KIDD AND CARR: AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND SWITCH CONTROL.

285

THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND SWITCH CONTROL

TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
By W. KIDD, Member, and J. L. CARR, B . S C , Associate Member.
{Paper first received 2nd June, 1933, and in final form 6th March, 1934; read before THE INSTITUTION 1th December, before the
NORTH-WESTERN CENTRE 1th November, before the MERSEY AND NORTH WALES (LIVERPOOL) CENTRE 20th November,
before the NORTH-EASTERN CENTRE 21th November, and before the WESTERN CENTRE 18th December, 1933; also before
the IRISH CENTRE 18th January, before the WEST WALES (SWANSEA) SUB-CENTRE 25th January, before the SCOTTISH
CENTRE IZth February, before the TEES-SIDE SUB-CENTRE IWI February, before the NORTH MIDLAND CENTRE 20th February,
and before the SOUTH MIDLAND CENTRE 26/A February, 1934.)

SUMMARY. are, in many instances, only commercially feasible by

this method.
During recent years, of the problems which have presented
themselves to engineers on electrical transmission and distri-Voltage control, which was usual in direct-current
bution systems, those of voltage and switch control have substations, is not possible without special equipment
probably been the most interesting. on alternating-current systems; consequently, although
Supply systems may be classified as either rural or urban;
trouble may not be serious in lightly loaded districts,
the latter type is that on which the experience and particulars
difficulties due to the inherent regulation of the system
for the preparation of this paper have been obtained. It isare accentuated where load development.is rapid.
believed that the city of Manchester is the first area to have
complete automatic voltage regulation, and also supervisory The economic benefits of a.c. distribution, together
control for its main substations. with its standardization nationally for all future develop-
Some particulars of the investigations made, equipment ment, have inaugurated an intensive programme of
installed, and results obtained, are given, together with achanging systems of supply from d.c. to a.c. distribution.
The electricity authority with which the authors are
brief outline of the growth of systems, and reasons why better
control of voltage is necessary. associated has adopted distributor networks as standard
It is claimed that, by a careful application of automatically-
for this type of supply.
controlled compensated voltage-regulators in main sub- The change from networks with large-section low-
stations, the voltage on distribution networks may be econo-
voltage feeders to distributor networks supplied from
mically maintained within the permissible limits of ± 4 per
high-voltage distribution substations is a logical step in
cent; and that, generally, the voltage variation at individual
services may be kept within 4 per cent overall. At the samethe process of evolution of electricity supply. Large
time, the fluctuations at the secondary terminals of high- stores, office blocks, and other buildings, each requiring
voltage power consumers' transformers may be maintained a considerable load, are in many instances supplied more
within the limits for low-voltage distribution. Abnormal satisfactorily at high voltage, thus relieving the distribu-
tion system of load and, in effect, increasing its capacity
cases will, however, occur and will require special treatment.
The limitation of voltage variation to such a small amount
for other smaller consumers. It is difficult, at this stage,
possesses definite technical, economic, and psychological to give a definite economic lower limit of load for supply
value; and available records over a short period suggest that
at high voltage which would be applicable to all systems,
it also results in increased sales of energy. but the authors are of the opinion that concentrated loads
The value of supervisory control is referred to, and one
system is described in some detail. exceeding 75 kW in amount in densely loaded areas
should generally be supplied direct from high-voltage
feeders.
It is unfortunate that, in such conversions, the low-
ELECTRICITY SUPPLY DEVELOPMENT.
voltage feeders are usually unsuitable for incorporation
Since the inception of public electricity supply, the in the later scheme; but the matter must be viewed
demand has increased with phenomenal rapidity. commercially.
In the post-war period, lighting and domestic-appli- In many instances an economic survey of several
ance connections have predominated. Owing to rapid alternatives • will result in the adoption of a plan for
house-building development, areas of supply have grown; distribution alterations which will show a cumulative
and although many of the new connections represent, saving after a short period.
in themselves, small increases in demand, distribution As an illustration of the alternative methods of feeding
problems have become more acute. The increasing use a district, Fig. 1 shows the original lay-out of the network
of high-efficiency lamps, electric cooking ranges, mains- in a rapidly-growing suburban area, with long d.c.
operated radio receivers, and other devices extremely feeders. During the conversion to a.c. distribution the
sensitive to voltage variation, has imposed special location of the feeding-points was modified; when the
requirements of voltage regulation; and the necessity for load increases, additional distribution substations are
a reduction of the amount of variation will increase as to be installed at approximately mid-positions between
special applications develop. those shown, and the networks are to be suitably
The flexibility and relatively low cost of alternating- divided.
". current supply are now fully appreciated, and extensions The problem of voltage regulation became acute,
of the area of supply into sparsely populated districts partly because of the increasing load density, but more
I.E.E. JOURNAL, VOL. 74, No. 448, APRIL, 1934. 19
286 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND
particularly because the variations possible with convert-
ing plant could no longer be achieved in substations with
plain transformers.
Although it has been stated that in certain districts
supplied by alternating current no voltage difficulty has
been experienced, this must be due to variation of
station busbar voltage, rendered possible either by
isolation or by relatively light loading, or by both. In
later stages of development, trouble will undoubtedly
be experienced unless comprehensive measures for
dealing with this problem are adopted early.
The present stage of development consists of the
Scale of feet
FIG. 1.—Plan showing rearrangement of low-voltage network
feeding-points.
Old d.c. feeding-points: A, B, C, D, E.
New a.c. substations: 1, 2, 3, 4.
linking of local groups of supply undertakings and
isolated stations by means of the national grid. The
standard installation of voltage-regulating transformers
at grid stations will permit of a certain measure of
voltage variation to meet local conditions; but, with
extensive local systems, this will be totally inadequate
to meet distribution requirements.
PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF VOLTAGE VARIATION.
In the case of a high-voltage consumer, it is prescribed
that the voltage must not exceed the declared value by
more than 12£ per cent. This refers, however, to the
primary supply; the voltage-drops in the transformer,
and the local cable must also be taken into account.
The total of these, variations is unreasonable for lighting
and cooking purposes,- and should only be permitted.
when the consumer's load is sufficient to justify the
installation of local voltage regulators, as, for example,
in connection with bulk supplies.
For low-voltage consumers, the supply voltage must
be maintained within ± 4 per cent; such a variation is
in the nature of a compromise and may be accepted
as generally suitable. It should be noted, however, that
this is the utmost variation permitted, and therefore
applies to the most abnormal cases met with in distribu-
tion. To keep within this limit, the average case must
be catered for on a much narrower margin.
Unless distances are short, distributors can seldom
be loaded to the thermal limit because of voltage
limitations; therefore, full advantage must be taken of
the permissible drop. Consumers at the supply and
distant ends of a distributor should be supplied at 104 and
96 per cent of the declared voltage respectively, giving
the total allowed variation at the time of maximum load.
At other times the voltage at the supply end may vary
from 104 per cent to 96 per cent, provided that the
voltage at the remote end does not fall below 96 per cent.
To conform with these conditions, the closest regulation
will be attained by varying the distribution voltage at
the substation busbars between the limits of 100 and
104 per cent at no load and full load respectively.
SELECTION OF REGULATING POINT.
The ideal method of voltage control would be to
provide for constant voltage at each consumer's ter-
minals; financial considerations, however, preclude this.
An approximation would be to regulate at each
distribution station, but, whilst this method may be
essential in certain cases, e.g. where the local station is
supplied by long, overhead, secondary feeders having
poor regulation, the costs involved in altering existing
systems will prove a deterrent to adopting this method
as a general solution.
Apart from special cases requiring local regulation, it
appears that the most suitable regulating positions are
at the main substations. The principal regulating
points will therefore be relatively few in number, entailing
comparatively low capital expenditure and also reduced
expense for supervision, adjustment, and general mainten-
ance. A careful examination of system characteristics
is desirable in order to decide whether this method will
prove reasonably satisfactory.
In the case dealt with by the authors there are 10
main substations, with an aggregate plant rating of
200 000 kVA. These supply 293 distribution and
consumers' substations, of aggregate rating 227 360 kVA,
and also converting plant totalling 183 400 kW. Six
tap-changing transformers, 18 boosters, and 4 double
induction voltage-regulators, all automatically controlled,
have been installed in main substations. In the maj ority
of the existing distribution substations there was not
enough space available for separate regulators.
SYSTEM PARTICULARS.
In the area referred to in this paper, the extra-high-
voltage system transfers large amounts of energy to
main substations, where the voltage is reduced far*,"*
secondary transmission. The original high-voltage sys- *
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
tern has become a secondary system, which is sectional-
ized around the main substations, and is augmented
as found necessary for further developments. Fig. 2
shows the technical and geographical lay-out of the
primary system. The principal generating station is
situated a considerable distance from the main load
centres, and the extra-high-voltage transmission system
is operated in two main rings, apart from direct
feeders to other centres. The trunk feeders are normally
loaded almost to full rating during times of maximum
system load. Certain more-distant main substations
are fed from strategic points on the main rings through
relatively lightly-loaded feeders, so that the effective
voltage-drops in the trunk feeders are not greatly
dissimilar.
Transformers in the main substations may be operated
Scale of miles
FIG. 2.—Manchester area and 33-kV transmission lines.
Substations •
Generating stations •
in parallel, but normally supply independent secondary
systems, in order to localize the extent of possible
disturbances and to facilitate voltage regulation.
Each secondary feeder supplies on the average four
distribution or consumers' substations, except in the
case of large converting and transforming substations,
to which independent secondary feeders may be neces-
sary. Facilities are provided for emergency supply
from alternative feeders.
The distribution networks are normally isolated, with
provision for the transfer of distributors to neighbouring
networks when required. Small local networks are
frequently built up around consumers' substations until
they are, sufficiently*, developed. to necessitate- separate
distribution substations.
The average length of the main transmission lines is
13 000 yards, of the secondary feeders to distribution
substations 2 000 yards, and of main distributors 600
yards. • • . £ > *
-' Table 1 shows the approximate percentage resistance'
287
and reactance for the several system components under
individual full-load conditions.
It is apparent that, in the fully loaded state, the
overall regulation may vary from 9-18 per cent at unity
power factor to 15-6 per cent as a maximum. The
regulating devices should therefore be designed for the
upper limit.
The relative effect of the several items depends to
a considerable extent on the power factor of the load,
but for non-reactive loads that of the distribution net-
work predominates. With reactive loads, the trans-
former regulation is most important.
Regulating the voltage at the distribution-transformer
secondary terminals between the limits of 100 and 104
per cent will, however, provide reasonably low variation
on distribution networks, and only slightly coarser
regulation at power consumers' substations.
The effect due to variation of the length of secondary
feeder is not considerable. Taking four similar sub-
stations equally loaded and equidistant, supplied from
the same secondary feeder, the voltage-drops due to
length of cable will be in the proportion 4:7:9:10.
TABLE 1.
Voltage-drop percentage
Component
Resistance Reactance Impedance
33-kV feeder 1-43 117
Main transformer 0-70 4-80
6 • 6-kV secondary feeder 214 0-98
Distribution transformer 0-96 4-11
Total to this point .. 5-23 1106 12-23
Distributor, to constant-
voltage point 3-95 1-55
Total 918 12-61 15-60
In no case will the drop deviate by more than 0-43 of
that calculated for the mean length, i.e. by more than
0-9 per cent. This is only 10 per cent of the total
voltage variation to be compensated for, and is therefore
relatively unimportant. It can, moreover, be allowed
for in the majority of cases by slight adjustment of the
basic voltage, i.e. by altering the distribution-trans-
former tapping so that the no-load voltage deviates
slightly from the declared value. In such cases the range
of local variation may exceed the ideal of 4 per cent
whilst still remaining within the limits of 104 per cent
and 96 per cent.
The foregoing consideration shows clearly that, in
many cases, extremely close voltage regulation on
distribution networks is attainable by the provision of
automatic voltage regulators at main substations, pro-
vided that the regulators are suitably adjusted to give
a voltage increasing in a predetermined manner with the
loaid, so as to compensate for the inherent?regulation of
the" system. '' »'
288 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS. early autumn on the secondary sides of the transformers

Where the main substation supplies one class of in an industrial area: (a) at the main substation, prior to
load, as, for example, (i) residential load, or (ii) indus- regulating; (b) at the main substation, after regulating;

c (a)
f-
0)
/ sC-' 7S'
co (b) '"

i.O U \i; ,]„;

Midnight Noon Midnig-ht
FIG. 3.—Voltage chart for industrial area in early autumn. Records taken on secondary side of transformers.
[a) Main substation, before regulating.
[b) Main substation, after regulating.
Distribution substation, after regulating.

(a)

N A <
J

Midnig-ht
FIG. 4.—^Voltage chart for industrial-area network supplied by distribution transformer C (Fig. 3).
Records taken about 225 yards from transformer.
a) Midwinter, before regulating.
b) Autumn, before regulating.
Autumn, after regulating.

(a)
™ 4
§ v '—.
.2 0

'Midnight Noon Midnight

FIG. 5.—Voltage chart for industrial-area remote distribution substation supplied from the main
substation of Fig. 3. Records taken on secondary side of transformer.
| ) Midwinter, before regulating.
6) Autumn, after regulating.
c) Midwinter, after regulating.

trial day load, with local street and shop lighting (c) at a distribution transformer, after regulating [same
at night, t&e regulating programme may be easily day as (6) ]. The direction of variations in (b) is almost th€
determined. tFfg1. 3 shows the voltage conditions in reverse of those in (a), and corresponds to load chatflge'lf'
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
The conditions on the distribution network supplied
by the transformer referred to in Fig. 3(c) are shown
in Fig. 4: (a) during midwinter, before regulating;
(b) during autumn, before regulating; (c) during autumn,
after regulating.
The conditions on the low-voltage busbars at a more
distant distribution substation in the same area are
289
substation supplying a residential and suburban shopping
district.
Where a mixed load is supplied, a careful survey of
day and evening load conditions, including power factor,
is necessary. By suitably adjusting the resistance and
reactance components of the compensator, approxi-
mately constant-voltage conditions may be achieved in

'Midnight Noon Midnight

FIG. 6.—Voltage chart for residential area with large omnibus garage. Records taken on secondary
side of transformer, in November, after regulating.
(a)
a) Main substation.
(6)
6) Distribution substation (residential).
(c) Distribution substation (residential and shopping).'

shown in Fig. 5: (a) during midwinter, before regulating;
(b) during autumn, after regulating; (c) during mid-
winter, after regulating. The reduction of the amount
of voltage variation is clearly shown by comparing
curves (a) and (c).
For a mainly residential area, the voltage variation
during the latter part of November, after the installation
the residential areas, with coarser regulation at power
consumers' substations.
It may be of interest to consider, in detail, the voltage-
drops in a particular area where a number of distribution
substations supply (i) a residential district in an early
stage of development, (ii) traction, (iii) industrial power,
and (iv) a local distributing authority with a mixed

259yards "f" 971yardi 1 10 11

2150 yards 1068 yards T "

1955yards

1714 yards.
1600yardl
2100yards

6186 yards

FIG. 7.—Diagram showing substations and secondary feeders in a mixed-load area.

Distribution transformers 6 600/400 volts (see Tables 2 and 3 referring to substations 1 to 9).

of automatic control, is shown in Fig. 6. The area
serves also a large omnibus garage with considerable
night heating-load, which is switched off at 2.30 a.m.
The figure shows conditions: (a) at the main substation on
the secondary side of the transformer, which is lightly
loaded; (b) at the low-voltage busbars in a distribution
substation supplying a partially-developed residential
district; (c) at the low-voltage busbars in a distribution
residential and industrial load. The diagrammatic
lay-out and feeder lengths are shown in Fig. 7. The
effective voltage-drops for day load-conditions are given
in Table 2, and for evening load-conditions in Table 3.
For stations Nos. 2 to 5, distributor voltage-drops up
to 4 per cent may be allowed for, according to loading,
as previously described.
The voltage conditions, after commissioning the
290 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND

TABLE 2.

Section Voltage-drop percentage (day)

Trunk feeder 112

Main transformer 2-21

Total 3-33
Substation No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Load Traction Resi- Resi- Resi- Resi- Institu- Textile Power Bulk
dential dential dential dential tional institute
Secondary feeders 0-92 0-17 1-24 0-75 0-75 0-04 1-61 1-94 2-32
Transformer 0-43 0-29 006 Neg. Neg. 1-00 2-69

Total secondary 0-92 0-60 1-53 0-81 0-75 0-04 2-51 4-63 —

Distributor — To be added — — — —

automatic regulators, and during the same day in
winter, are shown in Fig. 8:—(a) At the main substation
on the secondary side of the transformer; (b) at the low-
voltage busbars in a distribution substation (No. 2,
Fig. 7) supplying residential load; (c) at the low-voltage
busbars in a remote distribution substation (No. 11,
tion network is shown in Fig. 10, (a) for an autumn
day, before regulating; (b) for an autumn day, after
regulating.
In this area, therefore, despite considerable differences
in the lengths of secondary feeders, the variations of
voltage on the load sides of the distribution trans-

Midnight Noon Midnight

FIG. 8.—Voltage chart for the area of Fig. 7. Winter, after regulating, Records taken on
secondary side of transformer; all on same day.
o) Main substation.
b) Distribution substation No. 2.
c) Distribution substation No. 11.

Fig. 7) supplying a residential area composed of small
houses.
The conditions for other days in autumn are shown in
Fig. 9:—(a) At the main.substation, on the secondary
side of the transformer; (6) at the iow-voltage busbars
in a power consumer's substation (No. 8, Fig. 7); (c) as
for (b), but before regulating.
The voltage variation at a residential consumer's
premises remotely situated* on a neighbouring distribu-
formers do not show wide discrepancies, and conse-
quently close regulation has been obtained at the low-
voltage consumers' terminals in all parts of the district.
The variation at the low-voltage terminals of high-
voltage consumers' substations is rather greater than
that of the residential consumers, but it is within the
low-voltage distribution limit, and therefore very much
less than that permitted by the regulations for supply
at high voltage.
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. 291

TABLE 3.

Section Voltage-drop percentage (evening)

Trunk feeder 111

Main transformer 1-17

Total 2-28

Substation No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Load Traction Resi- Resi- Resi- Resi- Institu- Textile Power Bulk
dential dential dential dential tional institute
Secondary feeders 0-58 0-26 0-94 0-60 . 0-60 0-06 117 1-36 1-58
Transformer 0-69 0-37 0-60 Neg. 1-32 0-79 1-53

Total secondary 0-58 0-95 1-31 1-20 0-60 1-38 1-96 2-89 —

Distributor — To be added — — — —

Midnight Noon Midnight

Voltage chart for the area of Fig. 7. Records taken on secondary side of transformer, in autumn.
Main substation, after regulating.
Power-consumer substation No. 8, after regulating.
Power-consumer substation No. 8, before regulating.

Midnight Noon Midnight

FIG. 10.—Voltage chart for residential consumer on remote part of network, supplied from
substation No. 2 (Fig. 7). Records taken in autumn.
Before regulating.
- After regulating (same dav as for Fig. 9).
292 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND
EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE VARIATION. The variations shown are not so great as may be
As the distribution-substation output voltage is to be expected in certain other districts: an estimate of
increased by 4 per cent, and in addition the distribution system-loss change derived from these values is there-
transformer voltage-drop may vary from 1 per cent to fore on a conservative basis. The values are for
4 per cent according to local conditions, the high-voltage intermediate periods, and are therefore assumed to be
supply to transformers may require increasing by 8 per typical of the annual result.

150

/ \

130 y
t
./.**•——«-\. \ '
£ 120 A
\
.. ^ / \
110
\ J

^ ^
—
.' >^.
100
Midnight Noon Midnight
FIG. 11. —Distribution-transformer excitation variation before provision of automatic voltage regulation.
Reactive kVA.
Excitation loss.
Secondary volts.

cent. Distribution transformers should therefore be so
designed that, at the upper limit of voltage, the magnetic
flux density is reasonably low; otherwise there is some
danger of undesirable effects due to increased magnetizing
current.
The augmented lagging reactive kVA tends to increase
the inherent regulation of the system, and so requires
For an installed rating of distribution transformer
amounting to 205 410 kVA, and taking an average
excitation loss of 0-36 per cent, the decreased energy
loss, due to automatic regulating, amounts to 421 058
kWh per annum. In addition to this, a definite saving
is made in secondary transmission and distribution losses
by operating at increased voltage during times of heavy

Noon Midnight
FIG. 12.—Distribution-transformer excitation variation after provision of automatic voltage regulation.
Reactive kVA.
- Excitation loss
Secondary volts.

more compensation; to some extent the effect is cumula- load. No attempt has so far been made to compute this
tive. Losses also increase, and finally the danger of additional saving.
giving rise to harmonics becomes more pronounced. Considering the effect on energy consumption, the
In order to estimate approximately the extent of these
effects, voltage records for one main substation have TABLE 4.
been plotted (Fig. 11) for an autumn weekday before
regulating and (Fig. 12) for a spring weekday after Average percentage
excitation values
regulating. The values have been expressed as a per- Item
centage of the rated voltage of distribution transformers: Before regulating After regulating
the corresponding values of reactive kVA and excita-
tion loss have been computed on a similar basis. Derived
average values over the 24 hours are shown in Table 4. Secondary voltage 104-3 101 6
The decrease in excitation loss is therefore 6-5 per Reactive kVA 120-7 106 3
cent of the loss at rated voltage: for week-ends and Excitation loss 1100 103 5
holidays the difference is greater.
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
provision of maximum voltage at times of maximum
load will result in the use of more energy at such times.
In a recent American survey* it was computed that the
overall increase in consumption due to giving normal
voltage at all times would amount to little more than
1 per cent for the particular system considered. The
effect on revenue may, however, be appreciably greater
than this. The survey considered distributor drop only.
Owing to the short period of operation, and to varying
trade conditions, representative particulars of augmented
consumption cannot be given, but there are indications
of appreciable increase.
The increase in revenue and the saving on distribution
expenditure will, in most cases, justify the installation
of automatic voltage-regulating equipment, which will
give better service to the public and will remove a cause
for complaint.
VOLTAGE-VARIATION EQUIPMENT.
Types.
The principal advantages of a.c. distribution in com-
parison with d.c. distribution systems are the lower
capital cost and the smaller amount of attendance
necessary.
Manual control of voltage, either direct or remote,
would necessitate the uneconomic employment of addi-
tional labour, and the regulation so obtained would not
be entirely satisfactory. It therefore follows that the
control of voltage variation should be automatic. The
following devices are available for this purpose: tap-
changing transformers; booster transformers with tap-
changers; induction regulators (including moving-coil
regulators). Each type will give satisfactory service,
and has its own particular field of application.
For the addition of facilities for controlling voltage
variation to existing plain transformers, the choice
between tap-changing boosters and induction regulators
depends upon local considerations and cost. If, for
example, phase displacement is not permissible on
account of parallel-operation requirements, then, if
induction regulators are installed, the double type
(i.e. two in series, the second to correct the phase dis-
placement of the first) will have to be used, and the cost
will be substantially higher than for a tap-changing
booster.
Tap-changers.
Voltage variation by means of tap-changers necessi-
tates voltage-steps, which should be small enough to
avoid causing any perceptible flicker of light. After
careful consideration it has been decided that steps of
1*5 per cent are reasonable, and this value has been
adopted as a standard.
Several arrangements of tap-changers are in use; the
diagrams of connections of two types of equipments are
shown in Fig. 13.
An advantage claimed for the resistor method is that
the circuit to be broken is non-inductive, and there is
therefore less wear of switch contacts; also that the
ciaorrent is interrupted during the first half-cycle, whereas
ike period is usually greater with the reactor method.
Tap-changing equipments should be designed to take
* Electrical World, 1932, vol. 100, p. 858.
293
no harm in the event of an operation not being com-
pleted. In cases where this is not economically feasible,
the period of time between failure of operation and
damage to apparatus should not be less than 30 minutes.
An automatic device should be fitted to give warning
in the control room. The operating staff can then deal
Reactor Load
Resistor
r-TJULP-T—* Load
Tapped Tapped
winding (6) winding1
(a)
FIG. 13.—Tap-changers.
fa) Resistor method.
(6) Reactor method.
with the matter, and, by transferring the load to other
plant, ensure continuity of supply to consumers.
The question of stability of equipment during short-
circuit conditions is extremely important, and it should
be noted that onerous conditions are not restricted to
large plant.
Adaptation to Existing Plant.
The diagrams of three schemes for controlling the
voltage variation of existing transformers are shown in
Figs. 14, 15, and 16. Each arrangement consists of a
double-wound booster transformer with its secondary
winding connected in series with the main transformer.
A regulating auto-transformer has automatically-
controlled tap-changing gear and the winding is con-
nected in series with the primary winding of the booster,
thus affording an easily controlled means of varying the
amount of boost voltage.
In the scheme shown in Fig. 14, one set of ends of the
booster primary-windings are connected to the middle
taps, so that the boost may be either positive or negative.
In Fig. 14 the regulating transformers are connected
between phases and neutral, whilst in Fig. 16 they are
between phases. The arrangement shown in Fig. 16
has been adopted for some of the larger transformers in
preference to that shown in Fig. 15, on account of cost
only. The combination of regulating transformer and
switchgear is less expensive, mainly because the trans-
former is about half the size of that required for the
arrangement shown in Fig. 15, in which each half-winding
must give full boost.
Automatic Control.
A scheme for automatic control is shown in Fig. 17.
The principles embodied in this system are similar to
those of many other arrangements in use. The diagram
has, as far as possible, been made " single-line "; wiring
for the " lower voltage " operation, and also a consider-
able number of details, have been omitted. A v&tiasge
relay (1) is fed from a voltage transformer eorJfle'<£ted;
to tile outgoing circuit. As- the voltage" applied to the
relay either rises above or falls below a,
294 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND

figure, the relay makes contact at either K or Kl, and
initiates the tap-changer operation in the direction to
adjust the voltage in the outgoing circuit. The voltage
at which the relay operates can be adjusted within
certain limits by means of the variable resistor (2).
Main transformer
secondary
drop. A current transformer C.T.5 feeds an auxiliary
transformer A.C.T., the secondary of which supplies in
series a variable resistor (3) and a variable reactor (4) in
the compensator. By suitable and independent adjust-
ment of (3) and (4) the voltage-drop across the coin-
Booster
transformer

Load

Auto star
regulator transformer
with tap-chang-er
and resistor

FIG. 14.—Booster with resistor tap-changer.

Main transformer Booster

secondary transformer
fflfflorrntm .

Load

Regulator transformer,
tap-changer, and
reactor

FIG. 15.—Booster with reactor tap-changer.

Main transformer
secondary

•• Load

flJfiTI WT\ WT\ Booster

L_ J | transform

Regulator transformer
and tap-changer

FIG. 16.—Booster with tap-changer.

Constant voltage, however, is not wanted at the
beginning of the outgoing circuit. The desideratum is
to maintain the consumer's service voltage within the
statutory limits of variation. This can only be done
by compensating for both cable and transformer voltage-
bination may be made directly proportional to, and of
the same phase as, that in the main outgoing circuit.
The compensator is connected in series with the
secondary of the voltage transformer (17), so that the
voltage applied to the relay (1) is exactly, proportional
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
to the desired voltage at the service terminals, where
consequently the required voltage will be maintained
irrespective of load variation and power factor. Alter-
natively, the voltage can be arranged to vary within
certain limits at a selected point on the system.
Change of load will result in a change of impressed
voltage, via the voltage and current transformers and
also the compensating device, on the relay coil (1),
which will cause contact to be made at either K or K l
(Fig. 17). A circuit is then completed from phase R,
via contact (13), travel limit switch (14), time-delay relay
coil (6), no-volt relay contact (16), overload relay contact
(10), and motor overload relay contact (9), to phase W.
After the expiration of the time-delay period, relay (6)
operates and completes the following circuit: phase R,
contacts (13) and (14), coil of relay (7), contacts (6),
(16), (10), and (9), to phase W. This causes relay (7) to
operate and complete a circuit from phase R, motor
overload relay coil (9), contacts (7), (14), and (13), to the
motor. The motor starts and rotates the flywheel up
CT.15, CT.5
Load
VT.17
A.C.T.
PhaseR
FIG. 17.—Automatic control of voltage.
Closed for automatic control.
Closed for manual control.
to a speed which causes the centrifugal switch (11) to
close and allow current to flow through contactor
coil (12); this causes two contacts of (13) to open, thus
disconnecting the motor and relay equipment from the
supply.
Simultaneously, mechanical connection is made, by
means of a centrifugal clutch, between the flywheel shaft
and the tap-changer gear. Failure of the motor supply
does not interrupt an operation after commencement of
movement of the contacts.
After the tap-changer has completed one sequence of
operations, the flywheel shaft and motor are disconnected
from the changer gear. Overrunning of the gear is
prevented by limit switches (14).
Each change of tap is automatically shown on the tap-
position indicator.
The booster should not operate during periods of
short-circuit on the outgoing circuit, otherwise abnormal
stresses would occur in the equipment. Two instanta-
neous overload relays (10) are fed from separate current-
transformers (15), and in the event of short-circuit
disconnect the supply from the relay equipment.
295
If the incoming high-voltage supply fails, means are
provided to prevent the equipment operating itself into
the highest boost position. A no-voltage relay (16) is fed
from the voltage transformer (17), and opens the relay-
equipment circuit if the high-voltage supply fails. The
tap-changer may, however, still be remote electrically-
controlled by using the push-button switches (18) on
the control panel. Devices are included to ensure that
the tap-changer can only move one step for each operation
of the push-button.
It is obviously undesirable to have the equipment
continually operating due to momentary fluctuations of
voltage, and too-frequent operation has been a cause
of trouble on some early-designed equipments. After
examination of voltage records on the unregulated
system, it was decided to specify the installation of
adjustable time-delay devices (6) having a range of
0-90 sec. Tap-change counters are also fitted to enable
a record of the number of operations to be kept.
Voltage Regulators on Low-voltage Distribution Systems.
In some exceptional cases it may be found necessary
to install automatic control equipment on the low-voltage
distribution system. Various types of apparatus suitable
for this purpose have been designed and are commer-
cially available.
SUPERVISORY CONTROL.
General Considerations.
The small number of circuit breakers and the infre-
quency of switch operation in the distribution substations
render it unnecessary to provide either attendance or
remote control.
The main substations, which contain switchgear for a
larger number of feeders and deal with the supply for
comparatively large areas, present a different case; here
it is desirable that facilities should exist for:—
(1) More frequent operation of switchgear.
(2) Immediate notice of circuit-breaker operation by
protective gear; also of transient earth faults.
(3) Quick resumption of supply after a failure.
(4) Obtaining records of feeder loads and voltage.
It is uneconomical, and bad psychologically, to have
attendants in transformer substations where there is
only a small amount of work to be done.
Experience indicates that the installation of super-
visory control gear is the best solution; further, it enables
the control of the system to be centralized.
Several types of supervisory gear, using either
synchronously-rotated apparatus or equipment for
transmitting electrical impulses over telephone lines, are
available; impulsing may be done either by voice-
frequency current or by direct current. The last-named
type of gear has been installed on the system dealt with
in this paper in main substations which contain a total
of 125 circuit breakers. At present there are two control
centres, but ultimately there will be only one.
Two types of equipment are in use; the control panels
are similar, the difference being mainly in the impulsing
arrangements. In one type, magnetic ratchet multi-
point rotary switches and relays are used. A full
296 KIDD AND CARR: THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE AND
description of these has already been published. The
following particulars relate to the second type, which is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 18.
Duty.
The supervisory gear enables the substations to be
remotely controlled and fulfils the following require-
ments. (1) Two control switches must be moved before
any circuit-breaker operation can be completed, and an
intermediate signal is to be automatically given if the
circuit has been correctly selected. (2) Automatic
warning of any change of state of all circuit breakers.
(3) Automatic and continuous indication of the state of
all circuit breakers. (4) Automatic warning of current-
flow through the neutral earthing resistance, even when
the current is insufficient to operate the neutral circuit
Meter iCheckind. ?.'^7r" I link
circuit 5 l lnc ?ication| ,- , .
circuit • circuit I circuit I circuit
J Ammeter.
2. Voltmeter.
8. Lamps.
4. Selector key.
6. Alarm bell.
6. Red lamps.
7. Green lamps.
8. Reply lamps
9. S/S fuse alarm
lamps.
10. S/S alarm reset key.
11. Impulse lamps.
FIG. 18.—Supervisory control circuits.
breaker. (5) Automatic warning when any supervisory-
gear fuse blows. (6) The indication of voltage and
current measurements must be continuous for as long
a period as the operator wishes.
The indicators for isolating switches shown in Fig. 18
are hand-operated. All supervisory circuits are electric-
ally separate from the circuit-breaker solenoid circuits,
and batteries are used for supplying current to the
supervisory switch circuits. The network a.c. supply
is employed for the indicating lamps, but an automatic
change-over switch is provided, so that the battery may
be used for the indicators when the network supply is
not available. Existing telephone conductors are used
for connection between substations.
Operation.
The equipment on the control board consists of a
diagram of connections of each substation, with keys and
coloured lamps to show the state (open or closed) of the
circuit breakers. When it is desired to operate a
breaker, the appropriate key is moved in the required
direction, and, if everything is in order, the lighting of
a white lamp adjacent to the key indicates that the
master control-button should now be pressed to operate
the breaker. The illumination of the associated coloured
lamps is automatically altered to correspond with the
new state of the breaker. The key on the diagram is
then restored to normal.
A breaker, when opened automatically by the protec-
tive gear, alters the coloured lamps to correspond, and
attracts the engineer's attention to the board by an
audible signal and to the particular breaker by flashing
its coloured lamps. These signals are stopped by
operation of the reset key.
After the switchgear has been out of commission, the
indicators and switchgear are brought into correct
relationship again by the operation of the check key,
. .,
12. S/S alarm buzzers.
Control 13. C/S fuse alarm
lamps.
station 14. C/S switch alarm
lamps.
15. Master operating
button.
16. Code receiver.
17. Code sender.
18. O.C.B. operating
circuit.
19. O.C.B. auxiliary
contacts.
20. Earth-fault alarm.
21. Meter transformers.
22. Reset key.
S. Supervisory gear.
i Substation
which causes each breaker to send its indication code,
and sets the coloured lamps to correspond.
The equipment in each substation is divided into
groups, according to voltage, for checking, and each
group has its own check key.
General Principles.
Each operation is performed by the transmission over
telephone wires of an allocated code of electrical impulses
which are made by connecting a battery to the line and
interrupting it at a predetermined frequency. Each
code is composed of 4 digits, and each digit consists of
from 1 to 8 impulses, transmitted at a uniform speed.
The sum of the impulses for the 4 digits in each code
is 16 (for different installations other numbers may be
more suitable).
The receiving circuits are arranged to be ineffective
if the total of the impulses received for any code is
different from 16. Thus, for any code to be received
wrongly and yet to be effective, any error in counting
the impulses for one digit must be accompanied by an
 SWITCH CONTROL TO ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
equal and opposite error in counting for another digit—
an exceptionally remote possibility.
The route for each intended operation is automatically
established, and the setting checked; then by means of
the reply code a lamp is lighted on the control panel.
The-master control-button, common to all main circuits
on the board, can only cause the main contactor to
operate and complete the operation when this lamp is
alight.
The selecting mechanism at the substation then
returns to normal and permits the circuit-breaker
indication to be transmitted from the breaker auxiliary
contacts to the control panel. This, being independent
of the previous operation, is an important check.
Code Sending.
A motor-driven, multi-circuit sequence switch is used
to send the codes, for which purpose it makes one
complete revolution. There are 16 impulses in each
code, and the 3 inter-digital pauses are each equal to the
duration of 6 impulses, giving the time of an extra 18
impulses. The switch is fitted with a cam giving 34
interruptions (or impulses) and 24 shading segments,
each covering 6 of these impulses. The first segment
covers impulses 2-7, the second 3-8, and so on, and all
are electrically connected to the interrupter cam. Thus,
when the battery is connected to the interrupter cam
and to a chosen three of the shading segments, a 4-digit
code of 16 impulses will be obtained from the common
connection to the cams, the impulses being due to the
interrupter cam and the inter-digital pauses to the
shading segments in parallel with the interrupter cam.
Code Receiving.
The codes are counted by a train of relays which
mark out the digit on a routing sequence switch, causing
the switch to be driven as many positions from its normal
position as there are impulses in the digit. Three
routing switches are set by the first three digits of a code,
and, in addition, a totalling switch is set according to
the impulses received in all three digits. The fourth
digit checks the total, because each counting relay is
associated with one position of the totalling switch, and
only if the counting relays and totalling switch correspond
is the code effective.
The routing is effected by interconnection between the
routing switches, by which a single wire going to the first
switch is connected to one of the total number of wires
connecting the third switch to the control or indicating
circuits. At the control switch the routing is immedi-
ately effective and sets one of the lamp-indicating relays,
but at the distant station the routing established connects
a master contactor to a particular operating solenoid.
The routing switches here also mark shading segments
on the sender, and cause a code depending on then-
setting to be transmitted. This code informs the
operator of correct selection, and allows operation of the
master contactor to complete the circuit.
A further switch is used to perform inter-digital
switching and timing, thus eliminating relays.
Link Circuits.
Indications of whether circuit breakers are open or
closed are given by sending a code for each position.
297
Thus a number of independent circuits require the
control of the sender, and a link circuit is provided to.
ensure that, if a number of breakers operate simultane-
ously, they shall engage the sender one at a time. For
this purpose a sequence switch is used as a " searcher "
switch. Each breaker has a relay coupling-circuit, and
is associated with one position of the " searcher " switch.
The relay coupling-circuit drives the switch round to
the corresponding position, where the switch starts the
sender, at the same time marking the required shading
segments. When the code has gone, the " searcher "
switch resets the coupling circuit and is driven home.
If a number of coupling circuits are operated, the
" searcher " switch will visit each in turn, and all the
codes will be sent one at a time.
The same device is used on the control keys, where the
" searcher " switch, in addition, provides means either
for checking the selection indication codes or for routing
the meter pilot to the required instruments.
Metering.
A separate pair of telephone wires is used (in the most
recent installation only one pair of wires is employed for
both operation and metering) to connect an instrument
on the control board to an instrument transformer in
the controlled station.
Since the line has an appreciable resistance, it is
necessary to employ metering currents of the order of
100 milliamperes, and therefore to provide each circuit
with an auxiliary instrument transformer.
The operation of the meter request-key selects the
appropriate indicating instrument, and sets the routing
to the required transformer as for a circuit-breaker
control, and the master operating-button makes the
final connection.
Circuit-breaker control and indication operations may
proceed whilst the meter is indicating.
The auxiliary current-transformers are connected in
series with the 5-ampere metering circuits, and are short-
circuited when not in use for remote metering because
considerable impedance in their secondary circuits affects
the reading of instruments connected in their primary
circuits. With the secondary on open circuit a dangerous
voltage would occur across the secondary terminals; and,
to guard against this effect arising accidentally, each
current transformer has a neon lamp connected across
its secondary terminals. During a reading, the secondary
voltage is less than that necessary to start the neon
discharge, and the lamp imposes no shunt on the
metering circuit. On open circuit the voltage rises until
the lamp discharge takes place, and then the burden of
the lamp prevents any further increase.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
The authors wish to thank Mr. H. C. Lamb, chief
engineer and manager, for his permission to give par-
ticulars of the Manchester Corporation electric supply
system; also the Automatic Electric Co., Ltd., the
English Electric Co., Ltd., Ferranti, Ltd., the Fuller
Electrical and Manufacturing Co., Ltd., the Metro-
politan- Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd., and Standard
Telephones and Cables, Ltd., for information regarding
their equipment.