino acids black holes 90,97,100,103,121, biological effects 137
extraterrestrial 152 208,211 light flashes 137,214
laboratory synthesis 2 16 blood, changes in space 128,129, Crab Nebula 100ff7211
meteorites 53,202,216 214,215 pulsar 211,212
Moon 216 blue supergiant stars 95 Cygnus X- 1 103,208
':'. Andromeda
-" ,'&iance.&@&y.;-$,wq.w*
.lid ..3 +*b;iqq j;
%...
:
.
$ . .
. . . .bombardment~teoroidarl 58,+59 ..
".* . .
:.,:;x@q$$:.j&
..":, ,:>;j. 3 Oidne. - 4 5 zoo:.
.
* , 9% ;i:::r~-~.:~*~+~.;;.;:~.i;;~~l~~*~$~.j$..~..
- .
s.*
. . . . .
:. a. *.':.ii'.'. .:,bq7
...:.~.~:..;~ci.s#:;~;'
. ..
;<.; " ,.
.,*.*. .
A,

mass 108' . '

. .
' EarcH*58;5@ .
- . .' d&i&lRy 9 .
' . .diet,inspace 134. . ..
. . ~t.a*oj&.&ht.. . 110 " . . . . . . . . . .&fars21;5g..-.::.., . . . . . .: . . . . ,.dust,interplanetary .56! 57 . . ,. . :.
. . . :X-~Y.SOWC$110 . '. : - . . ' ' .'W-a. 18,19,5$ ' . .. . .. EM^' . : , . . . . . . . .' . . .. . . i ... . . :.
Antarcticdry valleys 156 . - . Mimas 43,200 . . acidrairi 61' '
.Antarcticmicrobes I.56,316 . . & , . Mqon .16,17,58,187. . . . atmosphere 60,61,.84 , .
. A n q y @tar). 95 : .
., ' h t emN1& &w .
> 7 : . - : ' . Rhits,..43,20.0
nearfwurn .2W
v,." :
.:......
' :...:;.,.
. a * . i
.
. . . .&,ate ; . . .
~ ~,k;.....:. -.. . . . .-
b o ~ . ...61,.62;s85
~ la i206 ..8 ..
~ ~ 185,214
l b. , .Tethys 43,200. : diameter. 121 . . .
..... ~ g w l b @ .. '

. . l s... ;' :. ... ;. ... : . . . . . . . ..Venus...59 :. . . . . . . . ..: . . . . . .. . .. . .. electric ouzpnts. 59,206 . . . .. .

Apolb 9 131,133
' bone, changes in space 130,214 ' future 63 .
....... A p ~ 41 h . 1- .........:.... .2 :.... . ..;.,.>+a: . . . .
.G ..., . . , *: . .! ., ...:.. .,..% . ...,,~tl,r~$~life:. 1.56..,: . . . ..:. . . . ...- ...............
ApoUol2 187 ' &o&duiar chanljes in' Ice Ages 61
. ApoUol5 16 space 128,129,214,215 impact craters 51,58,59
ApqUo.16 . 17,209:. 1.. s“...... CassiopeiaA 89 . . . . . . . ., . . . : MetmsCrater,Arizona 59 . :, : .. .. . . .
ApoUolP 1,123 Centaurus A 109 ' ionosphere 66,84,206,207
Archaebacteria 2 16 C e m , Eugene 1,123 magnetic field 59,60,66,67,76,
armalcolite (mineral) 185 chemical evolution 149,216 Soff, 210
Armstrong, Neil 4 chimpanzee flight 127 magnetopause 206
asteroid belt 5 1 chromosphere,solar 70,72,75 magnetosphere Wff, 206
collisions in 202,194 chromospheres,stellar 73 magnetotail 80ff, 206
traversed 201 circulatory changes in Mississippi River 131
asteroids 50ff, 201,202 space 128,129 orbit diameter 121
Apollo-Arnor 5 1 clays, role in origin of life 154ff, 216 ozone layer 84
Ceres 51 climate, planetary 61,62 poiar ion wind 207
chemical composition 201,202 closed ecology food systems 134 prebiotic synthesis 149
Chiron 202 Columbus, Christopher 4 primitive atmosphere 149,152,
collisions 202 comets 54ff, 107,202,203 216
compositional families 20 1 Bennett 202 seen from the Moon 9
Earth-crossers 51,201 Bradfield 203 temperature history 72
Icarus 51,201 chemical composition 203 Tunguska event 59
infrared observations 201 cloudof 54 weather 59,60,84,85
origin 53 coma 54 electromagnetic radiation 93
radar contacts 20 1 dirty ice ball theory 203 energy 92
Ra-Shalom 50,20 1 dust grains 202 eta Carinae (star) 90,9 1
Vesta 202 Halley 55,57,164 eukaryotes 216
volcanic eruptions 58,202 hydrogen clouds 202 European Space Agency (ESA) 167
astronauts (see also individual icy-grain-haJo 203 exobiology 147,216
names) 124ff Kohoutek 54,203 E;tplorer satellites 207
astrophysics 208ff non-gravitational force 202 Explorer 1 80,81
Ai?nwsphsroExp201-m 207 nucleus 54,202 extraterrestrial life search for 158, -
atmospheres (planetary) Seargent 203 178ff
evolved 60 Tago-Sato-Kosaka 202 extravehicuiar activity 125,214
original 60 tails 54 extreme ultraviolet telescope 2 13
aurorae water vapor 203
Earth 76,82,83,206 West 54,203 flares, solar 66,70,73,76,204ff
Jupiter 31,194 Conrad, Pete 129 flares, steiIar 73
Saturn 198 Cooper, L. Gordon 128 flyby missions 12
Gargarin, Yuri 124, 126 immune deficiencydisease 142 orbit diameter 121
galactic corona 113,212,213 Inbredastronomy 107 plasma sheet 196
galactic magnetic fields 210 infTared AsCronomy Satellite polarregions 194
galaxies 92,108ff (IRAS) 120,174 radio bursts 30,197
Andromeda 108,110,111,113 intergalacticspace 117 Red Spot 11,28,29,31
CentaurusA 109 I n t e r n a W Solar Pohr Mission ring 31,197
dwsrf 108 (ISPM) 169 shape 194
Magellanic Clouds 108,109,113, Internat- Sun-EarthEzpLmw storms 28,29
209,2 13 (ISEE) 206 temperature 194
Milky Way 108,209,213 International Ultmwiold Explorer
NGC4151 114 (T[JE) 98,99,113,203,213
normal 109ff interplanetary dust 203 KREEP basalts, on Moon 185
radio 108 interplanetarymagnetic field 78ff, Kuiper Airborne Observatory 46,
recession speeds 94 210 196,201
Seyfert-type 108,114,116 neutral sheet 206
spiral 108,113 sector structure 78.79.206 lava
X-ray emission 113,116,213 asteriods 58
young 116,213 lunar 16,58
galaxy clusters 21,58
Virgo 117 IMPS 210 Mercury 58
X-ray 113 interstellar bubbles 99,104ff, 213 Leo constellation 119,213
Galilean satellites, of Jupiter 31 interstellar clouds (gas) 212,2 13 life
Galileo 31,35,68 interstellar dust clouds 90 extraterrestrial 145ff, 185
Galilee mission 152,163,164 interstellardust grains 107,212 origin of 146ff,216
gamma ray background 116 interstellargas 105ff,21Iff detection experiments 150,151
gamma ray bursts 109,175,208, nearsun 213 support systems 177
209 interstellarmatter 210,212,213 light, speed of 91
GammaRay Observatory interstellarmolecules 216 lightning
(GRO) 120 ionizing radiation, biological Jupiter 31,196
gammara,vpulsass 102 effects 137 Satum 199
Garriott, Owen 128,130,135 ionospheric physics 206,207 Venus 190
gas giant planets 12,13,28ff,60 Lower Body Negative Pressure
prebiotic synthesis 152 jet streams Device 128
Geiger-Muller counter 209 Earth 61 Luna sample return mission 164,
Geminiproject 214 Jupiter 31,61,194 167
Gemini4 125 Satum 38,198 Luna I (USSR) 184
General Theory of Relativity 212 Jupiter 11,28ff, 194ff Luna3 184
geocorona 67 atmosphere 28,30,31 Luna9 184
geologic clock diagram 157 aurorae 31,194 lunar bombardment 187
geomagnetic storms 79 chemical composition 28,30, lunar craters
G-force 124 194,196 Copernicus 187
Gibson, Ed 54 circulation patterns 194 Tsiolkovsky 2
Goddard Space Flight Center .99 clouds 28,194 Tycho 187
gravitationd waves 212 diameter 121 lunarcrust 16,17, 185, 186
gravity, biological aspects 126 electric currents 196,197 lunar exploration 184ff
gravity-assisted maneuvers 169 energy excess 196 lunarhighlands 16,184
greenhouse effect 25 energy sources 30 lunar lithosphere 186
high-energypartide Lunar Module 133
Hale Telescope 174 emissions 196 Lunar Orbiters 185
Ham (chimpanzee) 127 interior 194 lunar outgassing 186
heart rate, space effects 214 jetstreams 31,61,194 Lunar Roving Vehicle 1,123
heliosphere 83,206 lightning 31,196 lunar sample missions 15,185
heliospheric physics 205,206 magnetic field 30,33,59,60,83, lunar soil 17,185,187
Hercules X-1 103 196,197 lunar terrain 184
High Energy Astommy Obsemamy magnetic tail 30,196 lunar valleys
HEAO-1 109,213 magnetosphere 30,33,83,196, Littrow 15
HEAO-2 89,99,100,110,113, 197
116 mass 121 MagellanicClouds (galaxies) 108,
HEAO-3 94,210 moons 30ff, 197 109,113,209
high-velocity streams 79 Amalthea 31,197 coronae 213
hormones, changes in space 214 Callisto 31,33,197 magnetism, planetary 12,13,59,60
HZE radiation particles 124,137 Europa 11,30,33,197 Earth 59,60,66,67,76,80ff,210
Ganymede 31,33,197 Jupiter 30,33,59,60,83,196,
10 11,30,32,33,44,58,197 197
 Mars 59,60 medical benefits of space Neptune 48
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Saturn 38,41,60,83,198 Mercury 18,19,188 116,.121,209,211'
Venus 59,60,189 atmosphere 188 nuclear reactions, stellar 97
magnetosphere CalorisBasin 188 nucleic acid polymers, synthesis
Earth 80ff,206 craters 18,19,188 of 216
Jupiter 83,196 flybys 18,188
Mercury 83 lavaflows 58 oceans,primordial 154,155
Saturn 83,198 magnetic field .59,60,188 Olson, Roger W. 84
magnetospheric physics 206 rotation period 188 Open Universe theory 212
magnetotail scarps 19,188 Orbiting Astronomical
Earth 80ff, 206,207 shape 188 Observatories
Jupiter 30,196 temperature 19 OAO-2 54,202
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climatic changes .62 .
clouds . 1.91,192.
craters 21,191
Argyre 21
dryice 191
dust or sand storms 61,192
environment for life 156
fog 192
ice ages 2 1,192
lava flows 58,191,192
life 22,192,216
magnetic field 59,60
moons 192,193
polar caps 21,191ff
prebiotic synthesis 150
redcolor 22
rifting 22
rocks 22,23,192
sample return mission 164
sediments 22
sky color 192
soil 22,23,150,155,156,192,
216
surEace pressure 192
temperature 192
Utopia region 22,23
valleys 191
VaIlisMarineris 191
volcanoes 21,58,191
Olympus Mons 2 1
water 192,193
winds 192
iMars3 191
mascons, lunar 185
Maunder M i u m 86
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trapped gases 202
microfossils 156,216 Pafker, Eugene 76
microorganisms 156 Pegasus I 203
microwave background photosphere, solar 70,72
radiation 8,90,117,119,120, Pioneer I 0 3,12,46,83,92,105,
210,213 194,196,197,201,203,206
M i Way galaxy 5,108,209 Pioneer I I 105,194,196,197
corona 113,212,213 203
motion 213 Pkm.eerSatunz 35,38,198,199
Moon 15ff, 184ff Pioneer Vmw 25,26,163,190
chemical composition 185 entryprobes 25,190
far side 184 Pioneer Vmw Orbiter 25,27
formation 185 planetary atmospheres 60,61
fossil magnetism 60, 186 planetary exploration 188ff
magnetic field 59,60,188 future steps 62
minerals 186 planetary nebulae 105
mining 167,177 planetes (Greek) 5
polar orbiting spacecraft 166 planetesimals 43
search for life 150,185,216 planetology, comparative 58ff
shape 185 planets
Taurus-Littrow site 123 occurrence in space 146,178
unanswered questions 166 search for 178
moonquakes 186 Pluto 49,201
Moon rocks 16,17,59,60,185,186 moon, Charon 49,201
motion sickness 133,214 orbit 49
muons 209 surface methane 49,201
muscle atrophy, in space 130,214 prebiotic synthesis 152
Earth 149
nebulae 90,95 gas giant planets 152
Crab Nebula looff, 211 Mars 150
eta Carinae 90,91 primitive atmosphere
Orion Nebula 95 Earth 149,152,216
planetary 105 Titan 44
prokaryotes 216
protosolar cloud 12,13
pulsars looff, 116,211,212
binary pulsar 212
(21919 211
Crabpulsar 211,212
drifting subpulses 212
gamma rays 211,212
giant pulses 212
nulling 212
opticalpulses 212
Vela pulsar 102,212
x-rays 211,212
pyroxferroite (mineral) 185
quasars 114ff,210,211,213
BL Lacertae objects 116
gamma rays 211
inkred radiation 210
OX169 211
redshifts 210,211
3C273 114q 210,211
X-ray images 119
X-rays 210,211
radio telescopes 178ff
Ranger7 184
Ranger 8 184
Ranger9 184
red dwarf stars 95,12 1
red giant stars 95,97,121
Red Planet, see Mars
Red Spot, see Jupiter
rifting
Mars 22'
Tethys 43,44
Venus 26,27
Rigel(star) 97
rhiE
Jupiter 31,197
Saturn 34ff, 198ff
Uranus 201
Roberts, Walter Orr 84
Salyut (USSR) 130,134,214
Saturn 34ff, 198ff
ammonia haze 35,38: 198
atmosphere 61,198
aurorae 198
chemical composition 198
circulation patterns 198
clouds 35,36,38,198
energy source 38,198
interior 198
jet streams 38,198
lightning 199
magnetic field 38,41,60,83,1
magnetosphere 83
moons 35ff, 199,200
bombardment 43
composition 200
Dione 35,38,43ff,199,200
Enceladus 43ff
Iapetus 44,199,200
Mimas 43ff,200 Spacelab 86,177
NOS.10-14 199 S ' e l a b Inm-Red Telescope .
No. 15 200 Fananli& (SIRTF) 120
Rhea 35,43ff, 199,200 ss433 99
shepherd moons 40,43,199 stars
Tethys 38,43ff, 200 diameters 121
tidal forces 44 masses 121
Titan 13,35,44,45,199,200, normal 95,97
216 rotation 99
radiation belts 38,198 spotcycles 73
redoval 38,198 winds 97,99,103,105,106
rings 34ff, 198ff Sun 65ff,204ff
A-ring 38,199,200 active regions 204
B-ring 35,38,199 arcades 75,205
braided 38,199 as a star 72,73,121
C-ring 35 balance of forces 95
Cassini Division 35,38,199 chemical composition 68,70
elliptical 38 corona 72,73,75ff,204ff
F-ring 38,40,43,199 coronal holes 75,79,169,205
Grhg 199 coronal transients 76,77,205
particles 38,41,198,199 diameter 70,121
ringlets 199 flares (see solar flares)
spokes 38,41,43,199 gammarays 204
theories 43,199 magnetic field 67,72,75,79,205,
temperature 38,198 206
winds 198 magnetic loops 75,76,205
Saturn Or* 164 Maunder Minimum 85
scarps 19,188 M-regions 76,79
khha, WaiterM. 128 nuclear reactions 70,73,204
Schmitt,Harrison 15 oscillations 204
Schweickart,Rusty 133 photogphere 70,71
Scott,David 131 polar regions 169
sensory changes in space 215 prominences 65,73,76,77,205
Seyfert,Carl 108 *tion 70,71,204
Seyfert-typegalaxies 108,114,116 radio busts 204
Shepard, Jr., Alan B. 126 spicules 205
Sirius (star) 95,106,121 structure 68ff
Skylab 54,65,75ff, l28,130,133ff, supergranulation 204
177,205,214,215 temperatures 70,72
Skylab Workshop 129 weather effects 84,85
SmallAstronomy Satellites X-ray bright points 76,205
SAS-2 212 X-raybusts 204
solar constant 85,205 X-ray photographs 74,75
SolarElectricP r o p u e System Sun-Earth interactions 170
(SEPS) 166 sunspot cycle 68,73,85,86,207,
, solar flares 66,70,73,76,204ff 210
Solar M i m u m - M 205 sunspots 6.8,76
solar system 12ff supergiant stars 95,97,99,102,121
age 43,51 Supernova looff, 202
formation 12,51,53 remnants 89, looff, 109,209
motion 119 solar system formation 52,53
solar-terrestrial physics 204ff sumeyor
solar wind 54,60,73,76,79ff, 187, Su?W#orl la4
189,202,205,206,210 Surueyor3 187
Soyuz(USSR) 214 Sumeyors 184
space colonies l39E Sumeyor7 184
space food 134,135
space medicine 124ff temperaturein space 92
space sickness 133 terrestrial planets 12,13,15ff,60
spacesuits 142 tidalheating 32
Space Telescope 120,172ff,178 Titov, Gherman 133
space walk 125 tranquillityite(mineral) 185
spiders,in space 136,138 trapped mdiation
sputnik 1 4,5,7 Earth 33
 Jupiter 33 labeled release experiment 155
troposphere 84 Viking 1,photographs 20,21
Tsioikovsky (lunar crater) 3 . . . . . v01canism 50,60 . . . . . . . . ... _ . .
Tunguskaevent 59 . and origin of like 1Q4ff '.
asteroidal 58,202
Uhum 208 Earth 85,144
universe 117ff 10 58,197
Big Bang 7,8,90,94,108,117, lunar 58
213 Martian 22,58
closed 94 Mercury 58
expansion 117,212 Venus 58.
extent 92 volcanoes
gas density 117 ancient asteroidal 51
homegeneity and isotropy 213 Enceladus 44
origin 117,213 10 32,33,44,58,197
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V-11 190 . , Uranus flyby ,12,.46,48,163
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photographs 26 weather, planetary 61,62
Venus 2M, 189,190 weight loss in space 134,214
aerosols 26,62,190 weightlessness 124,126$138,177,
atmosphere 24,25,60,61, 214
190,198 White, Edward H. 125
chemical analysis 26,189 white dwarf stars 97,100,106,121,
circulation patterns 24,25, 189, 213
190
clouds 25,61,189, 190 X-ray background 114ff, 213
craters 27,190 X-ray binary stars 103
lightning 190 X-ray observatories 114
magnetic field 59,60,189 X-ray pulsars 103
plateaus 26,27,190 X-ray sourtes 208
Ishtar Tena 26 X-ray telescopes 116
radar mapping 26,27,164,190 X-rays, soft 116
rifts 26,27 X-rays, stellar 99
rocks 26,190
rotation 25,60,189 zodiacal light 57,203
surhce 190
surface pressure 189
temperature 25,189
volcanic landforms 58,190
BetaRegio 26
winds 190
Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar
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Very Large Array (VLA) 120
vestibular apparatus 133
Viking landers 21,22,192
experiments 150,151,153,155
156,192,216