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Enhancing the Motor Skills of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders:

A Pool-based Approach

Article  in  Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance · January 2013

DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2013.746154

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 Enhancing the
Motor Skills of Children
with Autism Spectrum
Disorders
A Pool-based Approach
JiHYUN LEE
DAVID L . PORRETTA
The aquatic environment is a unique setting that can
enhance children's motor learning.
F
UNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILLS are the foundation
for more advanced participation in games and sports, as
well as for other forms of physical activity (Clark & Met-
calfe, 2002). Children develop skills gradually from an
early age through various movement experiences in both
structured and unstructured physical activity settings (Goodway &
Branta, 2003). According to Stodden et al. (2008), the development
of competence in fundamental motor skills contributes to successful
participation in various types of activities and increases the extent
to which individuals will be physically active later in life. Funda-
mental motor skills that serve as the foundation for more diverse
motor repertoires are not developed naturally. Skills must be explic-
itly taught in different learning environments where sufficient prac-
tice opportunities are provided (Clark, 2007; Goodway & Branta).
Children who have difficulty with fundamental motor skill acqui-
sition and performance are more likely to have a disadvantage in
terms of physical activity participation, and they often exhibit a less
active lifestyle (Barnett, Van Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, &C Beard,
2008). Children with autism spectrum disorders are certainly not
an exception to this decrease in physical activity (Reid, 2005).
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) cover a wide range of behav-
iors related to social interaction, communication, and imagination.
They include categories such as autism, Asperger's syndrome, per-
vasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, Rett's syn-
drome, and childhood disintegrative disorder (American Psychiat-
ric Association, 2000). Children with ASDs can exhibit significant
fundamental motor skill delays (Berkeley, Zittel, Pitney, & Nichols,
2001), as well as poor gait and posture and a lack of coordination
and rhythm (Provost, Lopez, & Heimerl, 2007). These difficulties,
along with a lack of social skills, can place children with ASDs at
risk for low levels of physical activity and insufficient opportuni-
ties to participate in recreation and leisure programs (Pan & Frey,
2006; Rosser & Frey, 2005).
Generally, children with ASDs enjoy the aquatic environment
(Fragala-Pinkham, Haley, & O'Neil, 2011; Rogers, Hemmeter, &
Wolery, 2011), and a number of investigators have used the aquatic
environment to enhance their learning and performance. The re-
sults of those studies show improvements in water-orientation skills
(Pan, 2010), basic swimming skills (Rogers et al.; Yilmaz, Konuk-
man, Birkan, & Yanardag, 2010), aquatic play skills (Yilmaz, Bir-
kan, Konukman, & Erkan, 2005), and health- and motor-related
fitness (Yilmaz, Yanardag, Birkan, & Bumin, 2004), as well as de-
creased stereotypical behaviors and increased social interactions
(Yilmaz et al, 2004; Pan, 2010). In addition to evoking a positive
response from children with ASDs (Vonder Hulls, Walker, & Pow-
ell, 2006), aquatic activities can foster the attainment of movement
skills (Prupas, Harvey, ÔC Benjamin, 2006) and encourage move-
ment competence (Attwood, 1998). Thus, the literature suggests
that the unique nature of the aquatic environment can improve a
number of behaviors and skills in children with ASDs.
Dynamic Systems Theory
Dynamic systems theory (Thelen & Smith, 1994) involves changes
in movement patterns and development that occur as a result of
a self-organizational process, which is brought about by a com-
plex interaction between the environment, task, and learner. The
Jihyun Lee (lee.3582@osu.edu) is a graduate associate, and David L. Por-
retta (porretta.l@osu.edu) is a professor, in the School of Physical Activity
and Educational Services at Ohio State University, in Columbus, OH 43220.
JOPERD 41
acquisition of movement patterns is not a direct result of develop-
mental change. Rather, motor skills are acquired over time because
of unlimited, dynamic interactions among various factors within
the human movement system (Thelen & Ulrich, 1991). The process
and product of acquiring motor skills depend on the environment
in which learning takes place, the type of task, and how the tasks
interact with the physical (e.g., height, limb length), physiological
(e.g., strength), and cognitive features of the individual (Thelen 8«:
Ulrich). Aquatic environmental factors include water temperature
and depth, as well as various unique properties such as buoyancy.
Movements (tasks) performed in water can influence motor skill
development because of their interaction with environmental and
individual factors. Practitioners can influence the acquisition of
movement patterns of learners by modifying movement goals, task
complexities, and equipment. According to Newell (1986), children
have internal and external factors called constraints that can sup-
press or enhance movements. The use of a pool environment can
influence environmental and task factors so that individual inhibit-
ing factors that suppress movement can be reduced for children
with ASDs. For example, stereotypical behaviors exhibited by chil-
dren with ASDs can inhibit the learning of motor skills. However,
stereotypical behaviors can be reduced during pool-based activities
(Yilmaz et al., 2004). From a dynamic systems perspective, the pool
environment, because of its unique properties, may help to enhance
the motor skill development of children with ASDs.
Table 1. Examples of Activities for Locomotor Skill Development
Skili Description
Walking Forward: heel-toe walking (the heel hits
(forward, backward, the ground first and then the toes) and toe-
and side) heel walking (the toes hit the ground first
and then the heel)
Backward: the toes of one foot lead the
walking first
Side: move sideways keeping the trunk
straight by stepping out to the side and
bringing the feet together
Walking Lunges Walk with a long stride. As the weight is
transferred forward, flex leading leg landing
on a bent knee. At the same time, arms go
out to the sides in line with the legs.
Knee-high Walking Walk with the knees high.
and Kick Walking Walk with the knees high and kick the leg
fonward.
Hopping Hop on one foot.
Leaping Reach arms to the front, extend one
leg, push the whole body off the floor
while sending another leg and both arms
backward. Land with the forward leg. Back
leg follows to meet forward leg.
Frog Jump In shallow water, jump with knees going out
to the sides. Place hands between knees like
a frog.
42 VOLUME 84 NUMBER 1 JANUARY 2013
The Pool Environment
Water has unique properties that can only be taken advantage of
in a pool environment. These properties are buoyancy, turbulence,
and resistance. As Becker (2004) pointed out, buoyancy and cush-
ioning protect swimmers from injuries due to falling by supporting
upward movements and reducing joint loadings. Therefore, up-
ward movements, such as jumping or bobbing, are more facilitated
in water. Water turbulence is the random motion of water created
by a person's movements, and it poses a challenge to balance and
coordination not normally encountered on land. Water resistance is
created by movements opposed to the water buoyancy (downward
movement), by water's natural viscosity, and by water turbulence.
Water resistance causes a decrease in movement speed and requires
greater force than is required on land to perform the same move-
ment. Buoyancy, turbulence, and resistance also provide additional
health- and motor skill-related fitness benefits, including improved
cardiorespiratory endurance, balance, coordination,flexibility,and
muscle strength (Lepore, Gayle, &C Stevens, 2007). These benefit
are important because fitness is correlated with motor skill compe-
tence (Hands, Larkin, Parker, Straker, & Perry, 2009), andfitnessand
motor skill competence are predictors of physical activity (Castelli &
Valley, 2007). Because of water's unique properties, individuals have
the opportunity to perform variations of fundamental motor skills
that fit their skill levels and help them become independent movers.
Task Variation
Movement speed (slow to fast), stride (narrow to wide),
direction (zigzag), and depth of water (shallow to deep)
Use of arms to assist with balance and to gain
propulsion
Holding a kickboard in front of the chest or higher with
an object on it and trying not to drop the object
Walking in flippers or aquatic shoes
Use of a noodle or other flotation devices
• Stride (narrow to wide)
• Depth of water (shallow to deep)
• Walking in flippers or aquatic shoes
• Use of a noodle or other flotation devices
Kicking the leg using the top or the sole of the foot
Movement direction (fonward or backward) and depth of
water (shallow to deep)
Walking in flippers or aquatic shoes
Use of a noodle or other flotation devices
Movement speed (slow to fast), direction (forward,
backward, or zigzag), height (low to high), and depth of
water (shallow to deep)
• Multiple single-leg leaping or alternate-leg leaping
• Leaping over an object
• Leaping holding hands with a person on each side
• Use of a noodle or other flotation devices
• Jumping over an object
• Jump height (low to high) and distance (close to far)
 Similar to land-based activities for motor skill development, pool-
based activities can include locomotor (e.g., walk, hop, jump) and
object-control skills (e.g., kick, throw, catch, strike). Even without an
in-depth aquatic knowledge or highly specialized equipment, practi-
tioners who understand the unique properties of water can adjust ac-
tivities to make them easier or more difficult than on land. To assist
practitioners, this article provides (1) motor skill activities; (2) task,
environment, and learner variations; and (3) a sample lesson plan.
Motor Skill Activities
Table 1 describes a variety of pool-based locomotor skill activi-
ties. What distinguishes these activities from land-based activities is
that when performed in water, movements offer learners additional
kinesthetic learning opportunities. For example, walking in water
is slower because of resistance, and jumping in water is different
from jumping on land because water buoyancy supports upward
body movements. Using the water properties, students can practice
upward locomotor skills such as hopping and running at a slower,
easier tempo than on land. On the other hand, practitioners can
make these locomotor movements more difficult by using water re-
sistance and water turbulence.
Object-control skills such as kicking and catching are presented
in table 2. Controlling objects in water requires greater balance
than on land because of water turbulence; therefore, beginners may
initially have difficulty controlling both their body and the object
at the same time. Consequently, in the early stages, participants can
practice object-control skills by performing the movement without
an object, or with physical assistance from the teacher. Later they
can use stationary objects and then progress to moving objects.
Practitioners can introduce slow-moving objects by placing them
on the surface of the water. For example, a child who strikes a ball
from a batting tee on land could later strike a moving ball floating
on the surface of the water.
Task, Environment,
and Learner Variations
To enhance learning and performance, practitioners can vary the
tasks and the pool environment according to the skill level of learn-
ers. Table 3 describes how water can provide a variety of challenges
for learners. As shown in table 3, locomotor and object-control ac-
tivities can be modified, expanded, and combined through environ-
mental and task variations such as water depth, speed of movement,
and movement direction. Instructors who use pool-based motor
skill activities can manipulate environmental and task components
relative to the learner. For example, shallow water activities could
incorporate flotation devices, or physical assistance could be pro-
vided for beginners. Children of any ability level can participate in
pool-based development activities; however, beginners may have a
fear of water or may have difficulty moving their body or limbs un-
til they attain basic water-orientation skills (e.g., bubbling, supine/
prone floating). Instructors can vary the speed of movement and
movement direction in relation to water resistance and turbulence.
Practitioners can provide beginners easier activities by reducing
the strength and balance components and allowing slower move-
ments and fewer directional changes. In addition, lever length and
range of motion can be increased by extending the length of body
parts or equipment. Added length and range of motion can also
increase balance, strength, andflexibility.Flotation devices such as
noodles, foam belts and barbells, as well as physical assistance from
instructors can enhance safety and learning. However, assistive de-

Table 2. Examples of Pool-based Activities for Object-Control Skill Development

Skiil Description Task Variation

Throwing, Tossing
Can be performed in knee-deep and chest-deep
water
Throwing; aiming at the target, bring the throwing
arm back with the ball toward the ear. Step
forward with the opposite foot, throw the ball, and
follow through.
Underhand tossing: stand sideways to the target.
Step toward the target and toss an object across
the body, snapping the wrist on release.
Overhand throw with one hand or two hands
Throwing noodles/rings/towels overhand
Targets/buckets on edge of pool or on surface of
the water
Throwing/tossing balls or small toys into buckets
Distance (close to far), size of balls (big to small),
weight of balls (light to heavy), texture of balls,
and color of balls

Catching Reach arms forward as a ball arrives. Catch the ball Catching a ball in front of the chest or over the
with two hands. head
Depth of water (shallow to deep), distance (close
to far), size of balls (big to small), texture of balls,
and color of balls

Striking Grab a plastic bat/paddle with two hands. • Striking an object on a T or on the surface of the
The dominant hand grips the bat above the water
nondominant hand. Nondominant side of body • Using a noodle as a bat
faces the imaginary tosser. Keep hands behind
the ear.
Swing the bat rotating the hip and spine. Weight
is transferred by stepping with front foot.

Kicking • Step with foot opposite to kicking foot. • Kicking balls in and on the water
• Contact ball with inside of foot and follow through. • Perform in knee-deep and chest-deep water
• Kicking motion only without a ball

JOPERD 43

A child with an ASD performs forward walking with a noodle in
shoulder-deep water.
vices and physical assistance should be gradually faded out so that
learners can attain greater independence.
Lesson Plan
This sample lesson plan is provided to assist practitioners with pre-
paring a pool-based lesson using the activities in tables 1 and 2. The
lesson is appropriate for children who have basic water-orientation
skills (e.g., entry, exit, treading water) and do not have a fear of
deep water. The lesson lasts 35 minutes, comprising three segments:
locomotor activities (15 min.), break-time activities (5 min.), and
object-control activities (15 min.).
Locomotor Activities. These five activities can be done in a
knee-, waist-, or chest-deep pool. In "Green Light, Yellow Light,
Red Light," the learner runs with rhythmical arm movements in
response to a green object (e.g., a polyspot) held up by the teacher;
walks slowly with a long stride and big arm movements in response
to a yellow object; and stops with legs together and arms at the
sides, or legs wide apart and arms out to the sides, in response to
a red object. This game can also be used for backward walking
and running.
In "Jump Like a Frog," the learner extends arms forward and
jumps up and forward. The teacher can motivate the learner by dis-
playing a toy butterfiy 5 feet in front of the child and saying, "Can
the frog catch the butterfly?"
The teacher can provide physical guidance if needed in "Walk
Like a Crab," which teaches walking with a sliding motion to the
right and left. Asking the learner to change arm length (chicken
wings or fully extended) and the plane of the palms (facing down
or forward) will give the learner the opportunity to experience dif-
ferent sensations.
"Jump Like a Starfish" asks the learner to do jumping jacks
while moving forward or backward.
"Riding a Water Bicycle" consists of moving the legs, fast or
slowly, as if riding a bicycle while holding onto a flotation device.
It can be practiced in shallow water and then done in deeper water.
Break-Time Activities. In shallow or above-head-deep water (the
latter for swimmers only), the learner plays "Pick Up Shellfish" and
44 VOLUME 84 NUMBER 1 JANUARY 2013
"Push Down Jellyfish." In the first game, the learner picks up small
objects from the bottom of the pool, starting in knee-deep water
and moving gradually to deeper water. In the second game, the
learner, while lying on a floating mat or kickboard, pushes down
floating objects with his or her hands, once again starting in knee-
deep water and moving gradually to deeper water.
Object-Control Activities. These activities occur in shallow
water. For the first activity, the teacher places one to three hula
hoops on the water surface. The learner then tries to throw water-
proof balls of beanbags into the hoops. The distance to the hoops
should be gradually increased, and the size of the hoops gradually
decreased (if possible). The learner should practice both underhand
and overhand throwing skills, and various sizes of balls/beanbags
should be used.
In the second activity the learner practices throwing and catch-
ing a beach ball. The distance from the instructor should be gradu-
ally increased.
For the final activity, the learner uses a foam paddle to strike
balls of various sizes (starting with a big one) floating on the sur-
face. Initially the instructor can hold the ball on the surface, or a
batting tee can be used. Later, creating more water turbulence can
increase the difficulty of the task.
Summary
According to dynamic systems theory, motor skills emerge because
of a complex interaction among the environment, the task, and the
learner. A learner's varied experiences relative to the task and en-
vironment can lead to motor skill acquisition. As a result, the pool
environment can be an appropriate venue for developing the motor
skills and movement patterns of children with ASDs. However, to
ensure safety, practitioners should be adequately trained, sessions
should occur only in the presence of a certified lifeguard, and learn-
ers participating in deep-water activities should know how to swim.
While a pool environment can be fun and motivating for children
with ASDs, it is important to note that not all will respond posi-
tively nor benefit equally. Therefore, a pool-based approach should
be introduced on an individualized basis. For additional resources,
readers can visit the National Center on Physical Activity and Dis-
ability web site (www.ncpad.org) and the Aquatic Exercise Associa-
tion web site (www.aeawave.com).
A child with an ASD engages in throwing a ball with a partner In
chest-deep water.
 Table 3. Task, Environment, and Learner Variations
Factors Beginner
Environment Depth of Water Shallow
Instructional Formation One on one
Instructional Time Short (15-30 min)
Support (flotation devices/ Always
manual assistance)
Task Movement Speed Slow
Lever Length Short
(limbs/equipment)
Range of Motion Limited
Change Movement Direction Less
State of Objects in Object- Static
Control Skills
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JOPERD 45
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