APUSH History Review - Semester 1

Key Elections

1796 Washington refused to consider a 3rd term; Constitution in 1796 required

presidential electors to place the names of 2 individuals on their ballots, and the
candidate with the highest vote count became the president and the runner up
the vice president.
- Generally agreed among leading Federalists that John Adams of Massachusetts
would follow after Washington, but Hamilton sought to influence results and
preferred Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina.
- Adams won (Federalist) followed by Jefferson as Vice President (Republican)

1800 Pre-election atmosphere was colored by the Alien and Sedition Acts controversy
which created much ill feeling between the contending parties.
- Jeffersonian Republicans triumphed with control of New York since 1796 by
Aaron Burr’s political skill.
- But, Jefferson and Burr got the same number of electoral votes, and the matter
was to be resolved in the House of Representatives; Hamilton played a pivotal
role by throwing his support to Jefferson (whom he disliked) rather than Burr
(whom he saw as dangerous)
- “Revolution of 1800” because it marked the transition from the Federalists, the
only party to have held the presidency to that point to the Democratic-
Republicans of Jefferson

1824 Showed that “Era of Good Feelings” had come to an end; all candidates were
Democratic-Republicans, but personal and sectional interests prominent.
- Candidates were: John Quincy Adams (North Easterners, a high protective tariff;
leading contender), Henry Clay (Similar to Adams), Andrew Jackson (military hero,
drew Western support from Clay), William H. Crawford (who hoped to continue
the “Virginia Dynasty; held to the old-line Republican view of limiting the role of
federal government), John C. Calhoun (backed out to secure the vice presidency).
- 12th Amendment provided that elections in which no candidate received a
majority should be decided by the House of Representatives from among the top
3 candidates.
- Jackson had garnered the most electoral votes, so Clay used his
influence to sway the vote to Adams, because Jackson was an opponent of the
Bank of the U.S., a vital component of (Clay’s) American System.
- Adams president and appointed Clay as Secretary of State led to charges
of a “corrupt bargain”

1828 Nominations by conventions and state legislatures; was first true mud-slinging
contest.
Election results were a clear victory for Jackson but highly sectional; the South,
West, and the states of Pennsylvania and New York went for Jackson while New
England voted for Adams.

1840 Background: Martin Van Buren (Democrat) up for reelection against William Henry
Harrison (Whig). Harrison won, running on “log cabin” campaign; heavy on
image, light on substance.
- 2 economic visions: Whigs wanted to expand and stimulate economy; Dems
favored retrenchment, ending banks and aggressive corporations.
- Triumph of a populist democratic style. (Anti-aristocracy)
 Key Elections

1860 Pre-Civil War Election. Lincoln (Republican) Douglas (Democrat) Beckinridge

(Southern Democrat) Bell (“Constitutional Union”— mostly Know-Nothing and
Whigs).
Other parties splintered, giving way to Lincoln’s minority (40%) victory. Popular
vote confined to Northern states, but won decisive electoral vote.

1876 Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) vs. Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat) impasse. Led to
Compromise of 1877— ENDED RECONSTRUCTION. Democrats agreed to Hayes in
exchange for removing troops from last 2 states (LA & SC). Sacrificed black
freedmen, Jim Crow Laws enacted same year.

1896 Free Silver election. McKinley (Republican) represented interests of the wealthy.
Bryan (Democrat) represented the Democrats, Populists, and Silver Republicans.
Crucial issue was economic—free silver, gold standard, tariffs— that stemmed
from class conflict. The widening gap between the rich bondholder and the poor
plow-holder.

Parties

Anti-Federalist Opposed ratification of the Constitution.

- Wanted to establish a weak central government and strong states governments
like that created by the Articles of Confederation; were states’ rights devotees
- Had the support of many small farmers, small landowners, and debtor elements
who felt that strong state legislatures were more sympathetic to them

Democratic- Jeffersonian Republicans placed their faith in the virtues of an agrarian

Republican democracy; believed that the greatest threat to liberty was posed by a tyrannical
(1800-1824) central government and that power in the hands of the common people was
preferred.
- Favored France over Britain; Jefferson praised the French Revolution but
criticized its bloody excesses.
- Opposed the Hay’s Treaty in 1795 as excessively pro-British.
- Following the War of 1812, an “Era of Good Feelings” emerged, and was
highlighted by the existence of only a single political party, the Jeffersonian
Republican Party.
- Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams

Federalist Party Advocates of a strong central government; pessimistic about human nature and
(1792-1816) believed that the government must resist passions of the general public;
government’s prime function was to maintain order and faith was placed in the
talents of a small governing elite.
- Supported the ratification of the Constitution between 1787 and 1790, such as
Jefferson (for a while) and Hamilton
- Partisanship entered the Washington cabinet over the squabble over the
creation of the First Bank of the United States.
- Many were large landowners, bankers and businessmen, favored the
government’s efforts to encourage and protect American industry.
- Strong in New England, large pockets of support in the Middle States.
- Supported the British in foreign affairs and opposed the French during
Revolution.
- John Adams’ admin marked the end of Federalist control, 1800.
- Hartford Convention during War of 1812 discredited party; would end party
power.
 Parties

Free Soil (1848 - Anti-slavery! (e.g: Supported Wilmot Proviso, banning slavery from territories
1854) acquired from Mexico.) “Free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men.” Concern
for enslaved blacks stemmed more from concern for free white workers &
tradition of upward mobility. Absorbed by Republican Party (1854). Candidate was
Martin Van Buren.

Know-Nothing Wave of antiforeignism alarmed “nativists”— immigrants were coming from

(1845-60) Ireland and Germany, mostly Catholic. “Americans must rule America.”
Nominated Millard Filmore. Supported by remnants of Whig party.
- Eastern factory workers feared job losses to immigrants who were willing to
work for very low wages; others feared the newcomers because they were
different in looks, language, customs, and religion. - Nativism: the belief that
only native-born or long-established citizens should have a voice in public affairs.
- Name came from members’ reluctance to talk about their organizations; effort
was made to expand the movement through the formation of the American Party;
split over the slavery issue.

People’s Party / Party of 1890s. Garnered many votes in election of 1892, but faded afterward.
Populists (1884 - Mostly oppressed farmers and urban workers, mostly in rural areas (West and
1908) South). Campaigned on “free silver” platform— attempt at artificial inflation
through unlimited coining of silver. Also called for graduated income tax, gov’t
ownership of railroads, telegraph, and telephone. In 1896, supported Democrat
William Bryan.

Republican Created from Kansas-Nebraska conflict as anti-slavery (for economic reasons)

(1854 ~ ) party. Included disgruntled Whigs, Democrats, Free-Soilers, Know-Nothings, and
other foes of K-N act. Sectional party; hated south of Mason-Dixon line. Led
country during Reconstruction (1865-1877). Republican presidents until Cleveland
(1885).
- Split during Gilded Age (1877-1890) into Stalwarts (Conklingites) who
defended spoils system and Half-Breeds, supports of civil reform.
- McKinley’s victory (1896) seen as resurgence of Republican dominance. Gave
way to Progressive presidents. - Issues that brought the party together and
won control of the House of Representatives: repeal of K-N Act, support for central
route for transcontinental railroad, support for Homestead Act that would ease
process for settlers to own western lands; support for high protective tariffs and
liberal immigration laws.
- The party of free working white men.
- Sectional; didn’t attempt to run candidates in the slave states; wanted to gain
complete political control in North to have sufficient electoral strength.

Socialist Party Support from trade unionists, progressives, populists, and immigrants. In 1912
(1901-72) and 1920, candidate was Eugene V. Debs. Opposed involvement with World War I.
Weakened by popularity of FDR’s New Deal.

Whigs (1833 - A reaction to the authoritarian policies of Andrew Jackson, especially by his
1856) actions regarding the Bank of the U.S, Native Americans, Supreme Court, and his
use of presidential war powers.
- Made up of Jackson critics, states’ rights advocates, and supporters of the
American System were supporters; descendants of Federalist Party (supported
strong federal action in dealing with national problems).
- Led by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster.
- Issue of slavery split the party; Whigs in the North (Conscience Whigs) favored
abolition of slavery and halting spread, while Cotton Whigs pro-slavery.
- Southerners moved to Democratic Party; Northerners to the Republican Party.
- William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore
 Parties

Democratic Jacksonian Democracy flowed in the footsteps of Jeffersonian Democracy.

Party - The era saw a great increase of respect and power for the common man, as the
electorate expanded to include all white male adult citizens rather than only land
owners.
- Promoted the strength of the executive branch and the Presidency at the
expense of Congressional power, while also seeking to broaden the public’s
participation in government; reduce the power of elites and prevent aristocracies
from emerging.
- Demanded elected (not appointed) judges and rewrote many state constitutions
to reflect their new values.
- Favored geographical expansion (Manifest Destiny); battles over slavery should
be avoided (consensus with the Whigs).
- Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, Franklin Pierce, James
Buchanan, Grover Cleveland, Woodrow Wilson, FDR, Harry Truman, JFK, LBJ,
Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Obama

Supreme Court Cases

Cherokee Nation Georgia had enacted laws that allowed them to evict the Cherokee from their
v. Georgia (1831) lands. The Cherokee Nation appealed to SCOTUS that this was unconstitutional,
and laws should be voided. Decision: Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign
nation.

Charles River The Charles River Bridge was built 1785 to connect Boston and Charlestown.
Bridge v. Warren Charles River was collecting massive toll profits when suddenly a second bridge,
Bridge (1837) Warren, was to be built very close by. Charles R. held that the second bridge
would be a violation of their contract.
- Significance: Contracts should be interpreted as narrowly as possible.

Amistad (1841) Slave rebellion broke out on schooner Amistad after international slave trade
had been abolished. Court ruled that transport of Africans across Atlantic was
thus illegal, and the slaves onboard were free Africans & and their rebellion
justified.
- Significance: Helped abolitionist movement.

Dred Scott v. Ruled that black slaves (and their free or enslaved descendants) not protected
Sanford (1857) by Constitution and were not citizens. Congress had no authority to prohibit
slavery in federal territories. Slaves could not sue in court.
- Significance: Kansas-Nebraska Act passed earlier allowed newly admitted
states to decide to become slave or free state. Dred Scott meant loss of political
power for the North, and actually strengthened Northern opposition to slavery
and Republican Party.

Plessy v. “Separate But Equal.” Upheld constitutionality of racial segregation, especially in

Ferguson (1896) railroads.

Marbury v. John Marshall is SCOTUS Justice. William Marbury sued for his appointment as
Madison (1803) judge in the last hours of Adams’ administration (midnight appointments);
Jefferson wanted to rid judicial branch of Federalists & thwarted Marbury’s
appointment on technicality. Court established judicial review. Marbury’s
petition is denied.

McCulloch v. Marshall est. supremacy of federal law; wrote that Maryland’s effort to tax
Maryland (1819) national bank was in conflict with federal law and unconstitutional.
 Supreme Court Cases

Gibbons v. Ogden est. national supremacy in regulating interstate commerce; Aaron Ogden
(1824) received exclusive rights to operate ferry between NY and NJ; Court ruled that
monopoly granted by state conflicted with federal law; exclusive right was null
and void.

Dartmouth Strengthened contract clause (people are obligated to follow through with
College v. contracts). Attempt by New Hampshire legislature to change provision in
Woodward Dartmouth College’s charter; placed Dartmouth under new board named by
governor while original charter; Chief Justice John Marshall said the charter is
valid contract in which legislature had unconstitutionally interfered.

Worcester v. 2nd supreme court decision; involved Cherokees & state of Georgia; court ruled
Georgia (1832) that Cherokee were a sovereign nation and that laws passed by Georgia
legislature requiring them to leave Georgia had no bearing on Cherokee Nation;
Jackson reject Marshall’s ruling; Native Americans were forced by US army to
move to Oklahoma by Andrew Jackson in spite of court’s decision.

Geography

36 30 line Southern boundary of Missouri; established during Missouri Compromise (1820)

that all states of Louisiana Territory (except Missouri) would be free states.

54 40 line “54 40 or Fight” Oregon dispute between US and Britain. Line dividing present-day
Washington and Canada. Oregon territory was vast area from Oregon to Alaska.
Actual area of dispute was the small, north-west corner of the US, from Colombia
River on S & E to 49 parallel on N and Pacific on W.

49th Parallel Forms US-Canadian border. (Involved in Oregon boundary dispute.)

Erie Canal Built 1825. Linked Great Lakes with Hudson River. Goods could be moved much
faster than before. Attracted immigrants and farmers, made land valuable.
Transformed the Northeast.

Rio Grande River that today borders Mexico and Texas. (Became boundary after Mexican-
River American War 1846-48.)

New Orleans Located at East border of Louisiana. Originally French territory, sold to the US in
the Louisiana Purchase. Became a major trading port. Andrew Jackson led the final
battle in the War of 1812 in New Orleans, the only clearcut victory between British
and US

Appalachian Vast system of mountains located in Eastern North America. Restricted white
Mts. settlement beyond this point in the Proclamation of 1763.

Rocky Mts. Range of mountains located in Western North America. Became a factor during the
Oregon dispute, fighting for the Oregon territory.

National Road Also called Cumberland Road. One of the first major highways built by the United
States federal government. It connected Potomac to Ohio, allowing transport of
goods and supplies to be faster and easier.

Original Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Connecticut,

Colonies Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Delaware, New Jersey, Rhode Island, New York,
Pennsylvania
 Geography

Appalachians to Proclamation of 1763 forbade English colonists from living west of the
the MIssissippi Appalachians. Any settlers currently west of the mountains had to move back
east. All English territory between the Appalachians and the Mississippi.

Louisiana Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris, instructed to buy New Orleans and as much
Purchase land east for maximum of $10 million; Napoleon suddenly decided to sell all of
Louisiana and abandon his dream of New World empire. Hoped that America,
strengthened by Louisiana, would one day be a military and naval power that
would thwart ambitions of Britain. Louisiana was ceded to U.S. for &15 million,
more than doubled the size of the U.S. Yet there was no clause that the president
was authorized to negotiate treaties incorporating a huge new expanse into the
union in the Constitution. Removed virtually the last remnant of significant
European power from North American continent.

Florida state in southeastern US; organized as territory in 1822; admitted as state in

1845. Originally Spanish. Ceded to the US in exchange for renouncing claims on
Texas it might have had from the Louisiana Purchase.

Texas Originally Spanish. Became part of Mexico when it gained its independence. The
Texas Revolution made Texas briefly into independent nation. US immigrants
came; eventually joined the US 1845.

Mexican California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado [west of Texas], New Mexico[west of
Cession (1848) Rio Grande], Wyoming [west of Texans and south of 42nd parallel]); ceded to the
US after Mexican-American War through Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo.

Gadsden purchase of 30,000 square miles of South Arizona & SW New Mexico; paid $10
Purchase million to Mexico for territory to use as route for the transcontinental Pacific
(1853) Railroad; last territory added to contiguous 48 states; Controversial due to great
cost & small area, as well as sectional issues related to slavery.

Oregon Country region in western North America that extended form the Pacific Coast to the Rocky
Mountains from the northern border of California to Alaska; became Oregon
territory in 1846

Mississippi river that flows from Minnesota down to Gulf of Mexico.

Scandals and Events

Whiskey Ring (1875) Scandal that occurred during Grant’s presidency in the Gilded Age (1865-
1901), known for widespread graft and corruption. Millions in liquor-tax
revenues were stolen from the Treasury.

Tweed Ring (1871) Scandal under Grant, during Gilded Age. Displayed lack of ethics typical of
the time. “Boss” Tweed employed bribery, graft, and fraudulent elections
to milk NYC of $200 million. Exposed by NYT. Cartoonist Thomas Nast
viciously attacked him.

Boston Tea Party Bostonians destroyed lots of tea to protest the Tea Act. Aroused sympathy
(1773) for Revolutionaries and led British Parliament to pass Intolerable Acs,
leading to the First Continental Congress and finally Lexington and
Concord.

Popular Sovereignty The people decide whether to be a free or slave state. Devised 1848 by
Lewis Cass.
 Scandals and Events

Spoils System Born under Jackson. Rewarding political supporters with public office.
Accompanied by scandal and incompetents. Important in cementing party
loyalty. Repealed by Chester Arthur in 1881 when Garfield was killed by a
deranged office seeker.

Anne Hutchinson Revealed her support of the effectiveness of faith alone (the covenant of
grace) as the key to salvation, as opposed to the standard Puritan
emphasis on good works (the covenant of works); also expressed her belief
that God revealed himself to individuals without the aid for the clergy.
- John Winthrop leery of her views and cautioned that women could do
irreparable damage to their brains by pondering deep theological matters;
he and John Cotton led opposition to Hutchinson and charged that she and
her followers were guilt of heresy. Was expelled and died.

XYZ Affair 1797, President Adams tried to defuse growing tensions with France by
sending two new diplomats to join Pinckney in Paris (John Marshall &
Elbridge Gerry).
– The French foreign minister kept American mission for weeks, then
deployed agents to demand a $250,000 bribe for himself & a $12 million
loan for France. Bribery had been standard diplomatic fare at the time, but
the amount was deemed exorbitant.
- Soured relations between the US and France.

Aaron Burr Aaron Burr: From 1801 to 1805 Burr served as vice president, creating the
awkward situation of a sitting president from one party and the vice
president from the rival party. Jefferson largely ignored Burr, who
contented himself with serving ably as President of the Senate.
- In 1804, Alexander Hamilton conspired to deny the former vice president
the governorship of New York. Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.
- In 1806, Burr became involved in another plot the details of which are
still not clear. Acquitted from charges of treason.
- Ran against Jefferson in election of 1800.

Peggy Eaton Affair Senator John Eaton, a close friend of Jackson, had married the widowed
daughter of a Washington innkeeper, Margaret (Peggy) O’Neill; the local
rumor mill ground out gossip that O’Neill and Eaton had had an affair prior
to her husband’s death.
- The Cabinet wives, led by Mrs. John C. Calhoun, were scandalized and
refused to attend events when she was present.
- Jackson was not pleased with this tempest, remembering how deeply his
late wife had been hurt by scandal-mongering; resented Calhoun’s inability
to control his wife and was disappointed when Martin Van Buren alone
among the Cabinet officers defended the Eatons.
- In 1831, Eaton and Van Buren resigned their offices, putting pressure on
the other members to do likewise. These resignations gave Jackson the
opportunity to appoint Cabinet officers who were loyal to him rather than
Calhoun.
 Scandals and Events

Boston Massacre 1767 Townshend Acts, (duties on paper, lead, paint, and tea imported into
the colonies).
- A boycott engineered by the Americans angered the imperial authorities.
Customs officials repeatedly asked for military backing, in the hope that a
show of force would enable them to collect duties from colonists.
- Bostonians resented the presence of "foreign" soldiers in their city, but
many common workers shared an additional concern. The British soldiers
were so poorly paid that many had to find part-time jobs in order to meet
their basic needs. In so doing, the redcoats were taking jobs needed by the
colonists.
- The Boston Massacre was, of course, not a “massacre,” in the classic
sense. Samuel Adams and other propagandists, however, immediately
capitalized on this incident, using it to fan colonial passions. Paul Revere
assisted the effort by issuing one of his most famous engravings.

Credit Mobilier Representative Oakes Ames of Massachusetts and Thomas C. Durant were
prominent stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad. In 1867 the two
cooperated in forming Crédit Mobilier, a dummy construction company
fobbed off as responsible for completing the transcontinental railway's last
600 miles.
- In the process, U.P. stockholders and the federal government were bilked
out of millions of dollars. When it appeared that an investigation was going
to be launched, Ames bribed influential congressmen and was able to head
off scrutiny.
- Nevertheless, the fraud was exposed in 1872. It was apparent that Vice
president Schuyler Colfax had been bribed with stock. House Speaker
James A. Garfield was linked to the dealings, but his participation was
never proven.
- Despite the loss of $20 million, no prosecutions ever occurred.
- This notorious example of large-scale graft involved leading members of
the Republican Party. Public confidence in business methods was shaken
by the affair.
 Scandals and Events

Impeachment of Impeachment of Johnson: a. A series of bitter political quarrels between

Andrew Johnson President Johnson and Radical Republicans in Congress over
Reconstruction policy in the South eventually led to his impeachment.
Johnson was almost impeached on the charge of illegally removing Edwin
M. Stanton, War of Secretary, from office, but wasn't because of 1 vote.
- Radical Republicans wanted to enact a sweeping transformation of
southern social and economic life, permanently ending the old planter
class system, and favored granting freed slaves full-fledged citizenship
including voting rights.
>> They saw an unrepentant South featuring new state governments full
of ex-Confederates passing repressive labor laws & Black Codes targeting
freedmen.
- Radical Republican Congress enacted Civil Rights Act of 1866 in response
to southern Black Codes. Granted new rights to native-born blacks,
including the right to testify in court, to sue, and to buy property.
- President Johnson vetoed it, but Congress overrode it by a single vote.
Start of power struggle b/w President & Congress.
- Moderate voters in the North began leaning toward the Radicals. Johnson
made matters worse by attempting to join all moderates in a new political
party (National Union). Failed.
>> The Radicals swept the congressional elections of 1866, resulting in a
two-thirds anti-Johnson majority in both the House and Senate. Able to
pass the Military Reconstruction Act, Command of the Army Act, and the
Tenure of Office Act against Johnson’s wishes.
- Military Reconstruction Act divided the South into five military
districts under federal control and imposed strict requirements on southern
states in order for them to be re-admitted to the Union including
ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and new state constitutions in
conformity with the U.S. Constitution.
The Command of the Army Act required Johnson to issue all military orders
through the General of the Army instead of dealing directly with military
governors in the South.
The Tenure of Office Act required the consent of the Senate for the
President to remove an officeholder whose appointment has already been
confirmed by the Senate.

Bloomers Bloomers were baggy underpants for women, but went out of style when
skirt lengths became shorter at the end of the 1910s; seen as indecent.
 Scandals and Events

Seneca Falls Beginning of the women's movement in America.

Convention In the interim between the 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention and the
1848 Seneca Falls Convention, Elizabeth Cady Stanton composed
the Declaration of Sentiments, a document declaring the rights of women
modeled on the Declaration of Independence.
- Contained several resolutions including that a man should not withhold
a woman's rights, take her property or refuse to allow her to vote.
The convention was treated with scorn from all corners. The press and
religious leaders denounced the happenings at Seneca Falls. However, a
positive report was printed at the office of The North Star, Frederick
Douglass' newspaper.
Many leaders of the Women's Movement were also leaders in the
Abolitionist Movement and vice-versa. However, the two movements while
occurring at approximately the same time were in fact very different. While
the abolitionist movement was fighting a tradition of tyranny against the
African-American, the women's movement was fighting a tradition of
protection. Many men and women felt that each sex had its own place in
the world. Women were to be protected from such things as voting and
politics. The difference between the two movements is emphasized by the
fact that it took women 50 more years (1920) to achieve suffrage than it
did for the abolition of slavery.

Panics of 1819, 1837, Depressions usually followed overspeculation in lands or inflated

1873 securities.
1819: First major financial crisis in US. War of 1812 led to a demand for
American products (resulting from scant supply of imports during the war).
In 1819, the market is declining; as prices fall, money becomes difficult to
come by, but the habit of borrowing, formed in the expansive years,
cannot be shaken. Marks end of Era of Good Feelings.
1837: Cotton production increased in the South, agriculture expanded in
the West, cities grew, and manufacturing replaced trade as the economic
base in the North. These phenomena were accompanied by a rise in the
sales of land, and also in the price paid for land. There was a need for
internal improvements, roads, canals, etc. and these had to be financed by
states and private companies. Led to overspeculation and inflation.
President Jackson wants to get rid of central Bank. Bad! Lack of control
leads to financial anarchy and inflation.
In response to the President's Specie Circular issued in 1836, local banks
call in their loans. Lacking sufficient hard money, banks fail, enterprises go
bankrupt, unemployment spreads. As depression deepens, President Van
Buren continues to follow Jackson's policy, with the ill-advised plan to
fragment the single treasury into a system of "sub-treasuries."
1873: The economy is over-expanded, particularly in railroad construction.
Banking house Jay Cooke and Company declares itself bankrupt, and
announces its failure on September 18, 1873. Precipitates the "Panic of
1873" and the ensuing three year depression.
- The basic economic problems are overproduction, a declining market and
deflation. Investors in Europe call in American loans. The New York Stock
Exchange closes its doors for 10 days; other businesses fail; and railroad
construction is curtailed. The hard times drove numbers of laboring people
and those in humble circumstances to the West and other portions of the
country.

Great Awakening 1730s. Period of religious revivalism sparked by George Whitefield. Leaders
included Jonathan Edwards (“Sinners In The Hands of an Angry God”).
Led to development of American governing principles— an egalitarian
democracy.
 Scandals and Events

Sons of Liberty During the Parliamentary debate over the Stamp Act (1765) the American
opponents of the new tax were the "Sons of Liberty"; Secret radical groups
in the colonies adopted this name and worked to oppose the stamp tax
and other later parliamentary revenue programs.
Membership in the Sons was largely middle class with more upper-class
representation than lower. Relationships were often negotiated with street
elements, which sometimes conducted violent actions — often without the
Sons' approval. A streak of conservatism remained a hallmark of the Sons
until the 1770s. Initially they saw their role as the organizers of protests
against specific government policies and not as the disrupters of royal
authority; One of first contributions was to enforce nonimportation
agreements (greedy merchants who handled forbidden products were
forced to make humiliating public confessions.)
The Sons of Liberty's influence waned in most of the colonies following the
repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766. However, the movement was
revived with the passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767, and would
remain a fixture of American resistance to the time of independence. It
was then that they played a particularly prominent role in setting up the
First Continental Congress (1774)

Albany Plan of Union Proposed by Benjamin Franklin at Albany Congress (1754) during French
and Indian War. Attempt to unite colonies under one government.
Rejected; colonies too disunited and suspicious of each other.

Second Great a reprise of the of the early 18th century, was marked by an emphasis on
Awakening personal piety over schooling and theology. In northern New England,
social activism took precedence; in western New York, the movement
encouraged the growth of new denominations. In the Appalachian region
of Tennessee and Kentucky, the revival energized Presbyterians,
Methodists and Baptists, and gave rise to the popular camp meeting, a
chance for isolated frontier folk to gather and enjoy the excitement of
evangelistic fervor.
- The revival's secular effects consisted of two main strains: The virtues
and behavior of the expanding middle class—a strong work ethic, frugality
and temperance—endorsed. Engendered a wide array of reform
movements aimed at redressing injustice and alleviating suffering—a
democratizing effect.
Social activism spawned abolition groups, temperance, and suffrage
societies, and others committed to prison reform, care for the handicapped
and mentally ill. Noted proponent: evangelist Charles G. Finney. Held
that the Gospel saved people, but was also a means to reform society.
Fervent abolitionist.
The movement spread through southern Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee.
Features of the Methodist and Baptist denominations became assets on
the frontier. Among the Baptists, ordinary farmers frequently got the God
call, pored over their Bibles, and then kindled congregations—which
ordained them. The Bible belt of the South and Border States was born on
this grassroots format.
The Second Great Awakening exerted a lasting impact on American
society, more than any other revival. While its fervor abated, it left a
legacy of many established churches, democratization and social reform
 Scandals and Events

John Brown’s Raid Proclaiming himself the servant of the Lord, Brown led an attack in the
spring of 1856, which resulted in the murders of five proslavery settlers.
The incident became known as the Pottawatomie Creek Massacre. This
event was part of widespread violence then occurring in Bleeding Kansas.
- Brown’s uncompromising stand against slavery won him numerous
supporters in the North, where many abolitionists were frustrated by their
lack of progress. In particular, encouragement and financial support were
extended by the “Secret Six,” a group of influential New England
aristocrats. With their help, Brown was able to establish a base in western
Virginia where he hoped to spark a general slave rebellion in the South. His
raid on Harper’s Ferry in 1859, was part of that plan; a major step toward
the polarization of North and South on the eve of the Civil War
- Brown was arrested and charged with inciting a slave insurrection and
treason. He conducted his own defense, and the event was widely reported
in Northern newspapers as a selfless idealist. Nevertheless, he was
convicted and hanged in December 1859.

Execution of John See above.

Brown

Peculiar Institution The following arguments were put forth in Southern books, pamphlets and
newspapers to defend the institution of slavery:
1. Slavery was good for the slaves; the slaveowners took on the burden of
caring for the interests of inferior beings, seeing that they would be fed,
clothed and given religious instruction.
2. In a comparative sense, Southern slaves were better off than many of
the immigrant workers in Northern factories who were confined in
unhealthy workplaces for long hours.
3. Slavery was the key to national prosperity—for both the North and the
South; nearly 60 percent of U.S. exports of this era were cotton; the
slavery advocates argued that if their economy were tampered with, the
great industrial cities of the North would crumble; many Southerners
viewed the North as a parasite, nourishing itself on slavery while at the
same time criticizing it.
4. Slavery was vital for the continuance of a superior Southern lifestyle
which emphasized good manners and graciousness; they did not want to
become like the fast-paced, money-grubbing North.

Wars - Rebellions - Crises

Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon's Rebellion was lead by Nathaniel Bacon, mainly composed by poor
frontier farmers on protest of the friendly treatment of Indians
- Defeated marching to Jamestown, but this got planters to look for a safer
means of labor (African slaves)

Barbary Pirates Group of fighters who attacked American ships along the Barbary Coast of
northern Africa at in the first few years of the 1800s; members of a handful
of African states who signed treaties with the U.S. promising to stop
attacking American ships
- They broke those treaties, however, and the U.S. fought back with force;
Both the Navy and the Marines won big victories, including one at Tripoli in
1805.

Bleeding Kansas John Brown attempted to invade the South and instigate a slave rebellion to
establish a black free state. At Harpers Ferry, killed several innocent people,
and he was executed. Made South more eager to secede.
 Wars - Rebellions - Crises
Civil War 11 Southern states declared secession from the US and formed the
Confederate States. Hostilities began when Confederates attacked Fort
Sumter, one of the few Southern forts that was still loyal to the Union. The
men at Fort Sumter surrendered, uniting Northerners and spurring Union
forces into action.
The South had General Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. The Union had
much more manpower and factories, but poor leaders (until Ulysses S
Grant).
The Confederacy was led by President Jefferson Davis; the Union was led by
President Abraham Lincoln.
The War had a drastic economic effect on the South. The cotton economy
collapsed, and they went through hard times. Northern factories prospered.

French and Indian Also known as The War of Jenkin’s Ear or Seven Year’s War; There were
War (1754-1763) already small world wars fought by the European nations for land and
money; continued for around 100 years.
- At first, it was confined to the Caribbean Sea and to the buffered colony of
Georgia
the small scuffle with Spain merged with the War of Austrian Succession in
Europe -> King George's War in America.
Peace Treaty of 1748 gave Louisburg back to French foe -> Americans
outraged
- Ohio Valley became place of contention b/w French and British.
fought to decide whether Britain or France would become the stronger
power in America; both sides relied on its colonists and Indian allies to fight.
France more interested in fur trade than in settling land and didn't
appreciate the high prices paid by British to the Indians for animal furs.
- Defeat of French in Quebec and signing of a treaty in Paris in 1763 -> end
of war.
British took over their land that stretched from east coast of North America
to the Mississippi River. Everything west of the river belonged to Spain.
Indians still had control over most of western lands.
- Colonists emerged from war with increased confidence in their military
strength; myth of British invincibility was shattered; friction had developed
during war b/w arrogant British officers and raw colonial "boors.” colonial
unity had been achieved, British officials distressed by reluctance of
colonists to support the common cause wholeheartedly.
- Removal of French menace in Canada let colonies have a new spirit of
independence and deprived Indians of their ability to play off the rival
Europeans powers against one another
- Resulted in large debt that British Parliament decided would be repaid by a
raise in taxes on the colonies since they were the ones who got the most
benefits and had to be defended.
- Taxes imposed on legal documents and tea; stamps affixed onto legal
documents and newspapers. Beginning 1765, protests at the situation
began to mount in the colonies. Would lead to Revolution

Mexican War (1846- Texas is in dispute & President Polk really wants to buy California, but is
48) turned down. 1846, provokes war, which a patriotic Congress agrees to.
Series of battles lead to Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo (1848). Expanded
size of US by 1/3; gains Texas, gains California and region east of it.
Treaty opposed by two groups: people who want all of Mexico (Manifest
Destiny) and people who want none of it (anti-slavery “Conscience Whigs”).
 Wars - Rebellions - Crises
Nullification Crisis Tariff of Abominations / 1828 passes; extremely high. Protective tariffs
(1828-32) help manufacturers but raises prices for all. Discriminated against Old
South. Northeast - prospers from manufacturing boom. West - High property
values and multiplying population. Southwest - Cotton. Old South is
backwards.
Deeper problems: Anxiety over federal interference with slavery.
South Carolina Exposition (by John Calhoun) suggests North Carolina
should nullify tariff. 1932: SC legislature made up of “Nullies” passes
nullification bill and threatens secession.
ANGRY! President Jackson vs. SC Nullies. He pressures nullies until Henry
Clay makes compromise bill Tariff of 1832, gradually bringing down rate.
Force Bill - Would allow President to use army/navy to collect on tariffs.
Neither side truly won. Significance: Avoided North/South conflict this time.

Revolutionary War Began in 1775 when British soldiers and American patriots fought at
Lexington, Massachusetts and Concord; ended in 1783 with the Treaty of
Paris.
- Tension had been mounting between Great Britain and the American
Colonies because the British government had passed a series of laws in an
attempt to increase control over them.
- The Colonies were largely unprepared for war, lacking a central
government and having no organized army or navy; Washington was
appointed commander in chief of the Continental Army.
- 1776, July 4, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence.

Shay’s Rebellion 1786, led by Captain Daniel Shay, veteran of Revolution, demanded state
issue paper money, lighten taxes and suspend property takeover.
- Revolutionary war veterans lost farms through mortgage foreclosures/ tax
delinquencies
- Authorities respond by raising small army
- motivated congress to reassess the Articles
- Showed the need for a stronger federal government to politicians

The Alamo (1836) “Remember the Alamo!” becomes American battle cry.
Dictator Santa Anna butchers 400 Americans at the Alamo. Delays Mexican
advance and galvanizes American opposition. Americans very angry!

War of 1812 Britain and French at war. (Napoleonic Wars)

(1812-1814) Origins: 1) Impressment of American soldiers. 2) Embargo against Britain
(after Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 and Macon’s Bill No.2 fail). 3) British
support of American Indians who resisted US expansion.
Supported by: War Hawks, Expansionists (Florida, controlled by Spain),
South and West, Republicans in mid-states. Opposed by Federalists in North
and South, and especially New England.
Battle of New Orleans was dramatic victory over Britain. Fought 2
weeks after Treaty of Ghent signed, but unleashed a wave of
nationalism and self-confidence. (Era of Good Feelings)
Hartford Convention: 1814 - New England extremists hated War of
1812, proposed secession. Believed that Battle of New Orleans
would be lost, demanded compensation, etc. New Orleans is won,
and they are seen as traitors. Symbolized death of Federalist Party.

XYZ Affair See Scandals and Events

 Battles
Vera Cruz (1847) During Mexican-American War, General Winfred Scott throttled the
Mexican seaport Vera Cruz. He succeeded, and continued onward to Mexico City.
Accompanying Scott’s army was Nicholas P. Trist, who would negotiate the treaty
(Guadelupe Hidalgo) that would end the war.

Mexico City Battle during Mexican-American War; US victorious. Last battle of war.

Bull Run First: (1861) Union Army under McDowell advanced across the Bull Run river.
Confederate victory. Both sides realized war might be longer and bloodier than
originally realized. Second (1862) Stonewall Jackson vs. John Pope. Confederate
victory.

Antietam (1862) First major battle in Civil War to take place on Northern soil. Bloodiest
single-day battle in American history. Though not a strong Union victory, Lincoln
took advantage of it to announce Emancipation Proclamation.

Shiloh (1862) Bloody battle, Union victory by Grant.

Gettysburg (1863) Battle with most casualties in Civil War. Union victory. Turning point;
ended Lee’s invasion of the North; from this point on, South fought defensively.

Vicksburg (1863) Union victory. Turning point (along with Gettysburg). Prevented supplies
from Texas from passing east & split Confederacy.

Lexington and (1775) detachment of troop sent by British commander in Boston sent to
Concord Lexington & Concord to seize stores of gunpowder and to bag "rebel" ringleaders
Samuel Adams & John Hancock; "Minute Men" refused to disperse fast enough -
8 Americans killed & several wounded; Redcoats pushed on to Concord where
they were forced to retreat to Boston by ready Americans; had 3000 casualties,
including 70 killed.

Trenton-Princeton Revolutionary war battle which Patriots drove British forces back and retook
Vincennes. Both battles were American Victories.

Saratoga (1777) Support from French/Spain as they supply America by sending supplies.
Turning point in Revolutionary War. Two battles; second battle was American
victory, leading to Franco-American alliance that helps bolster the eventual
American victory.

Yorktown last major battle of American Revolution; 1781; surrounded British troops in
Yorktown with support from French naval and military;7000 troops surrendered
under General Charles Cornwallis.

Tippecanoe (1811) Governor William Henry Harrison attacked Tecumseh’s capital (Prophet’s
town); shawnees lost bloody battle; battle reinforced suspicions that British were
inciting Native Americans;

Detroit one of a series of defeats stopping the American invasion of Canada during War
of 1812.

Washington, D.C. British sent more troops to America to attack nation’s capital; broke through
Madison’s defenses. War of 1812; White House destroyed in fire.

New Orleans fought after Treaty of Ghent had been signed in War or 1812. Major American
victory; helped propel Andrew Jackson to the White House; prelude to Era of
Good Feelings.
 Foreign Policy
Macon’s Bill Number (1810) Intended to motivate Britain and France to stop seizing American
2 vessels during Napoleonic Wars. If either one of the two countries stopped
attacks upon American shipping, the United States would cease trade with
the other, unless that country agreed to recognize the rights of the neutral
American ships as well. Failed, and soon entangled US in War of 1812.

Rush-Bagot Treaty Treaty between US and Britain (1817) severely limited naval armament on
Great Lakes. Decades later, complete disarmament turned the lakes into a
shared border between the US and Canada.

Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) Settled border dispute between US and Spain along Texas. Ceded
Florida to US. Established boundary of US through Rocky Mountains west to
the Pacific Ocean.

1846 Treaty with Oregon Treaty. Oregon had been jointly occupied by Britain and US. Set US
Britain border at 49th parallel, which is today the US (Washington)-Canadian
border.

Treaty of Guadelupe Ended Mexican-American War (1848). Mexico lost 55% of its pre-war
Hidalgo territory. Gained southwest US region— California, Nevada, Utah, and parts
of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. (Gadsden Purchase would later
complete region.)

Monroe Doctrine (1823) Efforts by European countries to colonize or interfere with countries
in the Americas would be considered to be acts of aggression. Invoked by
later presidents.

Manifest Destiny Belief that United States is destined to expand from Atlantic to Pacific coast.

Salutary Neglect New England merchants had made smuggling and bribing customs officials
their way of life, resisted changes that would affect their income sources,
especially with the Navigation Acts.
- better to encourage commercial relations with colonies than meddle in
their government affairs.

Treaty of Paris 1763 Ended the Seven Years’ War, allowing Britain to emerge as the world’s
leading colonial empire; France and Spain ceded much of their territory.

Treaty of Paris 1783 1783 officially ended the war of independence against Britain
- provided that Britain would recognize US as independent Nation
- Mississippi R. would be Western Boundary
- Americans have fishing rights off coast of Canada (Newfoundland)
- American would pay debts owed to British merchants
- honor loyalists claims for property taken during

Washington’s Farewell Warned against the growth of political parties, especially geographically
Address based; acknowledged the need for temporary alliances, but warned against
“permanent alliances;” urged the country to honor the payment of all
financial obligations.
 Foreign Policy
Jay’s Treaty 1794, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Jay sent to England to seek
solutions to tense relations with Britain (seizure from American cargo ships,
impressments of American seamen, and continuing British occupation of
western posts in U.S. borders)
- Sought the withdrawal of the British soldiers from posts in the American
West, a commission to be established to settle border issues between the
U.S. and Canada, and a commission to be established to resolve American
losses in British ship seizures and Loyalist losses during the Independence
War

Pinckney Treaty Spain recognized U.S. borders at the Mississippi and the 31st parallel and
granted Americans the right to deposit goods for transshipment at New
Orleans.
- Granted these concessions to the U.S. not from fear of America’s military
might, but from concern over the warming relationship between Britain and
the U.S.; hoped to keep Britain off balance

Treaty of Ghent Called for the end of hostilities, required that conquered territory and
prisoners be returned, and appointed a commission to study lingering
boundary issues between the United States and Canada.
- Shows that U.S. was strong enough to defeat Britain in the 2nd American
Revolution, but not powerful enough to force more favorable terms at the
peace (like stopping impressments or protecting neutral rights)

Embargo Act Economic decision by U.S. to protect its own product shipping rights,
intending to eliminate Great Britain’s higher quality of product -> War of
1812

The Constitution
Amendments 11-15 11. Protects a state from lawsuits filed by citizens of other states. 12.
Provides procedure to which President and Vice President are elected.
Electors must cast distinct votes for President and Vice-President, rather
than 2 votes for President (and having the runner-up become Vice-
President). 13. Abolishment of slavery. 14. Redefined citizenship to include
former slaves. 15. Prohibited government from denying citizen’s right to
vote based on race, color, or previous slave status.

Ratification Needed 9 states to ratify, but all 13 states did.

Checks and Balances Allows for one branch to limit the other, so none has too much power.

Executive Branch aka the President. Protects Constitution, executes laws, executes
instructions of Congress, veto power, executes spending, declares states of
emergency, creates treaty, appoints judges, commander in chief.

Legislative Branch aka Congress. Makes laws, declares war, controls money, confirms heads of
executive branch, confirms judicial appointments, ratifies treaties, power of
impeachment, may override veto.

Judicial Branch Does not make or enforce law. Interprets law, determines whether law is
unconstitutional, polices own members, etc.

Federalists Supported ratification of Constitution of United States. Include George

Washington, John Adams, Alexander Hamilton. Favored loose interpretation.
 The Constitution
Anti-Federalists Opposed ratification of Constitution. Believed that it took too much power
from the states. Included Patrick Henry.

English Bill of Rights (1689) Inspired United States Bill of Rights.

John Locke English Enlightenment philosopher. Associated with natural rights and the
social contract. Influenced Constitution and Declaration of Rights. In a
natural state, all people are equal and dependent, and all have right to
defend his “life, health, liberty, or possessions.”

Bill of Rights First 10 amendments: 1) Freedom of speech; 2) Freedom of arms; 3)

Protection from quartering of troops; 4) Protection from unreasonable search
or seizure; 5) Due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination. 6) Trial by
jury, rights of accused; 7) Civil trial by jury. 8) Excessive bail, cruel and
unusual punishment; 9) Protection of rights not enumerated; 10) Power of
States and people.

Articles of document agreed to by the colonies after the American Revolution; provided
Confederation for loose organization of states; each state was to be autonomous.

Constitutional circumstances warranted reassessment of the Articles of Confederation;

Convention 1787; delegates persuaded by experience that an effective central
government was needed.

New Jersey Plan proposal to create a unicameral government; equal representation, like the
Senate; rejected at the constitutional Convention.

3/5 Compromise A black slave was counted as 3/5 of a person in population count. The
southern states wanted them counted as one whole person for more
representatives in the House of Representatives. The northern states did not
want them counted at all.

Impeachment constitution gave House of Representatives authority to impeach a

president suspected of committing a crime or violating essential presidential
duties.

Virginia Plan plan for government proposed at constitutional convention in which the
national government would have 3 branches- executive, judicial, and
legislative, representation in the legislature would be determined by state
population

The Great real division of Constitutional Convention; involved issue of representation;

Compromise Roger Sherman suggested; gave more populous states representation in the
house of Representatives based on population; representation in senate was
to be equal.

Slave Trade The 13th amendment to the United States Constitution officially abolished
and prohibits slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a
crime.

Federalist Papers collection of essays authored and published in NY 1787 and 1788 under
Publius; authors were Hamilton, Madison, and Jay; defended principle of
single national government, reassure readers that there was nothing to fear
regarding government takeovers or tyrannical behavior;
 Legislative Acts
Navigation Acts Loosely enforced and passed to regulate the mercantilist system
(1600) - Navigation Law of 1650: aimed at rival Dutch shippers trying to elbow way
into American carrying trade - stated that all commerce flowing to and from
colonies could be transported only in British vessels.
- Later laws required that European goods destined for America had to be
landed in Britain where tariff duties to be collected and where British
middlemen could take some of the profits.
- Other laws specially demanded that American merchants must ship certain
"enumerated" (listed) products, especially tobacco, exclusively to Britain, even
though prices might be better elsewhere.
- British crown also reserved the right to nullify any legislation passed by the
colonial assemblies if such laws worked mischief with the mercantilist system.

Proclamation Act A royal decree that prohibited Americans from settling west of the Appalachian
(1763) Mountains, acknowledging that the Native Americans owned the lands that
they were living on.
- Wanted to avoid war with the Indians and to keep colonies on the coast where
they could benefit the British mercantile system more.

Sugar Act (1764) Meant to help pay off the debt accumulated in the French and Indian War and
caused economic hardship in New England and the Middle Colonies.
A tax on trade, and indirect and external tax
No taxation without representation.
Nonimportation boycott of British goods started

Stamp Act (1765) Funds accumulated were to be put aside for the support of British soldiers
protecting the American colonies
Violators tried by vice admiralty courts and Americans were outraged because
matters were heard by royally appointed judges, not by local juries.
Led rise to the Stamp Act Congress and Stamp Act riots where shopkeepers
agreed not to sell British manufactures and organizations like the Sons of
Liberty watched to make sure they kept their promise.

Declaratory Act Followed Parliament’s repeal of the Stamp Act, but affirmed England’s right to
(1766) interfere in their colonies in all cases
- Right to tax, enforcement of parliamentary laws, or crown rights over colony
rights were subject to the British crown

Townshend Acts Charles Townshend wanted to reduce the national debt by imposing taxes in
(1767) the colonies; made sense because the French and Indian War had been fought
for the colonies and was a major reason for the debt.
- Realized that Americans objected to internal taxation so he set external tax
- Included the Quartering Act, reorganization of the customs service, and new
duties.

Intolerable Acts Introduced by Lord North, it included the Boston Port Act, Quartering Act,
(Restraining Acts) Administration of Justice Act, and Massachusetts Government Act.
[1774] - Massachusetts received sympathy and and respect of neighbors and the
harshness of the measures surprised many moderates, turning them to radical
views.
- Led to the summoning of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia

Judiciary Act of Created the Judicial Branch of the federal government

1789 - Provided for 6 members of the Supreme Court, 13 lower district courts
- Stated that the Supreme Court can settle disputes between states and that its
decision is final
 Legislative Acts
Land Ordinance A systematic means to prepare new areas for statehood in which a number of
(1785) states ceded to the federal government their claims to the land west of the
Appalachian Mountains
Eased worries of landless states, cooled tension between states with
overlapping land claims, and relieved states of war debt.

Northwest Admission to Union available when the number of free inhabitants reached
Ordinance (1787) 60,000; civil rights and liberties were guaranteed, education was encouraged,
and slavery and involuntary servitude was prohibited.
Spurred the westward movement of American settlers, overturned the colonial
idea that newly settled lands were lesser than established areas, and provided
the first national limitation on slavery expansion.

Bank of the US Alexander Hamilton; helped to establish the credit of the U.S. government and
(1791) the economic independence of the country.
- Congress granted a charter to a bank to become the Bank of the US. So that it
could provide a warehouse for federal funds, issuing paper money, loan money
to the government, and form a source of capital for investors.

Alien and Sedition Passed by Federalist-controlled Congress, designed to control the activities of
Acts (1798) foreigners in the US during time of impending war, tried to destroy Jeffersonian
Republicanism.
- Naturalization Act: extended residency period from 5-14 years for those
seeking citizenship, especially the Irish and French
- Alien Act: allowed expulsion of aliens thought of as dangerous during
peacetime
- Alien Enemies Act: allowed captivity or expulsion of aliens deemed dangerous
during wartime
- Sedition Act: provided for fines or imprisonment for those who criticized the
government, Congress, or president in speech or print.

Virginia and Prepared by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson; stated that the states had
Kentucky the duty to nullify within their borders those laws that were unconstitutional.
Resolution (1798)

Missouri Missouri asked Congress to enter the union in 1819

Compromise Tallmadge Amendment passed by House of Representatives in response,
(1820) viewed by Southerners as a threat to sectional balance
- No more slaves could be brought into Missouri
- Gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there.
Concerned by fast increase in northern population and economy; and political
balance in the House of Representatives.
- Senate still balanced 11 free to 11 slave states; parity had to be maintained
Future of the slave system intensely concerned southerners
- Missouri first state entirely west of Mississippi made from Louisiana Territory.
- Tallmadge Amendment might set a precedent for rest of the region to be free.
- If Congress could abolish slavery in Missouri, it might try in southern states.
- Small group of abolitionists in the North used the occasion to protest
Henry Clay led the mediation of a compromise
- Congress agreed to admit Missouri as a slave state; Maine was admitted as a
free state; and Future slavery prohibited north of 36º 30' line, the southern
border of Missouri.
- North advantage from Spanish territory in southwest prevent southern
expansion westward.
- Southerners not too concerned about lands north of 36º 30' as the climate
was not conducive to cash crop agriculture requiring slave labor.
Henceforth, slavery became a dominant issue in American politics.
 Legislative Acts
1828 Tariff of New England textile manufacturers pressed Congress for higher protective
Abominations measures because British woolens put into American markets at low prices;
could only do so by including an increase on duties for importation of certain
raw materials

1832 Tariff Moderate reform returned rates to 1824 levels, but South Carolina sparked the
Nullification Crisis (See “Wars...”) during the Jackson Administration.

Force Bill (1833) See Nullification Crisis

Compromise of Henry Clay’s attempt to settle slavery dispute

1850 - California admitted to Union as a free state, New Mexico and Utah territories
would be decided by popular sovereignty
- Slave trade in the District of Columbia was abolished and a new Fugitive Slave
Act was passed (Northerners very enraged – no more compromises)
- Held off Civil War for about 10 years

Kansas-Nebraska Stephen Douglas’ bill that called for the Nebraska Territory to be divided into
Act (1854) Kansas and Nebraska and to let the question of slavery be decided by popular
sovereignty
- Repealed the Missouri Compromise, enraged Northerners and led Southerners
to want a formal amendment to repeal all the slavery provision of the
compromise specifically.
- Reopened the slavery question in territories leading to events like “Bleeding
Kansas”
- President’s hope for reelection were gone, Democrats lost influence in the
North and became the regional proslavery party of the South
- The Whig Party opposed the Act and died in the South and was weakened in
the North
- A new Republican Party emerged, drawing in anti-Nebraska Whigs and
Democrats

Process of Began with the Radical Republicans’ Reconstruction Plan. motivated by revenge
Reconstruction to punish the South for causing the war, concern for the freedmen, and wanting
to keep the Republican Part in power in the North and South
- Supported protective tariffs, pro-business national banking system, liberal
land policies for settlers, and federal aid for railroad development.
- Also supported the vote for blacks; afraid the Democrats would regain the
South.
- The Republicans also tried to impeach Andrew Johnson.

Spot Resolution Demanded to know where American blood had been shed on American soil,
(1847) Abraham Lincoln, during Mexican War.
- Challenged the validity of the president’s words and represented the political
power struggle between the Whigs and Democrats.

1882 (Chinese) Treaty arrangement re-negotiated by the Hayes Administration because of

Exclusion Act complaints from California.
- Chinese workers were prohibited from entering the US for about 20 years and
could not be granted citizenships. A departure from America’s traditional policy
of open immigration and the first to single out a specific ethnic group for
special treatment.

Morrill Land Grand The federal government would distribute land proportionately to the states,
(1862) which sold it; the proceeds of land sales supported colleges in instruction of
agriculture and industries.
 Legislative Acts
Sherman Anti-Trust The first federal antitrust law; authorized federal action against the
Act (1890) combination of businesses in form of trusts or any conspiracies of restraining
trade.
- First meaningful challenge to the legislation came from the E.C. Knight Case
(1895)
- State governments in the West and South passed laws to regulate corporate
behavior, but the trusts established themselves in friendly states like Delaware
and New Jersey

People
Harriet Beecher (1811-96) Abolitionist who wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Spread the abolitionist
Stowe movement in the North, while provoking anger in the South.

The Grimké Sisters (1800s) Sarah and Angelina Grimké were Southern-born, Quaker abolitionists
who lectured in the North about their experiences; also advocated for women’s
rights.

Harriet Tubman (1820-1913) Former slave who became abolitionist, humanitarian, and Union
spy. Rescued slaves via the Underground Railroad.

Lucretia Mott (1793-1880) American Quaker, abolitionist and advocate of women’s rights.
First American “feminist”. Helped to organize Seneca Fall convention.

Elizabeth Cady (1815-1902) Abolitionist and leader of woman’s movement. Wrote Declaration
Stanton of Sentiments.

Brigham Young (1801-1877) Leader of Mormon Church (LDS: Latter-day Saints) and first
governor of Utah. Saved Mormon church when Joseph Smith died.

Joseph Smith Founded Mormon (LDS) church. Was murdered.

John Frémont Republican who opposed James Buchanan in 1856.

James Polk 11th President. (1845-49) Democrat. Led nation in Mexican-American War.

Santa Ana Mexican Prez/Dictator, presided during the Mexican-American War in 1846-48.

Zachary Taylor President after Polk; died 16 mo. into term and Presidency assumed by
Fillmore.

Franklin Pierce President after Fillmore, before Buchanan. Democrat. Reopened question of
slavery in the West by repeating Missouri Compromise with Kansas-Nebraska
Act. One-term. (1833-1837)

Stephen Douglas Democratic nominee for President in 1860. Lost to Abraham Lincoln. Designed
Kansas-Nebraska Act, which reopened slavery q. with popular sovereignty.

Roger Taney 5th US Chief Justice. Delivered majority opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford.

Abraham Lincoln Republican 16th President of the United States during the Civil War. Directed
Union forces to victory, and was assassinated before his second term ended.
(1861-65)

Jefferson Davis Confederate president during Civil War.

 People
Charles Sumner Leader of Radical Republicans in Senate during Civil War and Reconstruction
years (1861-77). Very anti-slavery. Was victim in Bleeding Kansas incident
(1856) that escalated abolitionist-slaveholder tensions that led to war.

Alexander Vice President of Confederates during Civil War.

Stephens

John Slidell Sent to Mexico by Polk to negotiate Texas boundary prior to Mexican-American
War. Also sent to barter for California. Both rejected.

Thaddeus Stevens Leader, along with Sumner, of the Radical Republicans in 1861-77. Very anti-
slavery, and advocated harsh treatment of post-Civil War South.

George McClellan Union general in Civil War. Raised well-trained army, but was too cautious in
battle. Lincoln: “If General McClellan does not want to use the army, I would
like to borrow it for a time.” Led Battle of Antietam, bloodiest single-day battle
in US history.

Ambrose Burnside Union Army general in Civil War. Took control after McClellan was removed. Led
humiliating defeat in Battle of Fredericksburg.

William Sherman Union General in Civil War. Raised well-trained army, but was too cautious in
battle. Lincoln: “If General McClellan does not want to use the army, I would
like to borrow it for a time.” Led Battle of Antietam, bloodiest single-day battle
in US history.

Mathew Brady Union general under Grant that implemented “total war” tactics against
Confederates. However, his tactics were successful.

Robert E. Lee Brilliant Confederate general. Victories in Second Battle of Bull Run,
Fredericksburg. Failure in Antietam and Gettysburg.

Andrew Johnson Lincoln’s veep; assumed presidency after Lincoln was assassinated in 1865.
Treatment of South was too lightweight, and he became first U.S. President to
be impeached. Terrible president. Considered Democrat.

Anne Hutchinson Puritan woman who held Bible meetings for women and men. Was exiled
because she offended colonial religious leaders.

John Quincy Adams President succeeding Monroe, and preceding Andrew Jackson. One term (1825-
29). Shaped foreign policy. Designed Monroe Doctrine as Secretary.

Cinque West African man who led the Amistad revolt, leading to SCOTUS case.

John Brown Fanatic abolitionist who led revolt on Harper’s Ferry. Advocated slave
insurrection. His actions helped escalate tensions leading to the Civil War.

Bartolome de las 16th century Spanish Dominican Priest. Opposed mistreatment of Native
Casas Americans by Spanish colonists.

Nathaniel Bacon Led Bacon’s Rebellion (1674), an anti-Native American rebellion by landless
freemen that blindly attacked several tribes who had done nothing wrong.
Demanded suffrage.

Nat Turner Led most successful slave rebellion, leading to 56 deaths of whites in southern
US. Led to violent backlash and new laws targeting blacks.
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Jonathan Edwards Preached during First Great Awakening. Famous sermon titled “Sinners in the
Hands of an Angry God”.

Onate Founded various settlements in Southwest United States.

Crispus Attucks Of African and Indian American heritage. First person killed during Boston
Massacre of American Revolution.

Lowell (Mill) Girls Name for female textile workers in Lowell, which had factories with large
female workforce. Active in labor movements.

Preston Brooks Proslavery; Severely beat Charles Sumner, leader of the Radical Republicans.
Was made a villain in the North, and incident helped escalate North/South
tension.

Andrew Carnegie Became very rich during Gilded Age (1865-1901), earning much of his fortune
in steel. Gave much of his money away, and espoused the Gospel of Wealth.

JD Rockefeller Founder of Standard Oil Company. Monopolized petroleum. Richest person in

history. Became philanthropist.

JP Morgan Gilded Age. Banker; one of the wealthiest men in the world.

Alexander Graham Invented telephone.

Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution.

Frederick Jackson 20th century historian who wrote The Significance of the Frontier in American
History. Success of the US is tied to westward expansion.

Mark Twain American author during Gilded Age; well-connected, and wrote “Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn.” (1835-1910)

Teddy Roosevelt First Progressive President (1901-1909). Republican Party, and later Bull Moose
Party. Known as “trustbuster” and described his domestic agenda as “Square
Deal”. Slogan: “Speak softly and carry a big stick.”

Helen Hunt Jackson Write Ramona, a novel about mistreatment of Native Americans.

Eugene Debs Founded Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Famous socialist. Involved in
Pullman Strike.

Mary Jones “Mother Jones.” Co-founded Industrial Workers of the World. Involved in the
plight of coal workers.

Ida Tarbell Leading muchraker of the progressive era. Exposed Rockefeller’s tactics in the
oil industry. Developed investigative reporting tactics.

Samuel Gompers Founded American Federation of Labor (AF of L). Unlike the IWW, sought to
improve situations of workers rather than completely change them.

Thomas Edison Invented first practical electric light bulb, plus a bunch of other stuff.

Sears Founded Sears company. Original sold watches. Promotional genius.

Aaron Montgomery Businessman that invented mail order.

Ward
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JC Penney Founded J.C. Penney stores.

Transcontinental First one built 1869 by Central Pacific and Union Pacific. Was vital link for trade,
Railroad commerce, and travel.

Adam Smith Father of modern economics.

philanthropy Effort to increase well-being of humankind by charity or donations.

Laissez-faire French for “let it be”— capitalist economic principle. Industry should be free of
state intervention, allowing monopolies, etc.

Social Darwinism Using ideas in biology to create political change that reduces fertility of certain
races or people. (abusing Darwin’s ‘survival of the fittest’ concepts.)

Survival of the Originally used in biology to describe how species adapt and reproduce based
Fittest on the traits most likely to help with their survival. Abused and used out of
context by social darwinists.

New York City Industrial city; site of Harlem Renaissance, Tweed Ring, immigration, factories,
etc.

Chicago Industrial city in Illinois.

John Smith appointed to manage Jamestown; strict disciplinarian; bargained with native
Americans and explored the Chesapeake area; returned to England in 1609
after suffering a gunpowder burn

John Rolfe experimented with growing varieties of tobacco; married Pocahontas in part to
divert crisis after capture in 1612

Pocahontas A native Indian of America, daughter of Chief Powhatan, who was one of the
first to marry an Englishman, John Rolfe, and return to England with him; about
1595-1617; Pocahontas' brave actions in saving an Englishman, paved the way
for many positive English and Native relations.

Powhatan Pocahontas’s father; Chief of the Powhatan Confederacy. At the time of the
English settlement of Jamestown in 1607, he was a friend to John Smith and
John Rolfe. When Smith was captured by Indians, Powhatan left Smith's fate in
the hands of his warriors. His daughter saved John Smith, & the Jamestown
colony. Pocahontas & John Rolfe were wed. There was a time of peace between
the Indians & English until Powhatan's death.

William Bradford leader of Pilgrims and Governor of Plymouth; kept tight rein on settlement,
allowing little latitude toward colonists

Squanto Native American who helped the English colonists in Massachusetts develop
agricultural techniques and served as an interpreter between the colonists and
the Wampanoag; taught the English how to plant and find food, hunt, few who
spoke English.

William Penn A Quaker; received rights in 1681 to a tract stretching from Delaware River
westward; encouraged settlement of area by writing glowing descriptions and
offering religious liberty and aid to immigrants; learned language of Delaware
Native Americans; settlers live among tribe peacefully for over fifty years
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William Berkeley He was a British colonial governor of Virginia from 1642-52. He showed that he
had favorites in his second term which led to the Bacon's rebellion in 1676
,which he ruthlessly suppressed. He had poor frontier defense.

John Winthrop John Winthrop emigrated from the Mass. Bay Colony in the 1630's to become
the first governor and to led a religious experiment. He once said, "we shall be
a city on a hill."

Cotton Mather American Puritan leader. His writings may have caused the Salem Witch Trials.

Pontiac Ottawa Chief that attempted to drive out European settlers by going against
British frontiers

George III king of Great Britain during Colonial Resistance.

William Pitt William Pitt was a British leader from 1757-1758. He was a leader in the
London government, and earned himself the name, "Organizer of Victory". He
led and won a war against Quebec. Pittsburgh was named after him.

George Grenville 1st lord of treasury; took for granted the need for soldiers in colonies to defend
frontier; argued that Americans were obligated to share costs of own defense
because he needed to find new sources of revenue to support troops

Patrick Henry Patrick Henry was a fiery lawyer during revolutionary War times. Supporting a
break from Great Britain, he is famous for the words, "give me liberty, or give
me death!" which concluded a speech given to the Virginia Assembly in 1775.
This quote is a symbol of American patriotism still today. After the American
Revolution, Henry served two terms as governor of Virginia and was also
instrumental in the development of the Bill of Rights.

Thomas Jefferson 3rd president of US; envisioned country as an agrarian based society; prompt
expansion of IS through Louisiana Purchase and his change in stance
concerning the interpretation of Constitution from that of strict interpretation
to a looser position; retained support of Republicans by supporting limited
central government; reduced size of military; eliminated federal jobs; repealed
excise tax and lowered national debt. Democratic-Republican.

George 1st president of US; future presidents would follow his advice regarding
Washington alliances, one consequence of his presidency was the 2 term practice. Believed
US should be neutral.

Benjamin Franklin civic leader in Philadelphia; serve as voice of reason and caution during
debates at Continental Congress.

John Adams 2nd president; won presidency by 3 electoral votes; XYZ Affair, Alien and
Sedition Acts, impact of Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

Abigail Adams wife of John Adam; devoted patriot and prolific letter writer; served as
husband’s confidante

Samuel Adams convinced that parliament had no right to legislate for colonies; organized Sons
of Liberty and orchestrated the Boston Tea Party.
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Thomas Gage commander in chief of British forces in North America (1764-75) and the last
royal governor of Massachusetts (1774-75; Gage was charged with enforcing
the Intolerable Acts; When he sent troops to seize military stores at Concord
and to apprehend John Hancock and Samuel Adams (April 19, 1775), the
fighting that broke out marked the start of the Revolutionary War

John Burgoyne served in the 7 year’s war; elected to the British House of Commons in 1761;
began a campaign to join British forces from the north, south, and west to
isolate the rebellious New England colonies

Charles Cornwallis British Commander at final confrontation of Revolution; surrendered after

battle of Saratoga

Benedict Arnold American commander; made plans to allow British to take West Point.

Nathan Hale captain in the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, Nathan Hale
famously announced "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my
country.”

Thomas Paine Quaker background; author of common sense (attacked allegiance to

monarchy and refocused anger of colonists, Americans should look out for their
own interests, abandon the king and declare independence)

John Locke British political philosopher; believed governments derived authority from
people; argued that humans are created equal and had certain inalienable
rights, including life, health, liberty, and possessions; influenced Jefferson and
Declaration of Independence.

Alexander author of the Federalist Papers; served as aide to Washington during

Hamilton Revolution; 1st Secretary of Treasury; conceived monetary policy of US;
proposed to pay off the national debt at face value; have federal government
assume war debts of states; wanted to protect new industries through high
tariffs, and create national bank for depositing government funds and printing
paper money; organized National Bank; wanted country with a strong central
government that actively encouraged Capitalism

James Madison central figure at Constitutional Convention; knew most about historic forms of
government; assumed role of major author of constitution. President during
War of 1812.

John Jay 1st chief Justice of the Supreme Court; served as Continental Congress
President, ambassador to England, minister to Spain; served with John Adams
and Benjamin Franklin in negotiating Peace of Paris in 1783; supporter of
Constitution

Edmund Genet was a French ambassador to the United States during the French Revolution;
His actions endangered American neutrality in the war between France and
Britain

John Marshall appointed by Adams as Chief Justice; 34 years in Court; saw decisions affirming
judicial review; the right to take appeals from state courts; checking power of
states in terms of contracts; building power of central government

Robert Livingston A representative (1709-11, 1716-25) in the New York provincial assembly, he
was elected (1718) speaker and supported the legislative body in opposition to
the royal control of the governor.
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Meriwether Lewis explorer along with William Clark,

William Clark Explorer along with Meriwether Lewis sent out to explore the recently
purchased Louisiana Territory. He served as the artist and cartographer. Their
exploring lasted from 1804-1806. They traveled up the Missouri River, through
the Rockies, and to the mouth of the Columbia River. This exploration bolstered
America's claim to western lands as well as opening the west to Indian trade
and further exploration

Robert Fulton The man who made steamships successful- transportation revolution.

Sacajawea The Indian woman who accompanied Lewis & Clark; Shoshone Indian; slave
wife of the expedition's French-Canadian guide, Touissaint Charbonneau

Aaron Burr vice president who tied with Jefferson in 1800 in Electoral College and lost;
attempt to orchestrate secession of Louisiana and a spate republic; betrayed
and tried for treason; Jefferson refused a subpoena requiring him to appear in
court with certain papers

Tecumseh Shawnee leader who tried to form a confederation of tribes to defend their
lands as they believed they held their lands in common; died in Battle of
Thames in 1813

Francis Scott Key Poet that wrote "The Star Spangled Banner" in 1814 during the War of 1812.
Written while watching Americans defend Fort McHenry. The poem has become
an important part of American identity.

Thoreau author of Walden and “Civil Disobedience”; determined to practice plain living;
He was a poet, a mystic, a transcendentalist, a nonconformist, and a close
friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson who lived from 1817-1862. Anti-slavery.

Emerson Transcendentalist. believed that there had to be intuitive ways of thinking as a

means of discovering one’s inner self and finding the spirit of God in nature;
attacked materialism in American society by suggesting that artistic
expressions were more important than having or seeking wealth

Whitman Influential American poet.

Edgar Allen Poe literary genius, considered fear to be the most powerful emotion, wrote “The
Tell-Tale Heart” and “ The Pit and the Pendulum”

Oliver Perry hero of the Battle of Lake Erie; U.S. ships under Perry's command defeated
British forces, a turning point in the War of 1812

William Harrison president in 1840; nominated by the whigs; victor at battle of Tippecanoe
against Shawnee in 1811, former governor of Indiana Territory, congressmen
and senator from Ohio, and Minister to Columbia;

Andrew Jackson did not agree with Bank- thought money were in hands of rich; forced the
Cherokee to move west;

John Quincy Adams 6th president of US; envisioned country as an agrarian based society; vision
prompted his expansion of IS through Louisiana Purchase; retained support fo
Republicans by supporting a limited central government; reduced size of
military, eliminated federal jobs, repealed the excise tax, and lowered national
debt
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Daniel Webster orator and lawyer; senator from Massachusetts; defended federal government
and said that a state could neither nullify a federal law nor secede from union

John Calhoun South Carolina’s senator; Jackson’s 1st vice president

Henry Clay Jackson’s chief political opponent; favored national bank and “American
System”; tried a bank re-chartering bill

Martin Van Buren Jackson’s secretary of state; rivaled Calhoun for position of successor to
President Jackson; skilled politician; advised Jackson through political crises
such as use of federal funds for local projects and nullification; president after
Jackson

Nat Turner Black priest; led a revolt in Virginia 1831, killed 60 people(mostly women and
children). This scared the Southerners because it was the first really violent
action of the slaves. As a result slave codes were made stricter.

Dorothea Dix began 2 year investigation of jails and poor houses in Massachusetts and
published report; by 1860 20 states made improvement; press charges in
prisons and asylums across country

Horace Mann He was an idealistic graduate of Brown University, secretary of the

Massachusetts board of education. He was involved in the reformation of public
education (1825-1850). He campaigned for better school houses, longer school
terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum. He caused a
reformation of the public schools, many of the teachers were untrained for that
position.

William Lloyd Radical abolitionist; believed in immediate emancipation, as opposed to

Garrison gradualism. Also a proponent for other causes, like women’s suffrage.

Frederick Douglas Former slave who spoke of brutality of slavery from firsthand experience and
became most well known African American man in America.