Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control This chapter covers the following NEBOSH learning objectives: Explain work processes and practices that may give rise to work-related upper limb disorders and appropriate control measures Explain the hazards and control measures which should be considered when assessing risks from manual handling activities Explain the hazards, precautions and procedures to reduce the risk in the use of lifting and moving equipment with specific reference to manually operated load-moving equipment Explain the hazards and the precautions and procedures to reduce the risk in the use of lifting and moving equipment with specific reference to mechanically operated load-moving equipmentInternational Health and Safety at Work 8.1 Work-related upper limb disorders 226 8.2. Manual handling hazards, risks and control measures 230 8.3 Manually operated load-handling equipment 236 8.4 Mechanically operated load-handling equipment 238 8.1 Work-related upper limb disorders 8.1.1 Introduction Musculoskeletal disorders ae often caused by poor work- station design, particularly with display screen equipment (OSE), and the manval handling of loads. Untia few years ago, accidents caused by the manual handling of loads were the largest single cause of over-3-day accidents reported to the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE). The Manual Handling Operations Regulations recog- nised ths fact and helped to reduce the number ofthese accidents. However, accidents due to poor manual han- ling technique stil account for over 25% of all eported accidents and in some occupational sectors, such as the UK National Health Service, the figure rises above 50% ‘Ao understanding of the factors causing some of these accidents is essential if they are to be further reduced. Mechanical handling methods should always be used whenever possible, but they are not without thelr haz~ ards. Much mechanical handling involves the use of lit ing equipment, such as cranes and Its, which present specific hazarcs to both the users and persons/workers in the vicinity (Figure 8.1). The risks from these hazards are reduced by thorough examinations and inspections. Itis interesting to note that the ILO recognised the heaith problems arising from manual handling in 1967 wien it igure 8.1 Handling goods onto a truck in a docking bay 8.5 Further information 247 8.6 Practice NEBOSH questions for Chapter 8 248 Appendix 8.1 A typical UK risk assessment for the use of lifting equipment 250 Appendix 8.2 Examples of manually operated load- handling equipment 251 Introduced the Maximum Weight Convention (No. 127) and its accompanying Maximum Weight Recommenda- tion (No. 128). More information is given on these two documents later in this chapter (see Section 8.2.6) 8.1.2 The principles and scope of ergonomics Ergonomics is the study of the interaction between work- fers and their work in the broadest sense, in that it encom- passes the whole system surrounding the work process. Itis, therefore, as concerned with the work organisation, [process and design of the workplace and work methods as itis with work equipment. The common definitions of ergo nomics, the 'man-machine interface" or ‘iting the man to the machine rather than vice versa’ are far too narrow. Itis concemed about the physical and mental capabll- ties of an individual as well as their understanding of the Job under consideration. Ergonomics includes the limita- tions of the worker in terms of skill level, perception ang other personal factors in the overall design of the job and ‘the system supporting and surrounding it. It is the study of the relationship between the worker, the machine and the environment in which it operates and attempts to optimise ‘the whole work system, including the job, to the capabil tios of the worker so that maxirnum output is achieved for minimum effort and discomfort by the worker. Cars, buses ‘and lorries are all ergonomically designed so that all the important controls, such as the steering wheel, brakes, gear stick and instrument panel are easily accessed by most drivers within a wide range of sizes. Ergonomics is sometimes described as human engineering and as work ing practices become more and more automated, the need {for good ergonomic design becomes essential ‘The scone of ergonomics and an ergonomicassessment is very wide incorporating the following areas of study: personal factors of the worker, in particular physi- cal, mental and intellectual abilities, body dimen- sions and competence in the task required; the machine and associated equipment under examination; the interface between the worker and the machine ~ controls, instrument panel or gauges and any aids including seating arrangements and hand tools; environmental issues affecting the work processsuch as lighting, temperature, humidity, noise and atmospheric pollutants the interaction between the worker and the task, such as the production rate, posture and system of working the task or job itself - the design of a safe system of work, checking that the job is not too strenuous or repetitive and the development of suitable training packages; the organisation of the work, such as sh breaks and supervision. ft work, ‘The reduction of the possibility of human error is one of he major aims of ergonomics and an ergonomic assess- ‘ment. An important part of an ergonomic study is to design the workstation or equipment to fit the worker, For this 10 be successful, the physical measurement of the human body and an understanding of the variationsin these meas: between people are essential. Such a study is known as anthropometry, which is defined as the scien- tific measurement of the human body and its movement. Since there are considerable variations in, for example, the heights of people, itis common for some part of the work- station to be variable (e.g. an adjustable seat) 8.1.3 The ill-health effects of poor ergonomics Ergonomic hazards are those hazards to health resulting from poor ergonomic design. They generally fall within the physical hazard category and include the manual handting and lifting of loads, pulling and pushing loads, profonged periods of repetitive activities and work with vibrating tools. The condition of the working environment, such 2s low lighting levels, can present health hazards to the eyes. It is also possible for psychological conditions, such as ‘occupational stress, to resul from ergonomic hazards. ttsculosltal hazards and visk convot Ew The commonill-heatth effects of ergonomic hazards are musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), work-related upper limo disorders including repetitive strain injury (RSH, anc deteriorating eyesight. 8.1.4 Work-related upper limb disorders Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULDs} describe a group of conditions which can affect the neck, shoulders, aime, elbows, wrists, hands and fingers, Tenosynovitis {affecting the tendons), carpal tunnel syndrome (atfect- ing the tendons which pass through the carpal bone in the hand) and frozen shoulder are all examples of WRULDs which differ in the manifestation and site of the liness The term RSI is commonly used to describe WRULDS, \WRULDs are caused by repetitive movements ofthe in gers, hands or arms which involve pulng, pushing, reac ing, twisting lifting, squeezing or hammering. These disar- dors can occur in workers in offices as well asin factories fr on construction sites. Typical occupational groups at risk include painters and decorators, riveters and pneu: matic dil operators and desktop computer users. The main symptoms of WRULDS are aching pain to the back, neck and shoulders, swollen joints and mus- cle fatigue accompanied by tingling, soft tissue sweling similar to bruising, and a restriction in joint movernent The sense of touch and movement of fingers may be affected. The condition is normally a chronic one in that it gots worse with time and may lead eventually to per- manent damage. The injury occurs to muscle, tendons andor nerves. Ifthe injury is allowed to heal before being exposed to the repetitive work again, no long-term dam- age should result. However, ifthe work is repeated again and again, healing cannot take place and permanent ddamage can result leading to a restricted blood flow to the arms, hands and fingers. Before Alter Figure 8.2 Work: ation ergonomic design improvementsInternational Health and Safety at Work Figure 8.3 Poor workstation layout may cause WRULD, "abe 8. Examples of ow cost ergonomic and other improvements resulting fom aniLOiniiatne |) Topic Examples i ions Premises ‘Good layout, heat insulation, shades, natural ventilation, smooth foors Work-station design Easy reach, work height, fixtures, easy-to-read displays, good chairs Work organisation ~ Combining tasks, buffer stocks, group work, rotation, breaks Welfare facilities Drinking water, clean toilets rest comers, eating place, first-aid Kits “Lighting ‘Skylights, e-positioning lights, light-coloured walls, avoiding glare ‘Materials handling ‘Marking paseage borders, mult-shelves, mobile racks, carts, lifts Isolating hazards Covers, guards, machine-feeding devices, isolating hazard sources The risk factors, whieh can lead to the onset of WRULDs, are repetitive actions of lengthy duration, the application of significant force and unnatural pos- tures, possibly involving twisting and overreaching and the use of vibrating tools. Cold working environments, work organisation and worker perception of the work ‘organisation have all been shown in studies to be risk factors, as is the involvement of vulnerable workers ‘such as those with pre-existing il-health conditions and pregnant women. Ergonomic improvements have been implemented in several small-scale industries in developing countries in Arica, Asia and Latin America. Most improvements have beenmade inareasdirectly lated to work processessuch as materials handling, workstation design (Figure 8.3), isolating hazards, lighting, welfare facilities and work organisation. All these changes have been low cost and have often resulted from training courses employing the Work Improvement in Small Enterprises (WISE) method- ology developed by the ILO. Table 8.1 gives some exam- ples reported by the ILO. 8.1.5 Display screen equipment The use of display screen equipment (OSE) and visual dis- play units, is a good example of a common work activity which relies on an understanding of ergonomics and the lichealth conditions which can be associated with poor ergonomic design. & recent survey of safety representa tives by the UK Trades Union Congress found.that injue ries/illnesses caused by the poor use of DSE and repeti- tive strain injuries together with stress or overwork were ‘among their major concems. The basic recommendations for safeguarding the health and safety of DSE workers are: a suitable and sufficient risk assessment of the workstation, including the software in use, trip and ‘electrical hazards from trailing cables and the sur rounding environment; workstation compliance with the minimum speci- fications laid down in the national or internationat standards; a plan of the work programme to ensure that there are adequate breaks in the work pattern of workers; ‘the provision of eye sight tests and, if required, ‘spectacles to users of DSE; ‘a suitable programme of training and sultficient information given to all OSE users. ‘The risk assessment of a OSE workstation needs to consider the following factors, many of which are shown in Figure 8.4:Seating and posture for typical office tasks Forearms ‘approxmately bozontal Seat back acustabiy Good tumbar — suppost No excass pressure on undersite of thghs and backs of aes Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control 8 Hisimal extension, fexion or deviation ofwnst nhoight ans angle Should allow comfortable head postion ‘Space In rat ofthe keyboard to suppor Rand or wits ‘sung pausos in eying ~~ space fr postural change ho abstaces Under desk Foct suppotif required Figure 8.4 Workstation design the height and adjustability of the monitor, the adjustability of the keyboard, the suitability of the mouse and the provision of wrist support; the stability and adjustability of the DSE user's, chair; the provision of ample foot room and suitable foot support; the effect of any lighting and window glare at the workstation; the storage of materals around the workstation; the safety of railing cables, plugs and socket environmental issues: noise, heating, humidity and draughts Chapter 17 gives an example of a checklist that can be used for a DSE workstation assessment by the user. There are three basic Il-health hazards associated with DSE. These are: musculoskeletal problems; visual problems; psychological problems, ‘A fourth hazard, of radiation, has been shown from sev~ eral studies to be very small and is now no longer nor- considered in the fisk assessment. Similarly, in the past, there have been suggestions ‘that DSE could cause epilepsy and there were concems about adverse health effects on pregnant women and their unborn children. All these risks have been shown in various studies to be very low. The provision of DSE training and risk assessments online has become more common. The risk assessment, however, stil has to be managed, made appropriate to the particular workplace setting and reviewed from time to time. Various studies have shown that users of any e-learning package lose concentration after 90-40 minutes, Tenosynovitis is the most common and well-known prob- lem which affects the wrist of the user. The symptoms. and effects of this condition have already been covered. Suffice it to say that if the condition is ignored, then the tendon and tendon sheath around the wrist will be permanently injured “Tenosynovitis is caused by the continual use of a key- board and can be relieved by the use of wrist suppor. Other WRULDs are caused by poor posture and can pro- duce pains in the back, shoulders, neck or arms. Less. commonly, pain may also be experienced in the thighs, calves and ankles, These problems can be mitigated by the application of ergonomic principles in the selection of working desks, chairs, foot rests and document holders. Its also important to ensure that the desk is at the cor- rect height and the computer screen is tilted at the cor- Feot angle to avoid putting too much strain on the neck. (Ideally the user’s eyes should be at the same height as the top of the screen.) The keyboard should be detachable so that it can be positioned anywhere on the desktop and a correct pos- ture adopted while working at the keyboard. The chair ‘should be adjustable in height, stable and have an adjust- able backrest. Ifthe knees of the user are lower than the hips when seated, then a footrest should be provided. The surface of the desk should be non-reflecting and uncluttered but ancillary equipment (e.g. telephone and printer) should be easily accessible.ExT International Health and Safety at Work There does not appear to be much medical evidence that DSE causes deterioration in eye sight, but users may suf- fer from visual fatigue which results in eye strain, sore eyes and headaches. Less common ailments are skin rashes and nausea ‘The use of DSE may indicate that reading specta- cles are needed and it is possible that any prescribed lenses might only be suitable for OSE work as they willbe designed to give optimum clarity at the normal distance at which screens are viewed (50-60.em) Eye strain is a particular problem for people who spend a large proportion of their working day using DSE. A sur- vey has indicated that up to 80% of DSE users complain of eye fatigue. Eye strain can be reduced by the follow- Ing steps additional to those already identitied in this section: train staff in the correct use of the equipment; ensure that a font size of at least 12 is used on the ensure that users take regular breaks away from the soreen (up to 10 minutes every hour). The screen should be adjustable in tt angle and screen brightness and contrast. Finally, the lighting around the ‘workstation is important. It should be bright enough to allow documents to be read easily but not too bright such that either headaches are caused or there are reflective glares on the computer screen, Sore eyes are a common complaint associated with low humidity. Various professional building research organisations have agreed that an appropriate range of relative humidity in an office environment is 40-60%. Air conditioning systems should be properly maintained to ensure that they maintain a reasonable temperature and humidity level in the workplace. Sore eyes are often a product of dry eyes which can be controlled by: restraining from rubbing the eyes: focusing on an object in the near distance (prefer- ably green in colour}; blinking can encourage the moistening of the eye: drinking water regularly; looking away from the screen periodically to rest the eyes. These are generally stress-related problems. They might have environmental causes, such as noise, heat, humid ity or poor lighting, but they are usually due to high-speed ‘working, lack of breaks, poor training and poor worksta- tion design. One of the most common problems is the lack of understanding ofall or some of the software pack- ages being used. There are several other processes and activities where ergonomic considerations are important. These include the assembly of smail components (microelectronics assembly lines) and continually moving assembly lines (car assembly plants}. ‘Many of these processes, including some of the chem- ical hazards (such as soldering fumes), are described in Chapter 12 8.2 Manual handling hazards, risks and control measures The term ‘manual handing’ is defined as the movement, transporting or supporting of a load by human effort alone. This effort may be applied directly or indirectly Using a rope or a lever. Manual handling may involve the ‘transportation ofthe load or the direct support ofthe load including pushing, pulling, carying, moving using bodily force and, of course, straightforward liting. Back injury due to the lifting of heavy loads is very commen and sev- eral milion working days are lost each year as a result of such injuries, Typical hazards of manual handling include: lifting a load which is too heavy or too cumbersome, resulting in back injury: oor posture during lifting or poor lifting technique, resulting in back injury; dropping a load, resulting in foot injury: lifting sharp-edged or hot loads resulting in hand Injuries. 8.2.1 Injuries caused by manual handling Manual handling operations can cause a wide range of acute and chronic injuries to workers, Acute injuries nor- mally lead to sickness leave from work and a period of rest during which time the damage heals. Chronie injuries build up over a long period of time and are usually iro: vorsible, producing ilinesses such as arthritic and spinal disorders. There is considerable evidence to suggest that modem lifestyles, such as a lack of exercise and regular physical effort, have contributed to the long-term serious effects of these injures. ‘The most common injuries associated with poor man- val handling techniques are all musculoskeletal in nature and are: Muscular sprains and strains ~ caused when a muscular tissue (or ligament or tencion) is stretched beyond its normal capability leading to a weaken- ing, bruising and painful inflammation of the area affected. Such injuries normally occur in the back or in the arms and wrists. Back injuries — include injuries to the dises situated between the spinal vertebrae (Le. bones) and can {ead to a very painful prolapsed disc lesion (com- monly known as a slipped disc), This type of injury can lead to other conditions known as lumbago and sciatica (where pain travels down the leg).sculosheltat hazards and ik cont EM Figure 8&5 Manual handling — there are many potential hazards Trapped nerve - usually occurring in the back as a result of another injury but aggravated by manual handling, Hernia - this is a eupture of the body cavity wall in the lower abdomen, causing a protrusion of part the intestine. This condition eventually requires sur gery to repair the damage. Cuts, bruising and abrasions ~ caused by handling loads with unprotected sharp corners or edges. Fractures ~ normally ofthe feet due to the cropping of a load. Fractures of the hand also ocour but are less common. WRULDs — cover a wide range of musculoskeletal disorders, which are discussed later in this chapter. Rheumatism - this is a chronic disorder involving severe pain in the joints. It has many causes, one of which Is believed to be the muscular strains induced by poor manual handling iting technique. The sites on the body of injuries caused by manual handling accidents are shown in Figure 8.6. Musculoskeletal problems are the most common cause of absence, followed by viral infections and stress-related illnesses. These findings are based on an analysis of sick- ness management records for 11000 individual employ: ees across a range of private sector organisations. ‘Arecent study has found that musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) account for nearly half (49%) of all absences from ‘work and 60% of permanent work incapacity in the Euro- pean Union, It is estimated that this costs the UK economy Back 45% Restot torso 8% om 13% Hand 6% Fingers and tum 16% Lowor limb 99% Figure 8.6 Main injury aroas caused by manual han diing accidents £7bn every year and costs Europe £240bn each year. The study, conducted across 25 European countries, found that 100 milion Europeans suffer from chronic musc loskeletal pain — over 40 milion of whom are workers ~ with up to 40% having to give up work due to their condition. In the UK alone, 9.5 milion working days were lost in one year due to musculoskeletal problems,International Health and Safety at Work In general, pulling @ load is much easier for the body than pushing one. If a load can only be pushed, then pushing backwards using the backs lass stressful on body muscles. Lifting a load from a surface at waist level is easier than iting from floor level and most injuries during lifting are caused by lifting and twisting atthe same time. If load has to be car~ fied, itis easier to carry it at waist level and close tothe body ‘trunk. fim grip is essential when moving any type of load, 8.2.2 Hierarchy of measures for manual handling operations The emphasis during the assessment of iting operations has changed from a simple reliance on safe lifting tech- ‘niques to an analysis, using risk assessment, of the need for manual handling. A clear hierarchy of measures to be taken when an employer is confronted with a manual handling operation has been established as follows: ‘Avoid manual handling operations that involve a risk Of injury s0 far as is reasonably practicable by either redesigning the task to avoid moving the load or by ‘automating or mechanising the operations. 2. If manual handling cannot be avoided, then a suit- able and sufficient risk assessment should be made. 3. Reduce the risk of injury from those operations so far as is reasonably practicable, either by the use of mechanical handling or making improvements to the task, the load and the working environment. ‘The guidance given in the UK HSE Manual Handling (Guidance) (L29) the full reference is given at the end of this chapter is a very useful document. It gives very helo- fui advice on manual handling assessments and manual handling training. The advice fs applicable to all occupa- tional sectors. Chapter 17 gives an example of manual hanaling assessment forms. 8.2.3 Manual handling assessments There are four main factors which must taken into account when undertaking a manual handling assessment. These are the task, the load, the working environment and the capabil- ity of the individual who is expected to do the iting, The task should be analysed in detail so that all aspects of manual handling are covered including the use of mechanical assistance. The number of people involved and the cost of the task should alsa be considered, Some or all of the following questions are relevant to most man ual handling tasks: Is the load held or manipulated at a distance from the trunk? The further from the trunk, the more dif- ficult it is to control the load and the stress imposed on the back is greater. 4 ls a satisfactory body posture being adopted? Feet should be firmly on the ground and slightly apart and there should be no stooping or twisting of the trunk. It should not be necessary to reach upwards, as this will place additional stresses on the arms, back and shoulders. The effect of these risk factors is significantly increased if several are present while the task is being performed. Are there excessive distances to carry or lft the load? Over distances greater than 10 metres, the physical demands of carrying the load will dami nate the operation. The frequenoy of lifting and the vertical and horizontal distances the load needs to be carried (particularly i ithas to be lifted from the ground andor placed on a high shelf) are very important considerations. Is there excessive pulling and pushing of the load? The state of floor surfaces and the footwear of the individual should be noted so that slips and trips can be avoided. + Is there a risk of a sudden movement of the load? ‘The load could be restricted or jammed in some way. Is frequent or prolonged physical effort required? Frequent and protonged tasks can lead to fatigue anda greater risk of injury. ‘Ae there sulficient rest or recovery periods? Breaks and/or the changing of tasks enable the body to recover more easily from strenuous activity. Is there an imposed rate of work on the task? ‘This is a particular problem with some automated production lines and can be addressed by spells on ‘ther operations away from the line, Ae the loads boing handled while the individual is seated? In these cases, the legs are not used dur ing the lifting processes and stress is placed on the arms and back, Does the handling involve two or more people? The handling capablty of an individual reduces when ho/she becomes a member of a team (e.g. for a three-person team, the capability is half the sum of the incividual capabilities). Visibilty, abstructions and the roughness of the ground must all be con- sidered when team handling takes place, The load must be carefully considered during the assessment and the following questions asked: Is the load too heavy? The maximum load that an individual can lit wil depend on the capability of the individual and the position of the load relative to the body. There is therefore no safe load, Figure 8.7 is reproduced from the UK HSE guidance, which does give some advice on loading levels. It recommends that loads in excess of 25kg should not be lifted or cartied by a man (and this is only permissible when the load is at the level of and adjacent to the thighs). For women, the guideline figures should be reduced by about one-third Is the load too bulky or unwieldy? In general, f any dimension of the load exceeds 0.75m (approx. 2 feet), its handling is likely to pose a tisk of injury. Visibility around the load is important. It could hit obstructions.‘or become unstable in windy conditions. The position Of the centre of gravity is very important for stable lit- ing ~it should be as close to the body as possibie, Is the load difficult to grasp? Grip difficulties wil be ‘caused by slippery surfaces, rounded corners or a lack of foot room. ‘Are the contents of the load likely to shift? This is a particular problem when the load is @ container full of smnaller items, such as a sack full of nuts and bolts. The movements of people (in a nursing home) ‘or animals (ina veterinary surgery) are loads which {all into this category. Is the load sharp, hot or cold? Personal protective ‘equipment (PPE) might be required. The working environment in which the manual pan ling operation Is to take place must be considered dur- ing the assessment. The following areas will need to be assessed any space constraints which might inhibit good pos- ture — such constraints include lack of headroom, narrow walkways and items of furniture; slippery, uneven or unstable floors; variations in levels of floors or work surfaces, pos- sibly requiring the use of ladders; extremes of temperature and humidity. These effects wore discussed in detail in Chapter 6; ventilation problems or gusts of wind poor lighting conditions. Finally, the capability of the individual to lift or cary the load must be assessed, The following questions wil need to be asked: Does the task require unusual characteristics ofthe incividual (e.. strength or height)? Itis important to Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control 8 CEI remember that strength and general manual han- dling ability depends on age, gender, state of health and fitness, Are employees who might reasonably be consid- ered to be pregnant or to have a health problem, put at rk by the task? Particular care should be taken to protect pregnant women or those who have recently given birth from handling loads. Allowance, should also be given to any employee who has a hhoalth problem that could be exacerbated by man- ual handling, ‘The assessment must be reviewed if there is reason to suspect that itis no longer valid or there has been a significant change to the manual handling operations to which it relates. 8.2.4 Reducing the risk of injury ‘This involves the introduction of control measures result- ing from the manual handling risk assessment. The UK HSE Guidance to Manual Handing (L23) and the HSE publication Manual Handling ~ Solutions You Can Handle (HSG115) contain many ideas to reduce the risk of injury from manual handling operations. An ergonomic approach is generally required to design and develop the ‘manual handling operation as a whole. The control meas- ures can be grouped under five headings. However, the first consideration, when it is reasonably practicable, is mechanical assistance. Mechanical assistance involves the use of mechani- cal aids to assist the manual handling operation such as wheslbarrows, hand-powered hydraulic hoists, specially adapted trolleys, hoists for lilting patients, roller convey- ‘ors and automated systems using rabots, This topic is discussed later in this,chapter. Shoulder height Elbow height Knuckle height, 10kg Mid lower leg height kg ‘Shoulder height Elbow height Knuckle height 7kg fisko 7 Mid tower fag height ? 3kg | 7kg Women Men Figure 8.7 UK HSE guidance for manual iting - recommended weightInternational Health and Safety at Work ‘The task can be improved by changing the layout of the workstation by, for example, storing frequently used loads at waist level. The removal of obstacles and the use of a better iting technique that relies on the leg rather than back muscles should be encouraged. Wien push: ing, the hands should be positioned correctly. The work rouitine should also be examined to see whether job rota- tion is being used as effectively as it could be. Special attention should be paid to seated manual handlers to {ensure that loads are not lifted from the floor while they are seated. Employees should be encouraged to seek help if diffcutt load is to be moved so that a team of people can move the load. Adequate and suitable PPE should be provided where there is a risk of loss of grip ‘oF injury. Care must be taken to ensure that the clothing does not become a hazard in itself (e.g, the snagging of fasteners and pockets) The load should be examined to see whether it could bbe made lighter, smaller or easier to grasp or manage. This could be achieved by spiiting the load, the positon ing of handholds or a sling, or ensuring that the centre of ‘gravity is brought closer to the handler's body. Attempts should be made to make the load more stable and any surface hazards, such as slippery deposits or sharp edges, should be removed. Itis very important to ensure that any improvements do not, inadvertently, lead to the Creation of adcitional hazards. The working environment can be improved in many ways. Space constraints should be removed or reduced. Floors should be regularly cleaned and repaired when damaged. Adequate lighting is essential and working at ‘more than one level should be minimised so that hazard- us ladder work is avoided. Attention should be given to tho need for suitable temperatures and ventilation in the working area The capability of the individual iste fith area where control measures can be applied to reduce the risk of injury. The state of health of the employee and his/her medical record will provide the first indication as to whether the individual is capable of undertaking the task A petiod of sick leave or a change of job can make an individual vulnerable to manual handling injury. The ILO requires that the employee be given information and training. The information includes the provision, where it is reasonably practicable to do s0, of precise information ‘on the weight of each load and the heaviest side of any load whose centre of gravity is not centrally positioned. In a more detailed risk assessment, other factors will need to_be considered such as the effect of PPE and psycho- social factors in the work organisation. The following points may need to be assessed: 1. Does protective clothing hinder movement or posture? 2. Is the correct PPE being worn? 3, Is proper consideration given to the planning and scheduling of rest breaks? 4, Is there good communication between managers and employees during risk assessment or worksta- tion design? 5, Is there a mechanism in place to deal with sudden changes in the volume of workload? 6, Have employees been given sufficient training anct information? 7. Does the worker have any learning disabilities ‘and, if $0, has this been taken into account in the assessment? 8. Is the worker physically unsuited to carry out the tasks in question because he or she: {@) is wearing unsuitabie clothing, footwear or other personal effects? (0) does not have adequate or appropriate knowl- edge or training? ‘The UKHSE has developed a Manual Handling Assess- ‘ment Chart (MAC) to help with the assessment of com- mon risks associated with liting, carrying and handling, ‘The MAC is available on the HSE website (http://www. hse.gov.uk/msd/mach) The training requirements are given in the following section. 8.2.5 Manual handling training Training alone will not reduce manual handling injuries ~ there stil need to be safe systems of work in place and the full implementation of the control measures high- lighted in the manual handling assessment. The following topics should be addressed in a manual handling training session: types of injuries associated with manual handling activities; the findings of the manual handling assessment; the recognition of potentially hazardous manual handling operations; the correct use of mechanical handling aids; the correct use of PPE; features of the working environment which aid safety in manual handling operation {good housekeeping issues; factors which affect the capability ofthe individual {900d lifting or manual handling technique as shown in Figure 8.8, Finally, it needs to be stressed that if injuries involving manual handling operations are to be avoided, planning, control and effective supervision are essential 8.2.6 ILO recommendations on manual handling Manual handling of loads is covered by the iLO in the Maximum Weight Convention, 1967 (No. 127) and its accompanying Maximum Weight Recommendation, 1967 (No. 128)‘Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control 8 ee 1, Check stable clothing and assess load lamest 1 body 2. Prac fet apart 2 8. Fm grip —as0 to boay 4 Blgnt bending ofc Nps 4, Litsmoothiy {oko love and the wast evel No further Benang tbc Wah lea isibity move fosward witout est Kop toad close tthe walst. Tum by moving fect. Koop head updo oak at ead 6, Setioad down at waist evel ‘eto kno love and thon Noor. Figure 8.8 The main elements of a good lifting technique tn the Convention, the ILO requires that no worker shal 'be required, or permitted to engage n the manual trans- port of a load which, by reason of its weight, is likely to threaten his/her health or safety. Also each Member State must take appropriate steps to ensure that any worker assigned to the manual transport of loads other than light, loads receives adequate training of instruction in work ing techniques, with a view to safeguarding health and preventing accidents, In order to limit oF to facilitate the manual transport of loads, suitable technical devices shall be used as much as possible. The Convention restricts the assignment of women and young workers to manually transport loads other than light loads — which shall be limited. Where women and young workers are engaged in the manual trans- port of loads, the maximum weight of such loads shall be substantially less than that permitted for adult male workers The Recommendation (R128) states any worker assigned to regular manual transport of loads should, prior to such assignment, receive adequate training or instruction in manual handling techniques. Such training or instruction should include methods of iting, carrying, putting down, unloading and stacking of cfferent types of loads, and should be given by sultably qualified persons or institutions. It should be followed up by supervision €n the job to ensure that the correct methods are used Any worker occasionally assigned to manual transport of loads should be given appropriate instructions on the manner in which such operetions may be safely carried ut. A medical examination for fitness for employment should, as far as practicable and appropriate, be required before assignment to regular manual transport of loads. Tne Recommendation continues to discuss suitable technical devices and packeging to facitate the manual transport af loads. The packaging of loads that might be transported manually should be compact and of suitable material and should, as far as possible and appropriate, be equipped with devices for holding and designed so as not to create risk of injury (e.g. it should not have sharp ‘edges, projections or rough surfaces). Member States, should take account of (@)_ physiological characteristics, environmental condi- tions and the nature of the work to be done; any other conditions that might influence the health and safety of the worker. ®) Where the maximum permissible waight which may be transported manually by one adult male worker is more than 25 kg, measures should be taken as speedily as possible to reduce it to that level. Where adult women workers are engaged in the manual transport of loads, the maximum weight of such loads should be substan- tially less than that petmitted for adult male workers. {As far as possible, adult women workers should not be assigned to regular manual transport of loads. Where adult women workers are assigned to regular manual transport of loads, provision should be made: (a) as appropriate, to reduce the time spent on actual lifting, carrying and putting down of loads by such workers; to prohibit the assignment of such workers to cer tain specified jobs, comprised in manual transport of loads, which are especially arduous. © No woman should be assigned to manual transport of loads during a pregnaney which has been medically determined or during the ten weeks following confine- ment if in the opinion of a qualitied physician such work is likely to impair her health or that of her childInternational Health and Safety at Work Where young workers are engaged in the manual trans- port of loads, the maximum weight of such foads should be substantially less than that permitted for adult workers, of the same sex. As far as possible, young workers should not be assigned to regular manual transport of loads. Where the minimum age for assignment to manual transport of loads is less than 16 years, measures should be taken as speedily as possible to raise it to that level. The minimum age for assignment to regular manual transport of loads should be raised, with a view to attaining a minimum age of 18 years. Where young workers are assigned to regular ‘manual transport of loads, provision should be made: (@)_as appropriate, to reduce the time spent on actual ling, carrying and putting down of loads by such workers; to prohibit the assignment of such workers to cer- tain specified jobs, comprised in manual transport of loads, which are especially arduous. ) 8.3 Manually operated load-handling equipment 8.3.1 Types of manually operated load- handling equipment ‘As mentioned earlier (8.2.4), the first consideration to reduce the risk of injury due to manual handling is, when itis reasonably practicable, to use mechanical assistance in the form of simple tools; wheelbarrows; trucks and trolleys; roller tracks and chut pallet trucks; conveyors; and various types of hoists that can be used to lit peo: ple as wellas other loads. The aids vary from simple, manually operated tools to powor-assisted trucks and lifing devices. All of them ‘ighten the load’ and reduce the risk of injury. All kinds of simple tools can aid the manual handling of loads. Lifting hooks can be used to lft sheets of steel (r glass, timber boards and large awkward loads, Log. tongs will help lift lags, and other devices can be used {or cylindrical loads, These tools help to grip the load and reduce the need for bending, Trucks and trolleys allow one person to transport loads between different locations. They can be inexper sive and are available in various sizes to suit the load and type of workplace. Sack trucks, Ike wheelbar- rows, move loads by balancing them on the truck axle. ‘Some trucks have lif_ing mechanisms that allow loads to be raised and lowered and others are fitted with special wheels for climbing and descending stairs. General purpose trucks can be used to support larger loads than with sack trucks. They can be flat-topped or fitted with a variety of sides and wheels to suit different uses, The wheels can be fitted with swivels to improve manoeuvrability. Some platform trucks are fitted with detachable tug units. This helps to reduce congestion and obstacles in busy production areas. The platform can be designed to be raised or lowered ~ this further reduces the manual handling because it reduces the need for bending when loading and unloading, Trucks can have big whee's for use on rough ground. When fitted with removable sides they can be used for bulk loads such as sand and gravel. Balance trucks have a central axie with swivel wheels at each end so they can spin around their centres, This makes them highly manoeuvrable so they ccan be used in restricted spaces. ‘There is no clear distinction between general purpose trucks and trolleys. Trolleys tend to be of lighter weight construction and designed for more specific applications. Container trolleys allow mixed loads to be carried, A supermarket trolley isa simple example of this. Shelf trol leys can have fixed or removable shelves. Drum trolleys are useful for transporting drums. Brakes can be fitted to trucks and trolleys to keep them stationary and might be necessary where the ground slopes. Garment rails can bbe used in clothes factories, shops and theatres. Roller tracks and chutes allow heavy and bulky loads to be moved manually or by gravity under their own weight. They can be portable or set into the floor. Carefully designed work areas with appropriate tracks and chutes can reduce the number of manual handling tasks. When using tracks, the potential for creating a tripping hazard must be kept as low as possible, Using gentle gradients ‘can ensure that the load is moved with very litle effort, Chutes are normally used instead of tracks when there are significant changes of level, for example movernent between floors. Spiral chutes are typically used for sacks but almost any kind of load can be handled on a straight chute. Pallet trucks (Figure 8.9) are moved by pedestrians. Manual efforts required to transfer the load but hydraulic power is normally used to raise and lower the load. They can be used in fairly congested and confined areas and are designed to move different types of loads. Portable conveyors are used to transport loads between places at the same level or different heights. Different types can transport a wide variety of loads including bulk materials such as sand and grain. Using portable conveyors can significantly reduce {and often avoid) manual handling. The height of the conveyor at loading and unloading points is important. Recom- mended heights to reduce manual handling efforts are: around 0.9m above floor level when light loads which can normally be lifted with one hand are to be lifted; around 0.75m above floor level when heavier loads, normally ited with two hands, are loaded; andFigure 8.9 A pallet truck ‘around fioos lavel when heavy loads, such as loaded onto conveyors, either by roling or by iting devices or lift trucks. wmpencnse tS Portable conveyors for occasional or semi-permanent occasions can be used in different work areas. Some conveyors ae fitted with wheels to increase their mobit- ity. They can be used to move loads at the same level or at different levels. Some types can be inclined by hydra: lic rams, to adjust the height of transfer to suit a partiou lar elevation. Non-powered roller conveyors on a slight incline aliow loads to move under gravity, Powered c¢ veyers and elevators are covered in Section 8.4.2 Mechanical assistance, therefore, involves the use of mechanical aids to assist the manual handling operation. Examples include wheelbarrows, hand-powered hydrau- lie hoists, specially adapted trolleys, hoists for lifting patients, roller conveyors and automated systems using robots. Some examples of manually operated load-hanaling equipment are shown in Appendix 8.2. 8.3.2 Hazards associated with manually operated load-handling equipment The principal hazards withthe use of oad-handiin ment are due to its incorrect use, such as overloading ar attempting to cary unstable loads. Pushing or pul Figure 8.10 Mechanical aids to lift patients in hospitalExT} International Health and Safety at Work truck or trolley is stil a manual handling operation and can create different kinds of risks. Injuries could also be suffered by pedestrians using the same walkway. Lack of maintenance can create additional hazards. This is particularly important for certain iting machines and ‘tackle where there might be a legal requirement fora regu- lar examination by a competent person (see Section 8.4.3) 8.3.3. Precautions with the use of manually operated load-handling equipment When handling aids are being selected, the subsequent user should be consulted whenever It is possible, Mov- ing and handling tasks are often made easier by good design. For example, in the health and social care sector, ‘workers are often required to care far service users in bed and the provision of adjustable-height beds can prevent the risks of back injuries. Raising the height of laundry ‘equipment, such as washing machines or driers, by plac- ing it on a platform can also reduce bending and stoop- ing. Further measures to reduce the amount of handling by care staff are: raising the height of beds and chairs using wooden locks; handrails at strategic heights adjacent to the bath and toilet; the use of bath hoists and overhead hoists, alk-in showers with seats; and coutting slots in bath panels to allow for mobile hoist wheols to fit undemeath a bath fixed against a wall All operators of mechanical load-handling equipment must be properly trained in its use and supervised while they are using it, These precautions are particularly important when people are being lifted or aicied using a manual ho'st. Other precautions include: a safe system of work in place; sufficient room available to easily manoeuvre the equipment; adequate visibility and lighting available; the floors in a stable condition; regular safety checks to identify any faults with the equipment; and a regular maintenance schedule for the equipment. Other important considerations are that the proposed use will be within the safe working load of the equipment it is sultable forthe area in which it will operate (e.g is there enough room to manoeuvre and enough headroom?) it suits the terainin terms of stability and ground surface; the titing equipment is CE-marked; and advice is sought from the supplers/irers on its suitability forthe proposed task and any mainte- nance requirements, A useful precaution is to request the equipment on 2 tal basis, if possible, to check that it is suitable for the required task and to involve the employees who will be expected to use itn this appraisal exercise. Consider- ation should also be given to other risks associated with the introduction of the lifting aid, such as site safety and the lack of communication with forkclft truck drivers. 8.4 Mechanically operated load- handling equipment 8.4.1 Safety in the use of lifting and moving equipment Lifting equipment must be positioned and installed so as to reduce the risks, so far as is reasonably practicable, equipment or a toad striking a person; load drifting, faling freely or being released unintentionally. Lifting equipment should be positioned and installed to minimise the need to it loads over people and to prevent crushing in extreme positions. It should be designed to stop safely in the event of a power fallure and not release its load. Lifting equipment, which follows a fixed path, should be enclosed with suitable and substantial inter- locked gates and any necessary protection in the event of power failure. Every lifting operation, th shall be: ti, liting or lowering of a load, properly planned by a competent person; appropriately supervised; cartied out ina safe manner, The person planning the operation should have ade- quate practical and theoretical knowledge and experi- ence of planning lifting operations. The plan needs to address the risks identified by the risk assessment and identity the resources, the procedures and the responsi- bilities required so that any lifting operation is carried out safely. For routine simpie its, a plan will normally be the responsibilty of the people using the lifting equipment. For complex lifting operations, for example, where two cranes are used to lft one load, a written plan may need to be produced each time. ‘The planning should include the need to avoid sus- pending loads over occupied areas, visibility, the attach- ing/detaching and securing of loads, the environment, the location, the possibilty of overturning, the proxim- ity to other objects, any lifting of people and the pre-use checks required for the equipmentThere are four general requirements for alt lifting operations: Use strong, stable and suitable ling equipment; the equipment should be positioned and installed correctly, the equipment should be visibly marked with the safe working load symbol (SWL}, lifting operations must be planned, supervised and performed in a safe manner by competent people. 8.4.2 Types of mechanical handling and lifting equipment ‘There are four elements to mechanical handling, each of which can present hazards. These are handling equipment, the load, the workplace and the employees involved. ‘The mechanical handling equipment must be capa- ble of lifting and/or moving the load. It must be fauit-free, ‘well-maintained and inspected on a regular basis. The hazards related to such equipment include collisions ° ‘Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control 8 ae between people and the equipment and personal injury from being trapped in moving parts of the equinment {such as bett and screw conveyors) The load should be prepared for transportation in such a way as to minimise the possibilty of accidents The hazards will be related to the nature ofthe load (e.g substances which are flammable or hazardous to health) or the security and stably of the load (2.9. collapse of bales or incorrectly stacked pales) The workplace should! be designed so that, when- ‘ever possible, workers and the load are kept apart. I, for ‘example, an overhead crane is to be used, then people should be segregated away or barred from the path of the load ‘The employees and others and any other people who are to use the equipment must be propery trained and ‘competent in its safe use. Conveyors transport loads along a given level which might not be completely horizontal, whereas elevators ‘move loads from one level or loor to another. Conveyors are shown in Figure 8.11. Figure 8.11 Conveyor systems: (a) roller conveyors (these may have powered and free-running rollers}; (b) an ‘overhead conveyor handing wheels. Other designs of overhead conveyors are useful for transferring compo- rents and garments between workstations in, for example, the manufacture of machines or clothing; (c) a slat conveyor in use in a food factoryInternational Health and Safety at Work There are three common forms of conveyor: bat, roller and screw conveyors, The most common hazards and preventative measures are: the in-running nip, where a hand is trapped between the rotating rollers anc the belt protection from this hazard can be provided by nip guards and trip, devices; entanglement with the power drive ~ requires the fiting of fixed guards and the restriction of loose clothing which could become caught in the dive; {oads falling from the conveyor this can be avoided by edge guards and barriers; impact against overhead systems ~ protection against this hazard can be given by the use of bump ‘caps, warning signs and restricted access; ‘contact hazards ~ prevented by the removal of sharp edges, conveyor edge protection and restricted access; manual handling hazards; noise and vibration hazards, Screw conveyors, often usod to move very viscous substances, must be provided with either fed guards or covers to prevent accidental access. People should be prohibited from riding on belt conveyors, and emergency ‘rip wires or stop buttons must be fitted and be opera: tional at all times, Elevators are used to transport goods between floors, such as the transportation of bullding bricks to upper Figure 8.12 A brick elevator storeys during the construction of a building or the trans- portation of grain sacks into the loft of a barn, Guards should be fitted at either end of the elevator and around the power drive. The most common hazard is injury due to loads falling trom elevators. There are also potential manual handling problems at both the feed and discharge ends of the elevator. The most common form of mobile handling equipment 's the forklift tuck. it comes from the group of vehicles, known as lift trucks, and can be used in factories, on con- struction sites and on farms, The term foriclit truck is nor= ‘mally applied to the counterbalanced lit truck, where the load on the forks is counterbalanced by the weight of the vehicle over the rear wheels. The reach truckis designed to ‘operate in narrower aisles in warehouses and enables the Joad to be retracted within the wheelbase. The very narrow aisle (VNA) truck does not turn within the aisle to deposit or retriave a load. Itis often guided by guides or rails on the floor. Other forms of lft truck include the pallet truck anc the pallet stacker truck, both of which may be pedestrian or rider controlled. Around 400 workers are seriously injured in forklift truck accidents every year in the UK and these accidents cause about 10 fatalities annually. Accklents frequently occur when forklift truck drivers or pedestrians in warehouses are distracted, or simply assume that they have been seen by the other party. There are many hazards associated with the use of forklift trucks, These include: overturning ~ manoeuvring at too high a speed (par- ticularly cornering); wheels hitting an obstruction Figure 8.18 Reach truck— designed so that the load retracts within the wheelbase to save spacesuch as a kerb; sudden braking; poor tyre condition leading to skidding; driving forwards down a ramp; ‘movernent of the load: insecure, excessive or uneven loading; incorrect tit or driving along a ramp: ‘overloading - exceeding the rated capacity of the ‘machine; colsions - particularly with warehouse racking which, can lead to a collapse of the whole racking system; silent operation of the electrically powered fork- lift truck ~ can make pedestrians unaware ofits presence: Uneven road surface ~ can cause the vehicle to ‘overtum and/or cause musculoskeletal problems for the driver overtiead obstructions ~ a particular problem for inexperienced rivers; {oss of load ~ shrink wrapping or sheeting will reduce this hazard; 4 inadequate maintenance leading to mechanical failure; Use as a work platform; speeding — strict enforcement of speed limits is essential, ‘poor vision around the load; pedestrians ~ particularly when pedestrians and, vehicles use the same roadways. Warning signs, indicating the presence of forklift trucks, should be posted at regular intervals; dangerous stacking or de-stacking technique ~ this, can destabilise a complete racking column; caning passengers - this should be a disciplinary offence; battery charging — presents an explosion and fire risk; fire - often caused by poor maintenance resutting in fuel leakages or engine/motor burnout, or through using an unsuitable fork-lit truck in areas where flammable liquids or gases are used and stored; lack of driver training, If fork-lft trucks are to be used outside, visibility and lighting, weather conditions and the movement of other vehicles become additional hazards. There are also the following physical hazards: noise ~ caused by poor silencing of the power unit; ‘exhaust fumes - should only be a problem when the maintenance regime is poor; vibrations ~ often caused by a rough road surface or wide expansion joints. Badly inflated tyres will exac- cerbate this problem; ‘manual handling - resulting from manoeuvring the load by hand or lifting batteries or gas cylinders; ergonomic - musculoskeletal injuries caused by soft tyres and/or undulating road surface or holes or ‘cracks in the road surface (e.g. expansion joints) Regular and documented maintenance by competent _mechanics is essential. However, the driver should uncer~ take the following checks at the beginning of each shit Musculoskeletal hazards and risk contro! 8 anu condition of tyres and correct tyre pressures; effectiveness of all brakes; audible reversing horn and light working property: lights, i fitted, working correctly; mirrors, if fitted, in good working order and properly set secure and properly adjusted seat; correct fluid levels, when appropriate; fully charged batteries, when appropriate; ‘correct working of al iting and tilting systems. |A more detailed inspection should be undertaken by ‘a competent person within the organisation on a weekly basis to include the mast and the steering gear. Driver ‘raining is essential and should be given by @ competent trainer. The training session must include the site rules covering items such as the fork-lit truck driver code of practice for the organisation, speed limits, stacking pro- cedures and reversing rules. Refresher training should be provided at regular intervals and a detailed record kept of all training received. Table 8.2 illustrates some key requirements of fork-lift truck drivers and the points listed ‘should be included in most codes of practice. Table 8.2 Sale driving of lft trucks Drivers must: rive ata suitable speed to suit road conditions and viibity: Use the horn when necessary (at blind comers and doorways}; always be aware of pedestrians and other ve~ hicies; take special care when reversing (do not rely on rmitrors) take special care when handiing loads which restrict visibilty: travel with the forks (or other equipment fitted to the mast) lowered; se the prescribed lanes; obey the speed limits; take special care on wet and uneven surfaces; se the handbrake, tit and other controls cor- rectly; take special care on ramps; always leave the truck in a state which is safe and discourages unauthorised use (brake on, motor off, forks down, key out} rivers must not: ‘operate in concitions in which itis not possible {o orive and handle loads safely (e.g. partially blocked aises) travel with the forks raised: se the forks to raise or ower persons unless a purpose-built working cage is used; ‘any passengers; Spark in an unsafe place (@. obstructing emer- gency exis); {um round on ramps: dive into areas where the truck would cause a hhazard (flammable substance store); allow unauthorised use,International Health and Safety at Work Finaly, care must be taken with the selection of drivers, including relevant health checks and previous experience. ‘The UK HSE recommend that drivers should be atleast 18 years of age and their fitness to drive should be reassessed regularly (evary five years after the age of 40 and every year after 65 (HSGE ~ Safety in Working with Lift Trucks). ‘The other types of lifting equipment to be considered are Cranes (mobile overhead and jib), its and hoists and lit- ing tackle. A sample risk assessment for the use of fitting ‘equipment is given in Appendix 8.1 ‘The lifting operation should be properly prepared and planned, This involves the selection of a suitable crane having up-to-date test certificates and examination reports that have been checked. A risk assessment of the task will be needed which would ascertain the weight, size and shape of the load and its final resting place. A writen plan for completing the lit should be drafted and a Competent person appointed to supervise the operation. ‘Accrane may be either a jb crane or an overhead gan- tty traveling crane. The safety requirements aro similar for each type. All cranes need to be properly designed, constacted, installed and maintained. They must also be operated in accordance with a safe system of work. They shoud only be driven by authorised persons who are fit and trained. Each crane is issued with a certificate by its manu- facturer giving details of the SWL. The SWL must never be ‘exceeded and should be marked on the erane structure. If the SWLis variable, as with aj crane (the SWL decreases as the operating radius increases), an SWL indicator should be fitted. Care should be taken to avoid sudden shock loading, as this will impose very high stresses on the crane structure. Itis also very important that the load is properly shackled and all eyebolts tightened. Safe slinging should be included in any training programme. All controls should bbe clearly marked and be of the ‘hold-to-run’ type. Large cranes, which incorporate a driving cab, often Work in conjunction with a banksman, who will direct the lifting operation from the ground. Its important that banksmen are trained so that they understand recognised crane signals. The lfting operation should be properly pre- pared and planned. Ths involves tho selection of a suitable crane having up-to-date test certificates and examination reports that have been checked. A risk assessment of the task willbe needed which would ascertain the weigh, size and shape of the load and its final resting place. A written plan for completing the lift should be drafted and a compe- tent person appointed to supervise the operation. ‘The basic principles for the safe operation of cranes are as follows. For all cranes, the driver must: Undertake a brief inspection of the crane and asso- ciated iting tackle each time before itis used; ccheok that al liting accessory statutory inspections are in place and up to date; check that tyre pressures, where appropriate, are correct; censure that loads are not left suspended when the crane is not in use; before a itis made, ensure that nobody can be struck by the orane or the load; ‘ensure that loads are never carried over people; ‘ensure good visibility and communications; lft loads vertically ~ cranes must not be used to drag a load; travel with the load as close to the ground as possible; switch off power to the crane when itis left unattended. For mobile jib cranes, the following points should be considered: each lift must be properly planned, with the maxi- ‘mum load and radius of operation known; overhead obstructions or hazards must be identi- fied; it might be necessary to protect the crane from ‘overhiead power lines by using goal posts and bun- ting to mark the safe headroom, the ground on which the crane is to stand should be assessed for its load-bearing capacity; if fitted, outriggers should be used. The principal reasons for crane failure, including loss of load, are: overioading; poor stinging of load; insecure or unbalanced load; loss of load: overtuning: collision with another structure or overhead power lines; foundation failure; structural failure of the crane: operator error; lack of maintenance and/or regular inspections; ro signaller used when driver's view is obscured: incorrect signals given. Figure 8.14 Manoeuvring a yacht using a large over- head gantry and slings in a marina‘Typical causes of recent serious incidents with tower cranes include! ‘mechanical failure of the brake or lifting ram; overturn of the crane: jib collapse; a load or dropped load striking a worker sling allure The reasons for some of these incidents were: oor site induction training — not dealing with site pecific risks and lasting too long {20-30 minutes ‘maximum is sufficient time); problems with crane maintenance and thorough ‘examinations; operators working [ong hours without a break; poor operator cabin design and too high a climbing distance; operator health problems; problems in communicating health and safety issues by crane operators on site. During lifting operations using cranes, it must be censured that: the driver has good visibility; thore are no pedestrians below the load by using barriers, necessary, ‘an audible warning Is given prior to the lifting operation. It lifting takes place in windy congitions, tag lines may eed to be attached to the load to control its movement. ‘Tower cranes are being used more and more often on construction sites globally. They have been involved in serious accidents following crane collapse and fatalities resuited after several such collapses. Since 2001 in the UK. there have been 61 accidents involving tower cranes = nine people have died, and 25 have been seriously Injured. Site-specific induction training should be given to everybody involved with the tower crane erection, opera tion and dismantiing. A specific risk assessment and a regular inspection of the crane should be undertaken and only competent and trained operators should be involved with tower crane activities. The key aspects that apply to all cranes including tower 1. The planning of safe lifting operations by a competent person following a detailed risk assessment, 2. Safe systems of work forthe installation, operation ‘and dismanting stages. The main elements of the sale system or metiod statement are: ‘© planning ~ including site preparation, crane erection and dismantling; * selection, provision and use of a suitable crane ‘and work equipment; ‘including safe slinging and signalling arrangements; ttscloseltl hazards and eisk conto! + maintenance and examination of the crane and equipment + provision of properly trained and competent personnel; ‘+ supervision of operations by personnel having the necessary authority 4+ thorough examinations, reports and other documents; + preventing unauthorised movement or use of the crane; and + measures to secure safety of persons not involved in the liting Supervision of al liting operations; and The thorough examination of the crane. A lift or hoist incorporates a platform or cage and is restricted in its movement by guides (Figure 8.15). Hoists are generally used in industrial settings (e.g. construc tion sites and garages), whereas lifts are normally used inside buildings. Lifts and hoists may be designed to cary passengers and/or goods alone. They should be of sound mechanical construction and have interlock ing doors or gates, which must be completely closed before the lift or hoist moves. The hoistway should be properly enclosed so that the moving parts of the hoist are guarded. The loads should be secured on the hoist platform so that they cannot fall and the operator should have a clear view of the landing levels. There should be no unauthorised use of the hoist by untrained per- sonnel. Passenger-carrying lifts must be fitted with an automatic braking system to prevent over-running, at least two suspension ropes, each capable alone of sup porting the maximum working load, and a safely device which could support the lift in the event of suspension rope failure, Maintenance procedures must be rigorot recorded and only undertaken by competent persons. It is very important that a safe system of work is employed, during maintenance operations to protect others, such ‘as members of the public, rom falling down the lift shaft and other hazards. Other items of lifting tackle, usually used with cranes, {nolude chain slings and hooks, wire and fibre rope sings, Figure 8.15 Hoist for iting cars -\International Health and Safety at Work eyebolts and shackles (Figure 8.16). Special care should be akon, when slings are used, to ensure that the load is properly secured and balanced. Litting hooks should be checked for signs of wear and any distortion of the hook. Shackles and eyebolts must be correctly tightened. Slings should always be checked for any damage betore they are used and only competent people should use them. Training and instruction in the use of lifting tackle is essential and should include regular inspections of the tackle, in addition to the mandatory thorough examina- tions. Finally, care should be taken when these items aro being stored between use. A hook designed to Abook witha safely proven displacement cateh ofthe load Figure 8.16 Specially designed safety hooks 8.4.3 The examination of lifting equipment Several countries have statutory requirements for the ‘examination of lifting equipment particularly when the equipment is used to lift people. The ILO recommenda tions are given later in this chapter. Two terms are often sed when defining those requirements and recommen- dations —an inspection and a thorough examination, Lifting equipment includes any equipment used at work to lit or lower loads including any anchoring, fing or supporting attachments. ‘An inspection is used to identify whether the equip- mont can be operated, adjusted and maintained safely so that any defect, damage or wear can be detected before it results in unacceptable risks. It is normally performed by a competent person appointed by the employer (often an employee). A thorough examination is a detailed examination, which may involve a visual check, a disassembly and testing of components and/or an equipment test under operating concitions. Such an examination must normally be carted out by a competent person who is independ ent of the employer. The examination is usually carried out according to a written scheme and a written report is. subsmitted tothe employer. Figure 8.18 Lifting equipment in the forest ‘The UK HSE Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Lifting Equipment (L113) defines a thorough examination as avis tual examination carried out by a competent person care- fully and critically and, where appropriate, supplemented by other means, such as measurement and testing, in ‘order to check whether the equipment is safe to use.[A thorough examination of lifting equipment should be Undertaken at the following times: before the equioment is used for the first time; after it has been assembled at a new location; at least every six months for equipment used for lit: ing persons or a lifting accessory; at least every 12 months for all other iting equip ‘ment including the lifting of loads over people; in accordance with a particular examination scheme drawn up by an independent competent person; each time that exceptional circumstances, which are likely to jeopardise the safety ofthe liting equip ment, have occurred (such as severe weather ‘The person making the thorough examination of iting ‘equipment should: notify the employer forthwith of any defect which, in ‘their opinion, is or could become dangerous; as soon as practicable (normally within 28 days) ‘write an authenticated report to the employer and any person who leased or hired the equipment, ‘The initial report should be kept for as tong as the lifting ‘equipment is used (except for a lifting accessory which reed only be kept for two years}. For all other examina- tions, a copy of the report should be kept until the next thorough examination is made or for two years (which- fever's the longer) f the report shows that a defect exists, that could lead to an existing or imminent risk of seri ‘ous personal injury, a copy of the report should be sent, by the person making the thorough examination, to the appropriate enforcing authority. ‘The equipment should be inspected at suitable inter- vals between thorough examinations. The frequency anc the extent of the inspection ave determined by the level of risk presented by the lifting equipment. A report or record should be made of the inspection which should be kept until the next Inspection, Unloss stated otherwise, lifts and hoists should be inspected every week. It is important to stress that thorough examinations must be accompanied by meticulous in-service inspec tion that will detect any damage every time the equi ment is used. For most workplaces, itis better to store every item of portable lifting equipment in a central store where these inspections can take place and records of the equipment be kept. Users must also be encour- aged to report any defects in equipment that they have used. 8.4.4 ILO recommendations on the use of lifting equipment ‘The ILO gives a series of recommendations on tne solec- tion, installation, examination, testing, maintenance, ‘operation and dismantling of iting equipment in its Code of Practice Safety and Health in Construction. it recommends that employers should have a well-planned safety programme so that all the lifting votre neve co Ll appliances and lifting gear are selected, installed, exam- ined, tested, maintained, operated and cismantled with a view to preventing the occurrence of any accident; 2. in accordance with the requirements laid down in the national laws, regulations and standards, Every lifting appliance, including its constituent ele- ments, attachments, anchorages and supports, should be of good design and construction, sound. material and adequate svength for the purpose for which it is used. Every lifting appliance and every item of lifting gear should be accompanied at the time of purchase with instructions for use and with a test certificate from a com petent person or a guarantee of conformity with national laws and regulations concerning: @ o) the maximum SWL; ‘SWLs at different radi Ifthe lifting appliance has 2 variable radius the conditions of use under which the maximum or variable SWLs can be lifted or lowered. © Every lifting appliance and every item of lifting gear having a single SWL should be clearly marked at a con~ spicuous place with the maximum safe working load in accordance with national jaws and regulations. Every lifting appliance having a variable SWL should be fitted with a load indicator or other effective means to indicate clearly to the driver each maximum safe working load and the conditions under which itis applicable. Allliting appliances should be adequately and securely supported; the weight-bearing characteristics of the ‘ground on which the lifting appliance is to operate should be surveyed in advance of use. Fixed lifting appliances should be installed: () ) by competent persons; 50 that they cannot be displaced by the load, vibra- tion or other influences; 0 that the operator is not exposed to danger trom loads, ropes or drums; 0 that the operator can either see over the zone of operations or communicate with all loading and unloading points by telephone, signals or other adequate means. A clearance of at least @0cm or more should be provided between moving parts or loads of iting appliances and C) a {@)_ fixed objects in the surrounding environment such as walls and posts; or {) electrical conductors. The clearance from electrical conductors should be more for high voltage transmission tines. The strength and ‘stability of lifting appliances should take into account the ‘effect of any wind forces to which they might be exoosed, AXPz International Health and Safety at Work No structural alterations or repairs should be made to any part ofa iting appliance which could affect the safety of the appliance without the permission and supervision of ‘the competent person. Lifting apptianess and items of iting gear, as prescribed by national laws or regulations, should be examined and tested by a competent person {@)_ before being taken into use for the first time; (0) after erection on a site; (6) subsequently at intervals prescribed by national laws and regulations; (@)_after any substantial alteration or repair. The manner in which the examinations and tests are to be carried out by the competent person and the test loads to be applied for different types of liting appliances and liting gear should be in accordance with national laws ‘and regulations. The results of the examinations and tests © lifting appliances and fiting gear should be recorded in prescribed forms and, in conformity with national laws and regulations, made available to the competent author- ity and to employers and workers or their representatives. Controls of liting appliances should be: @ designed and constructed as far as possible in accordance with ergonomic principles; conveniently situated with ample room for operation and an unrestticted view for the operator; provided, where necessary, with a suitable lock- ing device to prevant accidental movernant or displacement; ina position free from danger from the passage of the load; clearly marked to show their purpose and method of operation. 0) © C) ) Lifting appliances should be equipped with devices that would prevent the load from over-running and pre: vent the load from moving if power fails. The operator of every lifting appliance used outdoors except those used for short periods should be provided with: (@) safe cabin with full protection from weather and adverse climatic conditions, and designed and con- structed in accordance with ergonomic principles; a clear and unrestricted view of the area of operation; sale access to and egress from the cabin, including situations where the operator is taken il 0) © 'No iting appliance should be operated by a worker who: (a) is below 18 years of age; () isnat medically fit (©) has not received appropriate training in accordance with national laws and regulations or is not properly qualified. A lifting appliance or item of liting gear should not be loaded beyond its SWL or loads, except for testing purposes as specified by and under the direction of a Competent person. Where necessary to guard against danger, no lifting appliance should be used without the provision of suitable signalling arrangements or devices. No person should be raised, lowered or carried by a iit ing appliance unless itis constructed, installed and used for that purpose in accordance with national laws and regulations, except in an emergency situation: (@) inwhich sorious personal injury or fatality may occur, (b) for which the liting appliance can safely be used, Every part of a load in the course of being hoisted or lowered should be adequately suspended or supported 50 as to prevent danger. Every platform or receptacle used for hoisting bricks, tiles, slates or other loose material should be so enclosed as to prevent the fall of any of the material, Loaded Wheelbarrows placed ditectly on a platform for raising or lowering should be taped or secured so that they cannot move and the platform should be enclosed as necessary ‘0 prevent the fall of the contents. In hoisting a barrow, the wheel should not be used as a means of ffting unless

Você também pode gostar

• It Ends with Us: A Novel

  

  No Everand

  It Ends with Us: A Novel

  Colleen Hoover

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (5746)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  No Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (5794)
• The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People

  

  No Everand

  The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People

  Stephen R. Covey

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (353)
• • Revistas
  • Podcasts
  • Partituras
• The Perfect Marriage: A Completely Gripping Psychological Suspense

  

  No Everand

  The Perfect Marriage: A Completely Gripping Psychological Suspense

  Jeneva Rose

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (1107)
• As 48 leis do poder

  

  No Everand

  As 48 leis do poder

  Robert Greene

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (799)
• The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Personal Workbook

  

  No Everand

  The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Personal Workbook

  Stephen R. Covey

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (2515)
• The Art of War: A New Translation

  

  No Everand

  The Art of War: A New Translation

  Sun Tzu

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (3044)
• How to Win Friends and Influence People: Updated For the Next Generation of Leaders

  

  No Everand

  How to Win Friends and Influence People: Updated For the Next Generation of Leaders

  Dale Carnegie

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (2306)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  No Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (20009)
• Pride and Prejudice: Bestsellers and famous Books

  

  No Everand

  Pride and Prejudice: Bestsellers and famous Books

  Jane Austen

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (19653)
• The Handmaid's Tale

  

  No Everand

  The Handmaid's Tale

  Margaret Atwood

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (13186)
• The Hobbit

  

  No Everand

  The Hobbit

  J. R. R. Tolkien

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (25133)
• Art of War: The Definitive Interpretation of Sun Tzu's Classic Book of Strategy

  

  No Everand

  Art of War: The Definitive Interpretation of Sun Tzu's Classic Book of Strategy

  Stephen F. Kaufman

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (3321)
• Good Omens: A Full Cast Production

  

  No Everand

  Good Omens: A Full Cast Production

  Neil Gaiman

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (10904)
• And Then There Were None

  

  No Everand

  And Then There Were None

  Agatha Christie

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (8931)
• Remarkably Bright Creatures: A Novel

  

  No Everand

  Remarkably Bright Creatures: A Novel

  Shelby Van Pelt

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (5444)
• Freakonomics Rev Ed

  

  No Everand

  Freakonomics Rev Ed

  Steven D. Levitt

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (7848)
• The Hobbit

  

  No Everand

  The Hobbit

  J. R. R. Tolkien

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (24585)
• American Gods [TV Tie-In]: A Novel

  

  No Everand

  American Gods [TV Tie-In]: A Novel

  Neil Gaiman

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (12519)
• Habit 1 Be Proactive: The Habit of Choice

  

  No Everand

  Habit 1 Be Proactive: The Habit of Choice

  Stephen R. Covey

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (2556)
• American Gods: The Tenth Anniversary Edition

  

  No Everand

  American Gods: The Tenth Anniversary Edition

  Neil Gaiman

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (12945)
• The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: The Infographics Edition

  

  No Everand

  The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People: The Infographics Edition

  Stephen R Covey

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (2475)
• How To Win Friends And Influence People

  

  No Everand

  How To Win Friends And Influence People

  Dale Carnegie

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (6511)
• Wuthering Heights (Seasons Edition -- Winter)

  

  No Everand

  Wuthering Heights (Seasons Edition -- Winter)

  Emily Bronte

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (9486)
• Influence, New and Expanded: The Psychology of Persuasion

  

  No Everand

  Influence, New and Expanded: The Psychology of Persuasion

  Robert B. Cialdini

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (724)
• Good Omens

  

  No Everand

  Good Omens

  Neil Gaiman

  Nota: 4.5 de 5 estrelas

  4.5/5 (12010)
• The Iliad: A New Translation by Caroline Alexander

  

  No Everand

  The Iliad: A New Translation by Caroline Alexander

  Homer

  Nota: 4 de 5 estrelas

  4/5 (5700)