CELL DIVISION AND CELL CYCLE

THE CELL CYCLE

This particular cycle assumes a period of 24 hours,
but some cells complete the cycle in less than a hour
and others take many days. Similarly, the relative
lengths of the four phases of the cycle vary, with
G1 exhibiting the most variation.

The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division. In some cases,
the division of one cell to form two reproduces an entire organism, as when a unicellular organism,
such as Amoeba, divides to form duplicate offspring. But cell division also enables multicellular
organism, such as a human, to grow and develop from a single cell, the fertilized egg. Even after
the organism is full grown, cell division continues to function in renewal and repair, replacing cells
that die from normal wear and tear or accidents. For example, dividing cells in your bone marrow
continuously supply new blood cells.
We call a cell that has undergone growth, and is ready to divide, a mother cell. The division
of a mother cell results in two approximately equal daughter cells. Cell division involves the
distribution of identical genetic material – DNA – to the two daughter cells. A cell’s total hereditary
endowment of DNA is called its genome. The genome consists of one or more very long DNA
molecules. Arranged along the length of each DNA molecule are hundreds of thousands of genes,
the hereditary units that specify an organism’s traits.
Mitosis (division of the nucleus) is just one part of a cell division cycle, or cell cycle. In fact
the mitotic (M) phase, when the division of the nucleus (mitosis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
actually take place, is the shortest part of the cell cycle. Successive mitotic divisions alternate with
a much longer interphase, which usually accounts for about 90% of the time that elapses during
each cell cycle. It is during interphase that the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in
preparation for cell division. Interphase consists of three periods of growth. These subphases of
interphase are called, in order, the G1 phase (first gap), the S phase, and G2 phase (second gap).
During all three subphases, the cell grows by synthesizing proteins and producing cytoplasmic
organelles. However, chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase (S stands for synthesis,
as in DNA synthesis). Interphase is followed by mitosis proper, a complex process that is divided
into four stages namely; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, for convenience. The
entire process, however, occur in continuum, and not a series of discrete occurrences.

Mitosis is the kind of division that takes place in the somatic or body cells. It is involved
during growth and in the repair and replacement of worn out tissues. It is also the type of division
involved in the asexual reproduction of organisms. In contrast, meiosis is a variation of cell
division that produces the gametes (sperm and eggs, in animals; microspores and megaspores in
plants). Meiosis occurs only in the gonads (ovary and testis) of animals and in the sporangia of
plants and yield daughter cells that have half as many chromosomes as the parent cell. During the
reduction division of meiosis, the chromosomal pairs are divided so that each gamete contains one
of each type of chromosome (It is haploid). When the two gametes unite in fertilization, the
resulting zygote is diploid, having received one chromosome of each type from each parent.

MITOSIS

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 An individual reproducing sexually possesses two sets (2n) of chromosomes, one set (n)
received from the father, and the other (n) from the mother. Normally each of the chromosomes
in one set has a corresponding identical chromosome or homologue in the other. The zygote (2n)
soon develops into a multicellular organism in which each cell typically has the same number of
chromosomes as the original zygote. This chromosome constancy is accomplished by mitosis, an
orderly, continuous series of events wherein each cell divides to form two cells which are exact
replicas of the cell from which they were derived.

Mitosis also occurs in individuals that asexually reproduce and whose chromosome
numbers are not diploid. This process of nuclear division, therefore, is undergone by all somatic (or
body) cells irrespective of their type of reproduction and chromosome number. In multicellular
organisms, mitosis is a means of increasing the number of cells and replacing worn-out tissues ; in
unicellular organisms, it is a means of reproduction.

Stages of Mitosis
1. Interphase. The non-dividing cell has a distinct nucleus enclosed by a definite
membrane. Within the nucleus are one or more small, round, dense bodies called nucleoli
and extremely long and thin chromosomes which appear as granular network of darkly-
staining materials called chromatin. This stage, which occurs between two successive
mitosis, is very active biologically; such that DNA duplication takes place during this stage.
2. Prophase. Mitosis begins with prophase, the stage in which the chromosomes shorten
and thicken and becomes visible as thick rods, and the nuclear membrane and nucleoli
begin to disappear. Each chromosome has two identical threads irregularly coiled about
each other, each thread being called a chromatid. The two chromatids of each
chromosome are known as sister chromatids since they are formed as a result of DNA
duplication. Nucleoli and nuclear membrane completely disappear by late prophase.

3. Metaphase. The chromosomes, which have continued to get shorter and thicker line up
on a single plane midway between the poles of the spindle, that is, at the equatorial plane.
The spindle is composed of protein fibers believed to play a role in chromosome movement
during nuclear division. The two chromatids are still attached to each other at the
centromere, which becomes associated with spindle fibers.
4. Anaphase. The two chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere, one
moves to one pole and the other toward the other pole, while the arms of the chromatids
are dragged passively. Each chromatid, just after separation from the other, becomes a
complete chromosome by itself.
5. Telophase. Once the chromosomes are at the poles, the spindle disintegrates, a new
nuclear membrane is formed around the chromosomes, and nucleoli reappear. The
chromosomes are now beginning to uncoil and lengthen and finally lose their visible
identity.

Cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) usually follows mitosis. The cytoplasm is divided in plant
tissues via cell plate formation (starts from the inside of the cell and continues towards the
periphery) and in animal tissues via furrowing (starts from the outside and continues towards
the inside of the cell). At the end, two daughter cells, quantitatively and qualitatively the same as
the original mother cell are formed.

MEIOSIS

Sometime in the life history of a sexually reproducing individual, particularly at maturity,

gametes (n) are formed in the gonads of animals and in sporangia of stamens and pistils of plants.
Since a zygotic nucleus contains twice as many chromosomes as the gametic nuclei at fertilization,
and since chromosome number remains constant from generation to generation, there must be a
process which reduces the diploid chromosome complement back to the haploid number. This
reduction division process is called meiosis. It occurs during gametogenesis, the whole process
involved in gamete formation. Specifically, gametogenesis in the male animal is termed
spermatogenesis (formation of sperms) and in the female animal, oogenesis (formation of eggs); in
higher plants, microsporogenesis and macrosporogenesis.

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 Meiosis is a special kind of cell division consisting of two nuclear divisions which follow
each other in rapid sequence. The first involves the separation of homologous chromosomes that
has in prophase I, paired with each other resulting in two haploid nuclei. The second involves the
longitudinal separation of chromatids in each of these two haploid nuclei, resulting in production of
four haploid cells.

A. Meiosis I

1. Prophase I. The cells gradually increase in size as they proceed through prophase I.
Just as in mitotic prophase, each chromosome contains two chromatids coiled about
each other.

a. Leptonema. The chromosomes are long and thin, more so than in early mitotic
prophase. Nucleolus is distinct.
b. Zygonema. Corresponding (homologous) chromosomes pair with each other
(not fused but usually intertwined). The pairing process, known as synapsis, is
very exact, being not merely between homologous chromosomes but between
corresponding individual points. Synapsis proceeds zipperwise until the two
homologous chromosomes are completely apposed.
c. Pachynema. The pairing threads are so intimately associated that it is difficult
to see that they are composed of two chromosomes.
d. Diplonema. The tight pairing is relaxed, whereupon it can be clearly seen that
each pair of synapsed chromosomes contain 4 threads. Each chromosome is
known as bivalent (composed of two univalents) when referring to two
chromosomes, but is called tetrad (composed of two dyads or 4 monads) when
referring to cytologically detectable chromatids. Separation of paired
chromosomes is still incomplete since they appear attached to each other at
various points along their length. Each such point is called a chiasma (plural –
chiasmata). The chiasma is important since it is the physical basis for the
genetic phenomenon of crossing-over (an actual exchange of corresponding
segments between the homologous chromosomes). Chiasma terminalization
(movement of chiasma toward the end of chromosome arms from the
centromere) takes place. The chromosomes also become thicker and shorter.
e. Diakinesis. Bivalents attain maximal contraction and are distributed throughout
the nucleus. Chromosome number of species could be counted. By the end of
this stage, nucleoli and nuclear membrane have disappeared, the spindle has
formed and Prophase I is completed.

2. Metaphase I. Bivalents align at the equatorial plate.

3. Anaphase I. The univalents (each composed of 2 chromatids, thus making a dyad in
each bivalent) separate with each other at the region of centromere and proceed to
opposite poles of the spindle.
4. Telophase I. Two haploid nuclei are formed. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane
reappear, chromosomes uncoil and lengthen. Cytokinesis may not occur in some.

B. Meiosis II
1. Prophase II. Dyads contract; nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
2. Metaphase II. Dyads line up at the equatorial plate.
3. Anaphase II. The mebers of a dyad separate and proceed to the poles as monads (each
equivalent to a single chromosome).
4. Telophase II. Chromosome uncoil and lengthen; nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear. Four haploid daughter nuclei are formed with the division of the cytoplasm.

Meiosis in the life cycle of animals. Higher animals, generally, exist as diploid multicellular
organism through most of their life cycle. At the time of reproduction, meiosis in higher animals
produces haploid gametes – sperm and egg cells – which, when their nuclei unite in fertilization,
give rise to the diploid zygote. The zygote then divides mitotically to produce the new diploid
multicellular individual. The gametes are thus the only haploid stage in the animal life cycle.

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Fig. Schematic illustration of spermatogenesis and oogenesis in animals. In some animals the
first polar body does not divide.

In male animals, sperm cells (spermatozoa) are produced by the germinal epithelium lining
the seminiferous tubules of the testes. When one of the epithelial cells undergoes meiosis, the four
haploid cells that result are all quite small, but approximately equal in size. All four soon
differentiate into functional sperm cells, with long flagella but with very little cytoplasm in the head,
which consist primarily of the nucleus. This process of sperm production is called
spermatogenesis. In female animals, the egg cells are produced within the follicles of the
ovaries by a process called oogenesis. When a cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis, the haploid
cells that result are very unequal in size. The first meiotic division produces one relatively large cell
and a tiny one called a first polar body. The second meiotic division of the larger of these two cells
produces a tiny second polar body and a large cell that soon differentiates into the egg cell
(ovum). The first polar body may or may not undergo second meiotic division. Thus, when a
diploid cell in the ovary undergoes complete meiosis, only one mature ovum is produced; the polar
bodies are essentially non-functional.
Unequal cytokinesis in the production of one mature ovum has an important advantage – it
yields an unusually large supply of cytoplasm and stored food for use by the embryo that will
develop. In fact the ovum provides almost all the cytoplasm and initial food supply for the embryo.
The tiny, highly motile sperm cell contributes, essentially, only its genetic material.