Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Fan Powered, Series Type can be lower than in the parallel flow
terminal (above). The fan, however,
(Constant Volume)
The fan runs continuously, fed by a
is sized to handle the total airflow.
These are often used in applications
Primary To
B41
mixture of primary and plenum air. where constant background sound and Outlets
The more primary air is forced in, the continuous airflow are desired. Recirc.
Fan
less plenum air is drawn in. The result
Fan Powered, Access Floor The terminal can fit into the floor
plenum without any modifications to
Profile (Constant Volume) the pedestal system. Primary
Fan
Types of Controls Note: Excessive airflow may lead to excessive noise. Pressure
independent control hasMinimum
less opportunity for Maximu
Variable variable
m (and
cfmoccupied cfm
spaces. cfm
Reaction to Duct Pressure Controls unwanted) sounds in the
B42 Pressure Independent
6.00
Setting
Minimum
B
Setting
Variable
D
Setting
Maximum
F
4.00 cfm cfm cfm
With this type of control the terminal maintains the flow Setting Setting Setting
6.00
rate required to handle the heating or cooling load, 2.00 B D F
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
4.00
regardless of system pressure fluctuations. It is the best
1.00
choice where the system pressure will vary extensively 0.802.00
and where precise control is essential. Key components in
0.40 Damper F
Pressure Drop in w.g.
0.40 Setting
signal input. The line AB (Figure 56) shows the typical Setting
#2
0.200.20 #2
performance characteristic. It represents a given damper
Damper HH
setting, with the flow rate varying as the square root of the 0.100.10
Damper
Setting
A A Setting
static pressure drop through the terminal. This, of course, 0.060.06
#3#3
is typical of any damper or fixed orifice. Lines CD and EF 0.040.04 Damper
Damper
represent random additional settings as the damper opens C C Setting
Setting
Open
Open
to the full open position line GH. Line GH is the minimum 0.020.02
100100 200
200 300
300 500 600
400 500
400 600700 800 1000
700 800 1000
Most of the control types shown here have certain principle AirFlow,
Air Flow,cfm
cfm
elements in common:
typically much less than the actuator response time, and Damper
Here again the power source is a low voltage supply. Signals Analog VAV
from a pneumatic or electronic velocity sensor, together with Line
Controller with
signals from the room temperature sensor, are converted Velocity Transducer
to digital impulses in the controller, which is a specialized Transformer-Usually 24 VAC
microcomputer. The controller not only performs the reset Secondary
and pressure independent volume control functions, but
it also can be adjusted and programmed either locally
or remotely for multiple control strategies, including Figure 58B. Electric Pressure Independent System
scheduling. In addition, it can link to other controllers and
interface with security, lighting, and other equipment. Direct Digital Electronic
Control can be centralized in one computer.
Velocity
Damper
Sensor
Room
Sensor Electric
Damper
Actuator
Digital VAV
Controller with
Line
Velocity Transducer
Transformer-Usually 24 VAC
Secondary
Control Operation
in Terminals Oversized 100
B44
100 Maximum
Damper
Torque
Damper Operation Required
Linearity (Figure 61) is the ideal % %
Damper
characteristic for most damper cfm Sized for
cfm
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
Pneumatic Thermostat-
Controller Combinations
For systems supplying cold air when
G 100 Max H 100 Max
DA Thermostat
RA Controller B45
or (HOT AIR)
a direct acting pneumatic thermostat RA Thermostat
signals a direct acting controller % DA Thermostat % RA Controller
(Figure 67), an increase in room cfm DA Controller cfm (COLD AIR)
Actuator Terminology
Pneumatic actuators have an internal
spring which is overcome by control
Pneumatic Control/
air pressure. When air pressure is less Actuator Combinations
than the spring tension, the actuator Controllers and actuators work in
will retract. Depending on how it is concert to control space temperatures.
connected to a damper, the damper With pneumatic controls the most
may open or close on increase in common combinations are Direct
control signal. Electronic actuators, Acting Normally Open (DANO) and
however, are typically “fail stopped” Reverse Acting Normally Closed
unless they have a return spring which (RANC). With most pneumatic
is activated by a loss of control signal. controls special controllers are used
These are several times the cost of “fail for direct and reverse acting and any
stopped” actuators. When normally combinations other than DANO or
open or normally closed actuators RANC require extra components and
are specified in an electronic control increase air consumption. (With the
project, the requirement is most often Titus II controller, no extra components
in error. are required as the unit is switchable.)
Normally Open
This describes a pneumatic operator
which is configured so that on loss of
air pressure the damper in the unit
will open fully. These applications are
typically ones where all like units are
desired to be open for control purposes
such as smoke removal or to prevent
excessive pressure on system start-up.
Normally Closed
When air pressure is removed, the
actuator will cause the damper in the
unit to go fully closed. This is typically
specified when an area is to be
isolated.
Operation of a
Velocity Controller Total Throttling Range
of Thermostat
B46 Definitions of Terms
Reset Span
The controller setpoint is the cfm 100 of Controller Max. cfm
setting that the control system is
(DDES)
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
% Max. Flow
pressure changes reported by the inlet Max. gpm Point
sensor, and thus hold the cfm constant.
Hot
With pneumatic systems, the setpoint, Water
11 psi in the example (Figure 69), Valve
can be reset by the action of the Modulation
Min. cfm Set
thermostat anywhere between the Point
maximum and minimum cfm settings
of the controller. The corresponding
thermostat output pressures are called (Cooling)
the start and stop points. The range
of possible setpoints between the start
0 3 8 11 13
and stop points is called the reset
span, 8 to 13 psi in the example shown Thermostat Output, psi
here.
Hysteresis Figure 70. Thermostat Sensitivity Example Figure 71. Hysteresis Example
This is the failure of an object to return
to its original position after a force has
moved or deflected it. For example, in
some velocity controllers (Figure 71)
the cfm setting increases along the
lower curved line and decreases along
the upper curved line. At the setpoint,
the cfm may be either A or B.
Voltage Adjustment
B48 Voltage adjustment of fan powered
terminals typically involves the use of
a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). An
SCR uses a triac to phase proportion
(chop) the electrical sine wave.
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
RPM
corresponds to the recommended
maximum operating rpm of the motor. 500
The bottom curve shows the minimum 40
airflow that the fan and motor can
provide. This corresponds to either the
minimum operating rpm of the motor 30 400
or the minimum voltage of the SCR fan
speed controller. 20 350
The SCR minimum is designed to
protect the motor from operating 10 320
below its recommended rpm. Most
standard fan powered terminal motors
must operate above a manufacturer’s 0
specified rpm to effectively self- 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
lubricate.
RMS VOLT TO MOTOR
However, the relationship between
rpm and SCR voltage is dependent of
static pressure. At minimum voltage Figure 76. Watt, Volt and rpm Relationships
on the SCR, the motor rpm will be
different at different static pressures.
Because of this, there is a possibility 1600
that at minimum SCR voltage, the
rpm will be below the motor minimum
recommended operating rpm. When 1400
this happens, the cataloged fan curve
will use minimum rpm to set the
minimum fan curve, not minimum SCR 1200
voltage.
Motor efficiencies of 70% or better across the entire savings when using the ECM motor. The following charts
operating range of the motor saves considerable electrical show the watt reduction associated with the ½ hp and 1
energy when compared to conventional induction motors. hp ECM motor when compared to standard TQS units of
The motor controller, when tuned to the fan powered equivalent application range.
terminal, provides a large turn down ratio and constant
volume airflow regardless of changes in downstream static TQS Size 6 - 1hp ECM Motor
pressure operating against the fan. With the introduction
of the ECM motor, factory setting of the fan cfm is now 1200
possible.
1000
Watts
600 SCR
made three ways.
400
• Manually with a screwdriver, similar to the SCR 200
control.
0
• Remotely (as an option) through the DDC controls
1263 1350 1601 1786 1849 2081 2162 2200
using a laptop at the unit.
cfm
• Remotely through the Building Management
System.
Figure 78. Watt Reduction with 1/2 hp ECM Motor
Harmonics
Note: TQS Size 6 with 1 hp ECM motor watt comparison to
Power for a given motor is drawn through the line in standard permanent split capacitor motor. The average watt
the form of a pure sine wave. This sine wave contains a reduction over the above range is 335 watts.
fundamental frequency, in the US typically 60 Hz. When
there exists other pure sine waves, each with individual
frequencies, other than the fundamental frequency, they are
called harmonics.These waves cause distortion or “noise” in TQS Size 4 - ½ hp ECM Motor
the power line. Therefore, harmonic distortion is a collection 600
of pure sine waves, including the 60 Hz fundamental
frequency, which when summed together point by point in 500
time creates distortion in the incoming line. 400
Watts
ECM
300
Due to the way a standard split capacitor motor draws SCR
power, they have slightly fewer harmonic frequencies as 200
compared to the ECM motor. The ECM motor, unlike the
100
standard split capacitor motor, draws peak power only when
needed, resulting in less electrical noise generation. 0
509 752 1000 1415
As of 1999, the most stringent of limitations for harmonics cfm
is published in the CEI Standard 61000-3-2 and governs
equipment sold and manufactured in Europe. These
values set the ceiling for allowable harmonic levels. The Figure 79. Watt Reduction with 1 hp ECM Motor
critical maximum or peak amp values for a given harmonic
level occur in the third harmonic closely followed by that
of the fifth harmonic. Published data for a 1hp ECM Note: TQS Size 4 with 1/2 hp ECM motor kW comparison to
without filtering capability violates the CEI limits. Titus has standard permanent split capacitor motor. The average watt
developed technology to decrease the harmonic frequencies reduction over the above range is 178 watts.
while continuing to deliver peak power as it is requested.
The Titus ECM motor meets the CEI criteria, as well as
specified national and international harmonic limitations.
When evaluating this reduction in watts for energy usage Direct Digital Control
the following table shows, at various usage rates, the annual
savings per motor. Annual savings assume a run time of
3000 hours per year (250 days at 12 hours/day).
Microprocessor-based controllers inherently perform direct
digital control (DDC) and typically replace the conventional B51
pneumatic or analog electronic controls. Digital controllers
measure signals from sensors (input), process these signals
Table 9. Annual Savings per Motor
in software (through the microprocessor), and initiate a
Inherent
B52
Offset
Sensors Controlled
Controlled
Devices
Temperature
Variable
Inputs Microprocessor Outputs Valve Actuator Setpoint
Humidity
Damper
Air Flow Actuators
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
Time
Figure 80. Direct Digital Controller Figure 81. Inherent Offset - Lost Energy Dollars and Sacrificed
Comfort
Controlled
specific VAV controller may be used to control
Variable
Setpoint
single duct, dual duct or fan powered terminals
by simply choosing the appropriate operating
sequence from a software library maintained on
board every controller (Figure 83). Time
• While functioning completely independent, digital
controllers perform all essential functions necessary
to control different pieces of HVAC equipment Figure 82. Offset Completely Eliminated - Improved Comfort
without interconnecting to other computers. In this and Less Energy Usage
way each piece of HVAC equipment has its own
digital controller in the same way conventional
systems would provide individual control panels.
Dual Duct
Fan Powered
With or Without
Hot / Cold Blending Constant Volume (Series Type)
1F 1F Recirculated Air
Primary Air
Sizing Parallel Fan Powered Terminals The overall primary air static pressure drop is
1400
o p
2
x 0.30” = 0.44” sp
1150
Sizing Series Fan Powered Terminals 1200 cfm of primary air at 0.50” wg inlet static pressure.
The fan airflow is 1200 cfm. The downstream resistance
Compared to single duct terminals, series flow (constant
volume) fan powered terminals add the additional factor of
offered by the duct and diffusers is 0.30” at 1200 cfm. B55
fan cfm requirements. The designer must consider both the
Primary Air: From the table on page R11, a size 4 will handle
primary airflow and the fan. Series terminals are selected
1200 cfm of primary air with a minimum static pressure drop
based on the capacity of their fans. The secondary (or fan)
of .2” through the primary air section. Since 0.50” static
The primary air section discharges into the unit casing near
the fan inlet, where the static pressure is slightly below
atmospheric. For this reason, the available inlet pressure
need only be enough to overcome the internal pressure drop
through the primary air damper itself.
Oversizing Terminal
B56 The direct result of oversizing is low air velocity. With the
velocity too low, the damper must operate in a pinched-
down condition most of the time, making control difficult.
The inlet velocity can also be too low for effective operation
TERMINAL CONTROLS AND A CCE SSO R I E S
Velocity too low for Velocity too low for Velocity too low for
of the sensor and controller. Too low a velocity through an accurate dampering accurate dampering electric heater
electric heater will cause the safety airflow switch to shut
down the heater. Oversizing fan terminals results in low
fan motor rpm and the potential for under-lubrication of Figure 89. Low Velocity Effects
the motor bearings, resulting in shortened motor life and
additional sound from larger motors (Figure 89).
Room 101 Room 103
Too Hot
Capacity Concentrated in Too Few Terminals T
The outlet end of the Titus terminal is designed for a Flexible Duct
slip and drive connection. Unless a round duct adapter
is furnished, a rectangular outlet duct should be fitted to
match the size of the terminal casing. It should be fastened
and sealed according to the job specifications. Figure 101. Unrestricted Duct Properly Install at the Inlet
Air
Straightener
A 10” terminal handles 1150 cfm. The central system cools The amount of leakage in the branch duct serving the
air from 80°F dry bulb / 67°F wet bulb to 53°F dry bulb / terminal, the connections to the terminal, the terminal
51.5°F wet bulb before sending it to the terminal. itself, and the duct downstream from the terminal is 5% of
the 1150 cfm being handled, or about 58 cfm.
PT
2. Velocity pressure, as its name
implies, is entirely a function of
air velocity and its direction. It is
the pressure you feel against your Pitot Tube
hand if you hold it outside the
window of a moving car.
3. Total pressure is the sum of static
pressure and velocity pressure.
It and static pressure are the
pressures actually sampled by
velocity sensors in terminals and
by commonly used measuring
devices, as described next. Connecting
The interaction of static, velocity, and Tubing
total pressures is illustrated by
(Figure 105). The Pitot tube, which
is used to measure velocities and
pressures, is really a tube within a
tube. The inner, or impact, tube senses
both the velocity pressure and static
pressure combined (total pressure).
The outer tube, which communicates
with the airstream through small holes
in its wall, avoids the impact of the
air movement and senses only static
pressure.
rpm
500
400
A fan handles 40,000 cfm at 2” static pressure. It runs 300
cfm1 rpm1
= Figure 106. Fan Law - Airflow
2. cfm2 rpm2
cfm2 = (cfm1 x rpm2) / rpm1
Fan Law 2
= (40,000 x 800) / 760 1000
= 42,105 900
800
3. Pressure varies as the square of shaft speed. 700
600
P1 rpm12
rpm
= 500
P2 rpm22 400
P2 = P1 x rpm22 / rpm12 300
bhp1 = rpm13
bhp2 = ((bhp1) x (rpm2)3 / (rpm1)3 Figure 107. Fan Law - Pressure
= ((18) x (800)3) / (760)3
= 21.0 Fan Law 3
1000
The relationships stated here apply when the air density 900
remains constant and when there is no change in the fan 800
700
or the system. They are based on Fan Laws 1, 2 and 3. For
600
a complete presentation of the Fan Laws, see the ASHRAE
rpm
500
Handbook, Systems and Equipment. 400
300
Each fan design has its characteristic set of performance 200
curves. Those shown in (Figure 109) are typical of a 100
centrifugal fan with forward curved blades in the wheel, 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
as commonly used in fan powered terminals. For a full
discussion of the characteristics of the various types of fans, bhp
see the ASHRAE Handbook, Systems and Equipment.
Figure 108. Fan Law - Brake Horsepower
The solid curve represents a fan running at constant speed,
as it is throttled from free delivery to close-off. The broken
System Curve
line square curve represents the pressure drop through the 3.5
complete air handling system in which the fan operates.
Intersection (A) is the operating point of the fan. 3
B
2.5
The dashed line represents another system pressure curve
Total Pressure
0.5
0
1000 3000 5000 7000 9000 11000 13000
Volume Flow Rate
Reheat Coils:
Several types of terminal devices are available with reheat By solving for the EATr, the coil Btuh requirements can then
coils, both hot water and electric. When determining the be determined. The room entering air temperature (EATr)
heat requirement for a terminal, the engineer will often start now becomes the required LAT of the VAV box (ignoring any
with the known zone heating demand, typically expressed duct heat losses). The coil can now be sized according to:
in BTUH, or more conveniently, MBH (thousands of Btu’s).
The room load requirements for heating are then used to Btuh (coil) = 1.085 * (LAT - EATc) * Q
determine the Room Entering Air temperature (EATr) by
the equation: Where;
Btuh (room) = 1.085 * (EATr - Tr) * Q LAT = Coil leaving air temperature
EATc = Coil entering air temperature (primary or mixed air)
Where; Q = Flowrate (cfm)
EATr = Temperature (°F) entering the room Now that the coil requirements are known, published
Tr = Room setpoint temperature or average temperature catalog data may be used to select the proper hot water or
Q = Flowrate ( cfm) (typically 30 - 50% of the cooling cfm) electric coil.