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Module 1

What Is This Module About?

As you read this module, you will learn more about the parts and activities of the cell.
You will also learn how materials enter and leave the cell. Then you will learn how
microscopes have helped scientists study cells. You will also study how cells grow and
increase and why growth is essential to living cells.

This module has four lessons. These are:

Lesson 1 – The Basic Unit of Life

Lesson 2 – Movement of Materials Through the Cell Membrane
Lesson 3 – Using the Microscope in Studying Cells
Lesson 4 – Cell Division

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:
♦ identify and explain the functions of the cell as the basic unit of life;
♦ explain the similarities and differences among animal, plant and bacterial cells;
♦ describe the different functions of each part of a cell;
♦ describe the role and importance of the plasma membrane in passive transport and active
transport;
♦ explain the use of the microscope in studying cells; and
 Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you start studying this module, find out first how much you already know about the
topic by taking the following test. Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. In which of the following objects can you find cells?
a. peso coin b. strawberry
c. plastic flower d. eyeglasses

2. Which of the following is found in the nucleus?

a. chromosome b. vacuole
c. chloroplast d. mitochondrion

3. The idea that frogs arise from mud is an example of .

a. Biogenesis b. Divine creation
c. Panspermia d. Spontaneous generation

4. In a cell, the correct sequence of levels of organizations is shown by .

a. Tissue, organ, and organ system b. Organelle, molecule, and atom
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c. Organ, organ system, and organism d. Organism, population and community

5. You noticed that over the past month, many students have started wearing jackets inside
the classroom. You think this maybe the classroom has become very cold. This predictions is
.
a. An experiment b. A type of observation
c. An example of hypothesis d. An example of an experimental question

6. Which of the following is the basic unit of life?

a. atom b. organelle
c. molecule d. cell

7. Which two levels are farthest apart on the hierarchy of biological organization?
a. Organism and population b. Ecosystem and biosphere
c. Atom and cell d. Tissue and organ
8. A scientist has just observed a new phenomenon and wonders how it happens. What is the
next step in his or her discovery of the answer?
a. Observe b. Experiment
c. Hypothesize d. Peer review

9. A branch of biology that deals with the study of formation and development of organism
a. Taxonomy b. Physiology
c. Embryology d. Biochemistry

10. The idea the life begins when a meteor or cosmic dust may have carried to earth
significant amounts of organic molecules.
a. Biogenesis b. Divine creation
c. Panspermia d. Spontaneous generation

INTRODUCTION
Biology
What is Science?
Science is an organized way of using evidence to learn about the natural world.
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What is the goal of science?

– The goal of science is to investigate and understand nature, to explain
events in nature, and to use those explanations to make useful predictions
What is Life?
What is Biology?
-is the scientific study of LIFE.
-it comes from two Greek words
bios – life
logos – study.
-Biology is the science that deals with structures, functions, and relationships of living things
and their environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. Living things obtain and use materials and energy. (gathering & using energy).
Ex. Plants obtain their energy from sunlight to undergo photosynthesis.
Animals obtain their energy from the food they eat.
The process by which energy is released by the breakdown of food substances is called
cellular respiration.
The sum of all chemical processes and energy changes happening inside the body of an
organism is called to as metabolism. (nutrient uptake, nutrient processing, and waste
elimination)
2. Living things maintain a stable internal environment. (maintaining internal balance)
Ex. Elimination of waste products.
Excretion
- the process of removing waste.
Homeostasis
-the maintenance of the body’s internal environment
Ex. When it is warm, skin pores open to release sweat as the body’s way to cool down. When
it is cold, skin pores close to conserve heat.
3. Living things respond to their environment. (Responding, Adapting, and Evolving)
-most animals can move from one place to another by walking, swimming, or
jumping. Such movement is called locomotion or motility.
-External factors or stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, pressure, food sources
affect living things. The reaction of an organism to stimuli is called tropism or response.
-The ability of an organism to respond appropriately to a stimulus is called sensitivity
or irritability.
Adapting
Ex. Plants that live in the desert survive because they have become adapted to the conditions
of the desert.
Evolution
-refers to the changes in the characteristics of a group of organisms (species)
overtime.
Ex. Dinosaurs become extinct because they failed to adapt themselves to these long
term changes in their environment.
4. Living things reproduce. (Growth & development)
Living things exhibit growth from within the cells in a process called intussusception.
All living things undergo defined stages in their life cycle called development, which starts
with fertilization and ends in death.
Reproduction
-is a process by which genetic information is passed on from one generation to
another as organisms produce offspring.
LIFE is Organized
At the smallest scale:
1. All living structures are composed of particles called ATOMS.
2. Atoms bound together to form MOLECULES
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3. These molecules can form organelles – which are compartments that carry out
specialized functions in CELLs. (not all cells contain organelles)
Cells – is the basic unit of life.
4. Cells are organized into specialized Tissues
5. That make up organs.
6. Multiple organs are linked into an individuals ORGAN SYSTEM
7. That makes up an ORGANISM – a single living individual.
8. Population
- includes members of the same species of organism occupying the same place at
the same time.
9. Community
-includes the populations of different species in a region
10. Ecosystem
-includes both the living & non living components of an era
11. Biosphere
-refers to all parts of the planet that can support life

3 major divisions of the biological sciences

1. Microbiology
-study of microorganisms
2. Botany
- study of plants
3. Zoology
-study of animals

Why Study biology?

Studying biology helps you understand the functions and creations of your body.
It helps us in understanding how animals survive, respond, and interact in their environment.
Biology as a Science
In a biological point of view
SCIENCE
- is a body of systematized information about living things derived from observations
and experiments.
2 main approaches in scientific investigations
a. discovery - based science
b. Hypothesis – based science
a. Discovery – based science
- relies mainly on verifiable observations and measurements.
ex. Knowledge of cells up to the level of the biosphere.
b. Hypothesis – based science
-involves the used of the scientific method, which is used as guide by biologist in
solving problems.

The Scientific method involves several steps:

1. Observation
- Identifying and clearly defining the problem
- Starts with being curious and asking questions
- May be done anywhere & anytime.
• Scientists use their five senses e.g. use visual sense to observe
animal behavior
• Instruments can extend the range of senses e.g. use microscope to
see microorganisms
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• Take advantage of prior studies

2. Hypothesis
-formulating a possible logical answer to the identified problem
2 types of scientific reasoning
1. Inductive reasoning
-this form of reasoning allows biologists to formulate a tentative hypothesis that can
later on be tested before coming up with a general conclusion.
-specific to general observations
Ex. Of inductive argument:
Organism A,B and C all possess the same characteristics X.
Therefore, organism having the same characteristics as A,B, and C probably also possess
the same characteristic X.
- A common pitfall to this approach is the condition known as inductive leaf where one tends
to jump into general observations from only few specific findings
2. Deductive reasoning
-this starts from general principles, then goes to more specific observations.
-used by biologist to test existing theories or hypotheses.
Ex.
A biologist can construct from the deductive argument as:
Every organism A (bee) has the characteristics of X (stinger).
The organism under observation is an organism A (bee)
Therefore, the organism has the characteristic X (stinger)
The two types of reasoning help biologist to think and propose a possible logical answer to
the problem called hypothesis.
3. Experiment
-conducting controlled attempts to test one or more hypotheses and includes
recording and analyzing results.
-the process by which biologists conduct an experiment is based on an experimental
design.
Experimental design
-ensures that biologist can test what they specifically need to rest and that results will
be meaningful in the verification of their hypothesis.
4. Conclusion
-formulating generalization about the results that may accept, reject or modify the
hypothesis.
-one important feature of any experiment is its repeatability.
The tested scientific results can contribute to the existing body of knowledge known as
theories.

Life and Its Beginnings

a. Early beliefs about the origin of life.
Centuries ago, people were puzzled about how life originated on earth.
In the 4th century Aristotle proposed the theory of Spontaneous generation.
Spontaneous generation or abiogenesis
-is the idea that life originates from non living matter.
As time passed scientist questioned the belief and began to explore an opposing idea.
Biogenesis
-is the belief that life originates from preexisting life.
Since then, several experiments have been conducted to prove these contradicting
beliefs to explain how life came about.
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Pasteur’s Experiment
-It was only in 1861 through Louis Pasteur’s experiment that most scientists were
convinced that spontaneous generation does not exist.
Needham’s Experiment
John Needham
-an English priest challenged Redi’s experiment.
-Needham’s experiment tested whether or not microorganisms can appear
spontaneously after boiling.
Spanllanzani’s Experiment
Lazzaro Spallanzani
-an Italian scientist challenged Needham’s experiment.
Pasteur’s Experiment
-It was only in 1861 through Louis Pasteur’s experiment that most scientists were
convinced that spontaneous generation does not exist.

Current Beliefs About the Origin of Life

A question still lingers as to how the first living organisms developed on the planet.
Humans explored to find answers based on existing evidence on the speculation of how the
first life forms existed.
Devine Creation
-the older hypothesis that life came from a divine being is the most widely accepted belief. It
is believed that life forms and everything in the universe were created through a supernatural
power rather than naturalistic means. This belief called creationism.
-creationists believe that everything was made by a supreme being in a six-day period.
Spontaneous Origin
-some scientist believe that life evolved from inanimate matter.
-simple molecules combined to form complex one’s.
-The energy that drove these chemical processes mat come from lightning or some
form of geothermal energy, culminating in the evolution of cells from simple to multicellular
forms.
Panspermia
Svante Arrhenius
-swedish scientist, popularized the idea that life arose outside Earth and life forms
were transported from another planet to serve as seed of life on earth.
Panspermia
-proposes that a meteor or cosmic dust may have carried to earth significant amounts
of organic molecules, which started the evolution life.

Love of Lab #1

Name: Date Performed:

Date Submitted:
Rating:

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OF MAGGOTS

Objective: Determine if maggots can be spontaneously generated from meat using a
controlled experiment.
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Materials:
3 glass jars of the same size
3 slices of fresh meat (pork, beef, chicken) or mashed fruits (potato, banana, papaya)
as substitute
Clean stocking or gauze
Rubber bands

Estimated time frame: 4-5 days

Procedure:
1. Clean and dry three glass jars
2. Put a piece of fresh meat or fruit at the bottom of the three jars.
3. Keep the first jars open and leave it outside the room where it will be exposed to flies.
Label this Jar A.
4. Seal the mouth of the second jar with clean stockings or gauze using a rubber band.
Keep it beside Jar A. Label this Jar B.
5. Tightly put the cap and seal the third Jar. Keep it inside the laboratory room (dry
area). Label this Jar C.
6. Observe the appearance of maggots after several days to 2 weeks, Continue the
observation until you observe the growth of maggots.
7. Record your observations.

Observations:

Jar A Jar B Jar C

Growth of Maggots

Smell

Color of meat or fruit

Growth of fungi

Post- Laboratory Questions:

1. What is a controlled experiment?
2. Why do you observe growth of fungi in all setups after several days of the
experiment?
LESSON 1
THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Are you curious about how things look from the inside? You may have wondered
how the insides of a leaf or a flower or even a person look. Well, you are not alone. Human
beings have been curious about the structure of living things for a very long time. Such
curiosity led early scientists to examine living things in the hope of getting a better view of the
internal structure of living things. Gradually, they discovered that all living things are made up
of cells. Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things. All organisms,
including the ones in the picture below, are made up of living cells.

Of all the cells of

living organisms, it is only
plant cells that we are able to see with the naked eye. Major exceptions, of course, are eggs
of birds, which are also cells. However, most cells cannot be seen by the naked eye. Hence,
much of the early studies in biology concentrated on developing tools to assist humans in
their research. As more tools were developed, biological discoveries increased.
How were cells discovered?
History of Cells & the Cell Theory

In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope to

examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant cells)
• What he saw looked like small boxes
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• Hooke is responsible for naming cells

• Hooke called them “CELLS” because they looked like the small rooms that monks
lived in called Cells
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch microscope maker), was first to view organism
(living things)
• Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water & scrapings
from his teeth

Beginning of the Cell Theory

• In 1838, a German botanist named Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants were
made of cells
• Schleiden is a cofounder of the cell theory
• In 1839, a German zoologist named Theodore Schwann concluded that all animals
were made of cells
• Schwann also cofounded the cell theory
• In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph Virchow observed, under the
microscope, cells dividing
• He reasoned that all cells come from other pre-existing cells by cell division

CELL THEORY
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in an organism (basic unit of life)
• Cells come from the reproduction of existing cells (cell division)

This theory provides us with a definition of life. It simply says that life begins in the
cell.

Cells Vary in Shape, Size and Arrangement

Just as there is variety among organisms, there is also variety among cells. Your own body
contains over one hundred different kinds of cells. Some of these cells are round; others are
shaped like long, tangled strings.

Cells vary greatly in size too. The bacteria that naturally live inside your body are very tiny.
The ostrich egg cell is 800,000 times bigger than bacterial cells.

The living arrangements of cells also vary. Bacteria and other cells you might find in a drop of
pond water live by themselves. These cells are one-celled or unicellular organisms. You,
plants, animals and a variety of other organisms are many-celled or multicellular
organisms.

Cells
Have

Organelles

Imagine that you could become smaller and could reduce your body size to one micron (1
micron = 1000 1 millimeter). Your whole body would be smaller than a typical animal cell.
Imagine that you could step inside this cell and explore it. Find out what the parts of the cell
are. The structures found in the cell are called organelles because they are like tiny organs
that work to maintain the life of the cell.
All Cell have:
1. Cell Membrane
-which separate the inside of the cell from its environment / the outer
boundary of the cell

2. Cytoplasm
-which is a gelly like fluid that fills most of the cell
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3. Nucleus
-which is the cell genetic material / the control center of the cell.

Prokaryotes
-they don’t have a nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles.
-have Genetic Material but not contain with the nucleus.
• Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their cytoplasm to make proteins
• Always one cell or uni cell organism.
Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
• More complex type of cells
Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells
• Plant cell
• Animal cell

Organelles
-means little organ
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound
Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are hydrophilic (attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)
The Cell Membrane is Fluid
Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving and changing
Cell Membrane Proteins
• Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell recognition
• Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner or outer)
• Integral proteins are embedded completely through the membrane
Cell Membrane in Plants
• Cytoplasm of a Cell
• More on Cytoplasm
The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• More on the Nucleus
• Nuclear Envelope
• Double membrane surrounding nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter & leave nucleus
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• Inside the Nucleus -

What Does DNA do?
DNA is the hereditary material of the cell
Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Disappears when cell divides
• Makes ribosomes that make proteins
• Also contain NUCLEOLUS which is the structure where ribosomes are made.
Cytoskeleton
• Helps cell maintain cell shape
• Also help move organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are threadlike & made of ACTIN
• Microtubules are tubelike & made of TUBULIN
Cytoskeleton
-maintain cell shape.
• Centrioles
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near nucleus
• Made of bundle of microtubules
• Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
• Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends of the cell
Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle cells have MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning glucose)
MITOCHONDRIA
-is the organelle that is the power house for both animal and plant cells during the
process called CELLULAR RESPIRATION.
-make ATP molecules that provides the energy for the cell activity.
Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
• Interesting Fact ---
• Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the EGG cell during fertilization
Therefore …
• You inherit your mitochondria from your mother!
Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER
-is a membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials, such proteins
synthesize by ribosomes.
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
• Has ribosomes on its surface
• Makes membrane proteins and proteins for export out of cell
• Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER surface
• They are then threaded into the interior of the Rough ER to be modified and
transported
Functions of the Smooth ER
• Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
• Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic substances (Liver)
• Endomembrane System
Ribosomes
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins through protein synthesis
• Ribosomes
Can be attached to
Rough ER
-has ribosomes attached to it.
• Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened sacs
• Have a shipping side (cis face) & a receiving side (trans face)
• Receive proteins made by ER
• Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the ends
• Golgi Bodies
Look like a stack of pancakes
• Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts for cells
• Programmed for cell death (APOPTOSIS)
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• Lyse & release enzymes to break down & recycle cell parts)
Cilia & Flagella
• Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in small particles across the cell surface

Cilia & Flagella

• Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
• Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells. Like a little tale that help the cell
move or propel itself.
Sperm cell – only human cell that have flagellum
• Cell Movement with Cilia & Flagella
• Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles from the Lungs
Vacuoles
-are sac like structures that stores different materials.
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal cells
• Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
• Vacuoles
• In plants, they store Cell Sap
• Includes storage of sugars, proteins, minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes
Lysosome
-are the garbage collector that takes damage to worn out cell parts.
-they are filled with enzymes that breakdown the cellular drbri.
Chloroplasts
-it is where photosynthesis happen.
• It is green beacause it has green pigment called chlorophyll
• Use energy from sunlight to make own food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Bonds of Sugars
• Chloroplasts
• Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
• Outer membrane smooth
• Inner membrane modified into sacs called Thylakoids
• Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & interconnected
• Stroma – gel like material surrounding thylakoids