Introduction to Computers and AutoCAD Deepak Gupta

MAIT, Rohini

WWW (World Wide Web)

A system of Internet servers that support specially formatted documents. The documents
are formatted in a markup language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that
supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files. This means
you can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots. Not all
Internet servers are part of the World Wide Web.
There are several applications called Web browsers that make it easy to access the World
Wide Web; Two of the most popular being Netscape Navigator and Microsoft's Internet
Explorer.
World Wide Web is not synonymous with the Internet.

Search Engines
Search Engines are the key to finding specific information on the vast expanse of the
World Wide Web. Without sophisticated search engines, it would be virtually impossible
to locate anything on the Web without knowing a specific URL. But do you know how
search engines work? And do you know what makes some search engines more effective
than others?
When people use the term search engine in relation to the Web, they are usually referring
to the actual search forms that searches through databases of HTML documents, initially
gathered by a robot.
There are basically three types of search engines: Those that are powered by robots
(called crawlers; ants or spiders) and those that are powered by human submissions; and
those that are a hybrid of the two.
Crawler-based search engines are those that use automated software agents (called
crawlers) that visit a Web site, read the information on the actual site, read the site's meta
tags and also follow the links that the site connects to performing indexing on all linked
Web sites as well. The crawler returns all that information back to a central depository,
where the data is indexed. The crawler will periodically return to the sites to check for
any information that has changed. The frequency with which this happens is determined
by the administrators of the search engine.
Human-powered search engines rely on humans to submit information that is
subsequently indexed and catalogued. Only information that is submitted is put into the
index.

What is Virus?
A computer virus attaches itself to a program or file so it can spread from one computer
to another, leaving infections as it travels. Much like human viruses, computer viruses
can range in severity: Some viruses cause only mildly annoying effects while others can
damage your hardware, software or files. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable
file, which means the virus may exist on your computer but it cannot infect your
computer unless you run or open the malicious program. It is important to note that a
virus cannot be spread without a human action, (such as running an infected program) to
keep it going. People continue the spread of a computer virus, mostly unknowingly, by
sharing infecting files or sending e-mails with viruses as attachments in the e-mail.

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Introduction to Computers and AutoCAD Deepak Gupta
MAIT, Rohini

Difference between WWW and Internet

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web interchangeably, but in fact the
two terms are not synonymous. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related
things.
The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects
millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can
communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet.
Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known as
protocols.
The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the
medium of the Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the
Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol, only one of the languages spoken over the
Internet, to transmit data. Web services, which use HTTP to allow applications to
communicate in order to exchange business logic, use the the Web to share information.
The Web also utilizes browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Netscape, to access Web
documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents
also contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
The Web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the Internet.
The Internet, not the Web, is also used for e-mail, which relies on SMTP, Usenet news
groups, instant messaging and FTP. So the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a
large portion, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.

How Web Server Works?

Have you ever wondered just exactly how this Web page you are reading found its way
into your browser and onto your computer screen? The process largely depends on Web
servers
Typically, users visit a Web site by either clicking on a hyperlink that brings them to that
site or keying the site's URL directly into the address bar of a browser. But how does the
same site appear on anyone's computer anywhere in the world and often on many
computers at the same time?
Let's use BPIT as an example. You decide to visit BPIT by typing its URL --
http://www.bpitindia.com -- into your Web browser. Through an Internet connection,
your browser initiates a connection to the Web server that is storing the BPIT files by
first converting the domain name into an IP address (through a domain name service) and
then locating the server that is storing the information for that IP address (also see
Understanding IP Addressing).
The Web server stores all of the files necessary to display BPIT's pages on your computer
-- typically all the individual pages that comprise the entirety of a Web site, any
images/graphic files and any scripts that make dynamic elements of the site function.
Once contact has been made, the browser requests the data from the Web server, and
using HTTP, the server delivers the data back to your browser. The browser in turn
converts, or formats, the computer languages that the files are made up of into what you
see displayed in your browser. In the same way the server can send the files to many

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client computers at the same time, allowing multiple clients to view the same page
simultaneously.

Difference between HUB, SWITCH & ROUTERS

Hub
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
Switch
In networks, a device that filters and forwards packets between LAN segments. Switches
operate at the data link layer (layer 2) and sometimes the network layer (layer 3) of the
OSI Reference Model and therefore support any packet protocol. LANs that use switches
to join segments are called switched LANs or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched
Ethernet LANs.
Router
A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP.s network. Routers are
located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect. Routers use headers
and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets, and they use
protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route
between any two hosts.
E-Mails
Short for electronic mail, the transmission of messages over communications networks.
The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk.
Most mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an e-mail system. Some
electronic-mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but others
have gateways to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail
anywhere in the world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive use of e-
mail because it is fast, flexible, and reliable.
Most e-mail systems include a rudimentary text editor for composing messages, but many
allow you to edit your messages using any editor you want. You then send the message to
the recipient by specifying the recipient's address. You can also send the same message to
several users at once. This is called broadcasting.
Sent messages are stored in electronic mailboxes until the recipient fetches them. To see
if you have any mail, you may have to check your electronic mailbox periodically,
although many systems alert you when mail is received. After reading your mail, you can
store it in a text file, forward it to other users, or delete it. Copies of memos can be
printed out on a printer if you want a paper copy.
Gopher
A system that pre-dates the World Wide Web for organizing and displaying files on
Internet servers. A Gopher server presents its contents as a hierarchically structured list of
files. With the ascendance of the Web, many gopher databases were converted to Web
sites which can be more easily accessed via Web search engines.

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Introduction to Computers and AutoCAD Deepak Gupta
MAIT, Rohini

Gopher was developed at the University of Minnesota and named after the school's
mascot. Two systems, Veronica and Jughead, let you search global indices of resources
stored in Gopher systems.

Audio & Video Conferencing

Video Conferencing
Conducting a conference between two or more participants at different sites by using
computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example, a point-to-point (two-
person) video conferencing system works much like a video telephone. Each participant
has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her computer. As the
two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the network and
delivered to the other's speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the video
camera appear in a window on the other participant's monitor.
Multipoint videoconferencing allows three or more participants to sit in a virtual
conference room and communicate as if they were sitting right next to each other. Until
the mid 90s, the hardware costs made videoconferencing prohibitively expensive for most
organizations, but that situation is changing rapidly. Many analysts believe that
videoconferencing will be one of the fastest-growing segments of the computer industry
in the latter half of the decade
Audio Conferencing
A conference call is a telephone call in which the calling party wishes to have more than
one called party listen in to the audio portion of the call. The conference calls may be
designed to allow the called party to participate during the call, or the call may be set up
so that the called party merely listens into the call and cannot speak. It is often referred to
as an ATC (Audio Tele-Conference).
Conference calls can be designed so that the calling party calls the other participants and
adds them to the call. In most cases, the participants are able call into the conference call
themselves. They do so either by dialing into a "conference bridge" (a specialized type of
equipment that links telephone lines), or by using a special telephone number set up for
that purpose.
Most companies use a specialized service provider for conference calls. These service
providers maintain the conference bridge, and provide the phone numbers used to access
the meeting or conference call.
Three-way calling is available (usually at an extra charge) for most customers on their
home or office phone line. To three way call you call the first person you wish to talk to.
Then you must press the flash button and dial the other person's phone number. While it
is ringing press flash again. This will put your three people together. This option allows
callers to add a second outgoing call to an already connected call.

Frames in HTML
HTML frames allow authors to present documents in multiple views, which may be
independent windows or subwindows. Multiple views offer designers a way to keep
certain information visible, while other views are scrolled or replaced. For example,
within the same window, one frame might display a static banner, a second a navigation

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menu, and a third the main document that can be scrolled through or replaced by
navigating in the second frame.

Here is a simple frame document:

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>A simple frameset document</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FRAMESET cols="20%, 80%">
<FRAMESET rows="100, 200">
<FRAME src="contents_of_frame1.html">
<FRAME src="contents_of_frame2.gif">
</FRAMESET>
<FRAME src="contents_of_frame3.html">

</FRAMESET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
that might create a frame layout something like this:
---------------------------------------
| | |
| | |
| Frame 1 | |
| | |
| | |
|---------| |
| | Frame 3 |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Frame 2 | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
---------------------------------------

Difference Between HTML & DHTML

DHTML: Dynamic HTML. An extension of HTML that enables, among other things, the
inclusion of small animations and dynamic menus in Web pages. DHTML code makes
use of style sheets and JavaScript.
Dynamic HTML is a collective term for a combination of new Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) tags and options, that will let you create Web pages more animated

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and more responsive to user interaction than previous versions of HTML. Much of
dynamic HTML is specified in HTML 4.0. Simple examples of dynamic HTML pages
would include (1) having the color of a text heading change when a user passes a mouse
over it or (2) allowing a user to "drag and drop" an image to another place on a Web
page. Dynamic HTML can allow Web documents to look and act like desktop
applications or multimedia productions.

Scripting Language
Scripting languages, also called script languages, are programming languages that control
applications. Scripts are executed directly from their source code, which are generally
text files containing language specific markup.[1][2] Thus, "scripts" are often treated as
distinct from "programs", which execute independently from any other application.
The name "script" is derived from the written script of the performing arts, in which
dialogue is set down to be spoken by human actors. Early script languages were often
called batch languages or job control languages. Such early scripting languages were
created to shorten the traditional edit-compile-link-run process.
Computer Languages are created for varying purposes and tasks — different kinds and
styles of programming. One common programming task is known as scripting, or
connecting pre-existing components to accomplish a new related task. Those languages
which are suited to scripting are typically called scripting languages. Many languages
for this purpose have common properties: they favor rapid development over efficiency
of execution; they are normally implemented with interpreters rather than compilers; and
they are strong at communicating with program components written in other languages.

HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) Developed in 1997

The authoring language used to create documents on the World Wide Web. HTML
defines the structure and layout of a Web document by using a variety of tags and
attributes.

Basic Commands used in HTML

Begins the HTML code. All Web
<HTML>
pages must have this command.
Separates the text about the
<HEAD>Introductory info</HEAD> document from the main text. Title
command usually goes here.
Displays the Title in the title bar
<TITLE>Web Page Title</TITLE>
area of most browsers.
Begins the main text of the
document. All Web pages must use
<BODY>
the body command to alert
browsers of the main text.
<B>Boldface text</B> Bold

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<I>Italicized text</I> Italics

<CENTER>Centered text</CENTER>
<H1>Text in Heading 1 format</H1>
<H2>Text in Heading 2 format</H2>
<H3>Text in Heading 3 format</H3>
<H4>Text in Heading 4 format</H4>
<H5>Text in Heading 5 format</H5>
<H6>Text in Heading 6 format</H6>
<BR>
<P>
<HR>
<A HREF="URL">Link URL or title of link</A>
<A HREF="MAILTO:name@domain.com">Email
address or name</A>
<FONT>Font style</FONT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Center
Heading 1
Heading 2
Heading 3
Heading 4
Heading 5
Heading 6
New Line. Creates single space
between lines.
New paragraph. Creates double
space between lines, paragraphs.
Produces a horizontal rule across
document.
Establishes a link to another
Webpage or Website. You must
know the URL of the link.
Establishes a link to your email
address.
Allows you to choose the style,
size, and color of the font.
Ends the main text. You must
include this code at the end of all
files.
Ends the HTML code. You must
include this code at the end of all
files.

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Introduction to Computers and AutoCAD Deepak Gupta
MAIT, Rohini

Introduction to Computer Network Protocols

The word protocol is derived from the Greek word “protocollon” which means a leaf of
paper glued to manuscript volume. In computer protocols means a set of rules, a
communication language or set of standards between two or more computing devices.
Protocols exist at the several levels of the OSI (open system interconnectivity) layers
model. In the telecommunication system, there are one more protocols at each layer of
the telephone exchange. On the internet, there is a suite of the protocols known as TCP/IP
protocols that are consisting of transmission control protocol, internet protocol, file
transfer protocol, dynamic host configuration protocol, Border gateway protocol and a
number of other protocols.

In the telecommunication, a protocol is set of rules for data representation, authentication,

and error detection. The communication protocols in the computer networking are
intended for the secure, fast and error free data delivery between two communication
devices. Communication protocols follow certain rules for the transmission of the data.

Protocols Properties

Different protocols perform different functions so it is difficult to generalize the

properties of the protocols. There are some basic properties of most of the protocols.
• Detection of the physical (wired or wireless connection)
• Handshaking
• How to format a message.
• How to send and receive a message.
• Negotiation of the various connections
• Correction of the corrupted or improperly formatted messages.
• Termination of the session.

IP (Internet Protocol)

An Internet protocol (IP) is a unique address or identifier of each computer or

communication devices on the network and internet. Any participating computer
networking device such as routers, computers, printers, internet fax machines and
switches may have their own unique IP address. Personal information about someone can
be found by the IP address. Every domain on the internet must have a unique or shared IP
address.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Developed in 1977

Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense to connect and internetwork dissimilar

systems. TCP provides the data-transport functions, while IP provides the routing

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mechanism. TCP/IP is a routable protocol. Every client and server in a TCP/IP network
requires an IP address, which can be assigned either permanently or dynamically
(meaning that it draws from a pool of addresses each time the machine starts up).

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP reference Models

Layered Diagram of TCP/IP shows the movement of Data

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List of application Level Protocols of TCP / IP protocol suite are:-

1) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Developed in 1973

FTP or file transfer protocol is used to transfer (upload/download) data from one
computer to another over the internet or through or computer network. FTP is a most
commonly communication protocol for transferring the files over the internet. Typically,
there are two computers are involved in the transferring the files a server and a client.
The client computer that is running FTP client software such as Cuteftp and AceFTP etc
initiates a connection with the remote computer (server). After successfully connected
with the server, the client computer can perform a number of the operations like
downloading the files, uploading, renaming and deleting the files, creating the new
folders etc. Virtually operating system supports FTP protocols.

2) Telnet Protocol Developed in 1969

This protocol specifies how telnet programs should send data back and forth, allowing for
interactive text sessions. Telnet programs are a type of terminal emulation program, just
like modem-based communications programs. The difference is that they allow you to
access other computers through the Internet, rather than by dialing the other computers
directly.

3) HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Developed in 1990

Hypertext transfer protocol is a method of transmitting the information on the web. HTTP
basically publishes and retrieves the HTTP pages on the World Wide Web. HTTP is a
language that is used to communicate between the browser and web server. The
information that is transferred using HTTP can be plain text, audio, video, images, and
hypertext. HTTP is a request/response protocol between the client and server. Many
proxies, tunnels, and gateways can be existing between the web browser (client) and
server (web server). An HTTP client initializes a request by establishing a TCP
connection to a particular port on the remote host (typically 80 or 8080). An HTTP server
listens to that port and receives a request message from the client. Upon receiving the
request, server sends back 200 OK messages, its own message, an error message or other
message.

4) POP3 (post office protocol) Developed in 1996

In computing, e-mail clients such as (MS outlook, outlook express and thunderbird) use
Post office Protocol to retreive emails from the remote server over the TCP/IP
connection. Nearly all the users of the Internet service providers use POP 3 in the email
clients to retrieve the emails from the email servers. Most email applications use POP
protocol.

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Introduction to Computers and AutoCAD Deepak Gupta
MAIT, Rohini

5) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Developed in 1982

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a protocol that is used to send the email messages
between the servers. Most email systems and email clients use the SMTP protocol to send
messages to one server to another. In configuring an email application, you need to
configure POP, SMTP and IMAP protocols in your email software. SMTP is a simple,
text based protocol and one or more recipient of the message is specified and then the
message is transferred. SMTP connection is easily tested by the Telnet utility. SMTP uses
the by default TCP port number 25

6) SNTP (Simple Network Transfer Protocol)

The simple network management protocol (SNMP) forms the TCP/IP suite. SNMP is
used to manage the network attached devices of the complex network.

Fork Command in UNIX

The fork() and fork1() functions create a new process. The new process (child process)
is an exact copy of the calling process (parent process). The child process inherits the
following attributes from the parent process:
• Real user ID, real group ID, effective user ID, effective group ID
• Environment
• Open file descriptors
• Close-on-exec flags (see exec(2))
• Signal handling settings (that is, SIG_DFL, SIG_IGN, SIG_HOLD, function
address)
• Supplementary group IDs

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Different protocols and their types

Protocols
Computers can't just pass data to each other any old way. Because so many different types of computers
and operating systems connect via modems or other connections, they have to follow communications
rules called protocols. The Internet is a very heterogenous collection of networked computers and is full
of different protocols.

TELNET Telnet Protocol

(TCP/IP) This protocol specifies how telnet programs should send data back and forth, allowing for
1969 interactive text sessions. Telnet programs are a type of terminal emulation program, just
like modem-based communications programs. The difference is that they allow you to
access other computers through the Internet, rather than by dialing the other computers
directly.
FTP File Transfer Protocol
(TCP/IP) FTP, a client-server protocol which allows a user on one computer to transfer files to and
1973 from another computer over a TCP/IP network. Also the client program the user executes
to transfer files. One of the most useful services of the Internet is FTP.
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
1977 Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense to connect and internetwork dissimilar
systems. TCP provides the data-transport functions, while IP provides the routing
mechanism. TCP/IP is a routable protocol. Every client and server in a TCP/IP network
requires an IP address, which can be assigned either permanently or dynamically (meaning
that it draws from a pool of addresses each time the machine starts up).
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
1982 A process which transfers mail in cooperation with a receiver-SMTP process. A local
language may be used in the user interface command/reply dialogue. The sender-SMTP
initiates the transport service connection. It initiates SMTP commands, receives replies,
and governs the transfer of mail.
SGML Standard Generalized Markup Language
1986 A system for organizing and tagging elements of a document. SGML was developed and
standardized by the International Organization for Standards (ISO) in 1986. SGML itself
does not specify any particular formatting; rather, it specifies the rules for tagging
elements. These tags can then be interpreted to format elements in different ways.
SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol
l988 SLIP is a standard for connecting to the Internet with a modem over a phone line. It has
serious trouble with noisy dial-up lines and other error-prone connections, so look to
higher-level protocols like PPP for error correction.
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol
(TCP/IP) HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers
1990 and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a
URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it
to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
Post Office Protocol, Ver 3
Permits workstations to dynamically access a maildrop on a server host (TCP/IP). The

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most recent version of a standard client-server protocol for receiving e-mail. The default
POP3 port on which the POP3 server listens for these requests is 110. Client side mail readers can
(TCP/IP) issue a predefined set of commands to the mail server, to access the mail in their own
1996 desired fashion.
HTML HyperText Markup Language
(TCP/IP) The authoring language used to create documents on the World Wide Web. HTML defines
1997 the structure and layout of a Web document by using a variety of tags and attributes.

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