SAFETY

I. Safety rules and procedures.

Basic Stuff.
1. Common sense goes a long way. Be prepared, follow all instructions TO THE LETTER, and never do anything
that Fendell/the lab procedure didn’t say you should do. Also, don’t smoke. I’m not sure why he felt it necessary
to put this in the rules, but you shouldn’t anyway.
2. Tell Fendell if you have any medical issues with the lab. (Medical issues like asthma, not “OMIGOOOD THIS IS
BAD FOR MY HEALTH BECAUSE MY DAD WILL KILL ME IF I FAIL THIS AND MY GRADE DROPS
TO A 89.44444444—”)
3. Never work on a lab without supervision.
4. Never eat or drink during a lab.
5. Be clean and neat. Leave everything at your desk except for your prelab/other stuff needed.
6. Wear the right clothing: no jackets/ties/jewelry/other loose clothing/accessories.
7. Tie back your hair. Unless you want Fendell to do if for you.
8. Never wear open shoes (sandals, flip-flops, etc.) unless you want acid melting away your feet.
9. If Fendell says to wear goggles, WEAR GOGGLES. Even if they give you those funny-looking mark things.
Actually, ESPECIALLY if they give you those funny-looking mark things. He likes seeing you suffer.
10. Contact lenses can be dangerous. Either wear glasses or let Mr. Fendell…know…? (Even though he has never,
ever given a damn about this before, it’s still in the rules?)
11. No fooling around unless you want to get burned.
12. Always do everything exactly the way the instructions tell you. That means using the right equipment, etc.
13. Keep all combustible materials away from stuff that could combust them. (read: FIRE.)
14. Never put your face directly next to the mouth of a container with chemicals. Never smell anything directly.
Make it WAFT to your nose with your hands. (read: inhalant drugs are bad, people. Seriously.)
15. Dispose of wastes the way Fendell tells you to. Pouring HCl down the sink is not a good idea.
16. Clean/wipe/dry everything at the end of the lab. Wash your hands!
17. Know where important stuffs like first aid kits, fire extinguishers, fire showers, and fire blankets are. (Actually, I
don’t…)
18. If you spill anything, break anything (this includes bones), or hurt yourself/someone else, tell Fendell. NOW.

In handling chemicals
19. READ. THE. FREAKING. LABELS.
20. Take only as much as you need, or as much as Fendell tells you you need. “But I thought I needed 20 L of
hydrochloric acid…” does not cut it.
21. If you don’t use all of a chemical, throw it away. Don’t pour it back, that’ll contaminate the rest of the
chemicals.
22. When you’re pouring chemicals, hold the containers away from you.
23. Do not touch chemicals with your bare hands. If you do, wash your hands.
24. Wear latex gloves when dealing with acids and bases.
25. When mixing an acid and water, add the acid to the water so the acid doesn’t splash up.

In handling glassware
26. Carry glass tubing upright so you don’t stab anyone.
27. “Always wear heavy gloves when inserting a piece of glassware, such as tubing or a thermometer, into a stopper.
Before inserting glass into a stopper, lubricate the glass with water or glycerin. Use a twisting motion when
inserting/removing glassware from a stopper; never apply force. If it becomes stuck, take it to your teacher.”
Translation: “Don’t break the glass, stupid.”
28. Don’t put hot glassware directly on the table. CoughIT’S HOTcough. Use some kind of insulating pad. And let it
COOL before you touch it! CoughIT’S HOTcough.
29. NEVER touch broken glass with your bare hands. It tends to be sharp. And painful.

In heating stuff
 30. Be careful. Fire tends to burn. Stay away from it.
31. Turn off burners/hot plates when not in use.
32. Do not burn stuff for fun on your own. Only burn stuff if Fendell says so. If he says you can burn stuff for fun,
go ahead.
33. Do not leave burning stuff alone. It tends to burn other stuff, too.
34. When heating something in a test tube, point the test tube AWAY from you/other people so it doesn’t explode in
anyone’s face.
35. Never heat a closed container. If something explodes in there, the container will explode, too.

When injured/after injuring someone

36. “If an injury should occur, it is important to remain calm.” Translation: Don’t freak out, stupid.
37. Tell Fendell pronto.
38. Know how to use first-aid stuff and emergency equipment, because I sure don’t.
39. Know how to get help.
Common sense goes a long way. Really. As Fendell says: “I may not have a lot of it, but I expect it from you.”

II. Bunsen burner operation

1. Tie back your hair. (Yes, Sakura, that means you.)
2. Figure out how to work the burner.
3. Make sure it’s clean.
4. Push one end of the rubber tube onto the burner inlet pipe. Push the other end onto the gas valve. Make sure it’s
secure!
5. Make sure the burner standing flat. Do not put any stuff that can burn near a burner, it might burn.
6. Turn on the gas (slowly) and use the clicker thingy. Remember, if it doesn’t hurt, you’re not doing it right.
7. Adjust the flame by changing the air intake control. A good burner flame gives off little light and has two
distinct cones. Adjust the flame as follows:
• if the flame is too large or there is a gap between the top of the tube and the base of the flame, slowly turn down
the gas.
• if the flame is yellow and/or smoky, it’s suffocating, adjust the air intake control.
• If the flame disappears down the tube, turn off the gas, decrease the air intake, and relight the burner.
8. Turn off the burner as soon as you’re done with it.
9. NEVER leave a lighted burner unattended. IT WILL BURN STUFF.

CHAPTER 1
I. Overview of Chemistry

Chemistry: study of composition/structure/properties/processes/energy changes of matter

Organic: study of most carbon-containing compounds
Inorganic: study of everything not in organic chemistry
Physical: study of properties/changes of matter and energy
Analytical: figuring out what stuff is made up of
Biochem: study of chem. in living things
Theoretical: uses math/computers to…basically do chemistry related stuff
Chemical: any substance with a definite composition

II. Matter/energy

Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space

Atom: the smallest thing you can cut an element down to before it gets a chemical identity crisis.
Element: a “pure” substance made up of only one type of atom. Cannot be broken down into anything other
than atoms, and that’s pretty damn hard to do.
 Compound: can be broken down into simpler stuffs (coughELEMENTScough). Those other stuffs must be
chemically bonded or else they don’t make a compound.

[Btw, if you didn’t know what “atoms,” “elements” or “compounds” were, go read the book. This study guide can’t help you.]

Extensive properties: these depend on how much stuff you have. Includes mass (duh), volume (duh), amount
of energy (more stuff = more atoms = more electrons = more energy) etc. etc. etc…
Intensive properties: these are basic facts of life that never change, like melting point, boiling point, density
(when mass goes up, volume goes up, and so the ratio stays the same!), etc.
Physical properties: stuff you can figure out without messing with the substance chemically (aka stuff you
can figure out by making a physical change. OHO, YOU SEE WHAT I DID THAR? YOU SEE?)
Apparently, boiling and melting a substance doesn’t count as messing with it chemically.
Chemical properties: stuff you can only figure out if you mess with the substance chemically (aka chemical
change. YOU SEE WHAT I DID—okay, I’ll shut up.).
Chemical change/reaction: reactant + reactant  products

States of matter: solid (definite volume/shape), liquid (definite volume, indefinite shape), gas (indefinite
everything), plasma (atoms get so high off energy, they lose their electrons. The most common because it
makes up all the stars)

III. Classification of Matter

Mixture: a blend of two or more kinds of matter that are physically mixed but don’t chemically react.
(Chemical reaction = compound.)
So each kind of matter still keeps his or her properties. For example, salt water is a mixture, not a compound, so it’s
both salty and watery. 8D
Homogenous mixtures: aka solutions. Homo = the same. So the stuff is mixed evenly. The entire composition is
the same, like in salt water.
Heterogenous mixtures: Hetero = different. So the stuff is mixed unevenly, and the composition is different
everywhere, like in air and brownie mix.
Pure substance: these automatically get homogenous status. They are always the same everywhere in
everything. They have the same characteristics, the same composition, everything.
Compound: see above
Element: see above

CHAPTER 2
I. Scientific Method
Scientific method: logical approach to solving problems by observing/collecting data, formulating/testing
hypotheses, and making theories that are supported by data.
System: “a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected for study during an
experiment or observation.”
What this really means is: when you do an experiment, you cut off a little chunk of reality (the system)
and study it, and ignore everything else besides that chunk of reality.
Model: something that explains how or why things happen or how stuff is related. Can be a picture, an
equation (f(x)=x), or a long boring paper.
Hypothesis: a testable statement.
Theory: a broad generalization that explains a lot of stuff.

II. Elements/Periodic Table

Groups or families: the columns of the periodic table. The elements of one group have similar chemical
properties.
 Periods: the rows of the periodic table. The physical and chemical properties of elements in one period change
“periodically.” *see Chapter 5
Metals: elements good with electricity and heat. Usually malleable (you can pound them into sheets) and ductile
(you can pull them into wires). All this basically means you can mess with metals without breaking them. (To a
point.)
Nonmetals: elements horrible with electricity and heat, which is good because if air was good with heat, we would
all burn up. Mostly gases like fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, etc…
Metalloids: they are weird, weird elements that are kind of like metals and kind of like nonmetals, smack in the
middle.
Solids at room temperature. Semiconductors and often used for computers (like silicon in the Silicon Valley).
Noble gases: Group 18—the last group. They are the most uncooperative, unreactive jerks you can find.

III. Metric Units

Quantity: “anything that has size, magnitude or amount.”

SI Units (Le Systeme International d’Unites, in French): the system used by all scientists and all countries
except the United States is, as always, stupid and nonconformist.
SI Base Units: everything in SI comes from these things, so know them. Actually, you prolly know them
anyway. (Left Table)
SI Prefixes: they are based on increments of ten. Memorize them or write them on the index card.
(Right)
Giga* G 1,000,000,000 109
meter (m) length
Mega M 1,000,000 106
kilogram (kg) mass
Kilo k 1,000 103
second (s) time
Hecto h 100 102
Kelvin (K) temperature Deca da 10 101
mole (mol) amount of a substance Deci d 0.1 10-1
ampere (A) electric current Centi c 0.01 10-2
candela (cd) luminous intensity Milli m 0.001 10-3
Micro μ 0.000001 10-6
Nano n 0.000000001 10-9
Derived Units: all the units for things like density (mass/volume = kg/m^3) and square meter that are derived
from the SI Base Units.

Mass: Fendelian operational definition: “anything you can measure on a balance.”

book definition: “a measure of the amount of matter.” [It’s Fendell’s test. Let’s follow him.]
Weight: the measure of the force of gravity.
Volume: how much space is occupied by an object.
Density = mass/volume. It’s called “how much stuff (m) I can cram into how much space (V)!”

IV. Conversions

Conversion Factors: basically, if you have something like this:

3 km
And you want to convert it into meters, you can multiply it by one. This is, of course, not just any one. This one
looks something like this:
1000 m
1 km
And because 1000 m = 1 km, the two cancel out to = 1. Isn’t it brilliant? So your end result is this:
3 km x 1000 m / 1 km = 3000 m.
 The conversion factor is the “one,” or 1000 m/1 km.
**textbook definition: “ratio derived from the equality between 2 different units used to convert from 1 unit to the other”

V. DAs
Dimensional analysis: What I did above. Textbook definition: “mathematical technique that allows you to
use units to solve problems involving measurements.”
Quantity sought = quantity given x conversion factor
ONLY DO ONE DA. It’s a pain. Bear with it.
Treat your units like numbers. m x m = m^2.
CROSS OUT ALL YOUR UNITS WHEN THEY CANCEL OUT.
If the units are correct, your problem is correct.

VI. SigFigs

Accuracy: how close your measurements are to the “right” value.

[If you got 5, 5, 5, and the right answer is 5, you’re accurate.]
[If you got 2, 5, 8, and the right answer is 5, you’re still accurate because the AVERAGE of your data is 5.
Therefore, technically, you were close to the right answer.]
Precision: how close your measurements are to each other.
[If you got 5, 5, 5, and the right answer is 20, you’re precise.] [Are you accurate?]
Percentage error: (experimental value – accepted value) / accepted value x 100%

Direct proportion:
y / x = k, where “k” is the “proportionality constant,” which just means it’s a random number.
 y = xk  straight line!
Indirect proportion:
y x = k  hyperbola (stupid curved line that I hate. With a passion. CONIC SECTIONS RAWR)

Sig Fig Rules:

1. Love nonzero digits.
2. “Zeroes are assholes. Their asshole rules are as follows:”
Zeroes between nonzeroes are sigfigs. (10027 = 5 sigfigs)
Zeroes to the right of nonzeroes, with a decimal point, are sigfigs. (2700. = 4 sigfigs; 270.0 = 4
sigfigs; 27.000000 = 8 sigfigs)
Zeroes at the end of a number, without a decimal point, are not sigfigs. (2700 = 2 sigfigs)
Zeroes to the left of nonzeroes are never sigfigs. (0.000018 = 2 sigfigs)
Anything that is not a measurement, like a definition (1000 m = 1 km), or counting discrete items (there are
66 people in a room, and there canNOT be “half” a person so it MUST be really 66 people), does NOT have
sigfigs.

VII. Operations with Sig Figs

Addition and subtraction: Sigfigs DO NOT count. Look for the number with the place value furthest to the
left (aka “least” place values), and round the answer to that place value. Again, sig figs do not matter.
Multiplication and division: SIGFIGS COUNT. Look for the number with the least number of sig figs and
round the answer to that number of sig figs.
Mixed operations: If it changes from addition/subtraction to multiplication/division or vice versa, apply sig
figs for each step you take. This is because the rules for +/- and x// are different.
[If it is always addition/subtraction or multiplication/division, do everything then apply sig figs at the
very end.]
*rounding: if it’s >5, or if it’s a ~.45, round up. Otherwise, round down.
VIII. Scientific Notation

Numbers are written in the form M x 10^n. This is convenient when you can’t make the right number of sig figs
—every number in M is counted as a sig fig.
17,0000 for 4 sig figs—17.00 x 10^4
0.01893 for 2 sig figs—1.9 x 10^-2

*Temperature is in Chapters 3 and 4, and we barely covered it, so. Yeah. He screwed up?

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

the different metric units; conversions between units; metric prefixes

CHAPTER 3
I. History of Atomic Theory

Democritus: philosophical idea of the atom

 Development of the laws of: multiple proportions, definite proportions, conservation of mass
 Dalton: atomic theory
1. All matter is made up of atoms. T
2. All atoms of a given element are identical. Atoms of different elements are…different. F (isotopes)
3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to make compounds. T
4. Atoms cannot be divided, created, or destroyed. F (subatomic particles, nuclear fission/fusion,
radioactivity)
5. In chemical reactions, atoms combine, separate, or are rearranged. T
 Thomson: discovery of the electron through cathode-ray tube, “plum-pudding model” w/ sea of positivity
 Rutherford: discovery of the nucleus through gold-foil experiment, atom is mostly empty space
Hydrogen emission-spectrum of fixed values discovered.
 Bohr: electrons circle the nucleus in pre-ordained orbits. They jump from energy level to energy level when
excited; absorb photons and become excited, and emit photons when they go back to ground state.
MEANWHILE: Planck: a hot object emits light in packets of energy (quanta)
Einstein: light is a wave and a particle; each particle (photon) carries a quanta of energy; light is absorbed by
matter only in whole numbers of photons
De Broglie: electron is both a particle and a wave, confined to certain energy levels {around the nucleus}
Heisenberg: uncertainty principle—it’s impossible to know both the velocity/position of a particle
 Schrodinger: wave equation—predicted 3D “orbitals” for particular electrons

II. Atomic Structure: Subatomic Particles

A. Discovery of electron (charge/mass)

Electron: -1, almost no mass (compared to proton/neutron); found around the nucleus

Cathode ray: formed when a current passes through a cathode-ray tube, when the electrons get energized
and travel in a line from one end of the tube to the other
Thomson: measured the ratio of the cathode ray charge to mass. It was always the same, so he figured out
that cathode rays were made up of little particles. Because cathode rays are deflected by negative charges,
and like repels like, he figured out that the particles were negative.
Millikan: measured the charge of an electron
 B. Discovery of proton

Proton: +1, mass number of 1; found inside the nucleus with neutrons
*atomic number = number of protons

Rutherford: when gold foil repelled positive alpha particles, he figured out that there had to be points
where the positive charge was strong enough to repel other positive charge. Those points were the nucleus,
which had to be positively charged

Nuclear forces: attractions that hold nuclear particles (neutrons + protons) together

III. Atoms and Numbers

Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom; relative quantity used to find masses of atoms
Average atomic mass: weighted average of the atomic masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of an
element
(Isotope1 Atomic Mass)(Percent of natural abundance) + (Isotope2 Atomic Mass)(Percent of natural
abundance) = Average Atomic Mass
Molecular mass: the atomic masses of all the atoms of the molecule, added together

VII. Moles

Mole: amount of a substance with as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. A
counting unit, like a dozen.
Avogadro’s number: the number of particles in one mole of a pure substance: 6.0221415 x 10^23
Molar mass: the mass of one mole of a pure substance—in g/mol. This is equal to the atomic mass in amu.

VIII. Mole conversions—DAs are your best friends.

Moles to grams: Mol * Molar Mass = Gram [mol * g/mol = g]

Grams to moles: Grams * Molar Mass = [g * mol/g = mol]
Moles to number of particles: Mol * 6.022 x 10^23 particles /1 mole = # of particles
Grams to number of particles: convert to moles, then do the same as above

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

Avogadro’s Number

CHAPTER 4
I. Atomic Models

Thomson’s plum pudding model: electrons embedded in “sea” of positive charge

Bohr’s model: electrons circle the nucleus in allowed paths (orbits) with fixed energy; lowest energy state is
closest to the nucleus
Quantum/Modern model:
Nucleus is made up of protons/neutrons held together by nuclear forces. In a neutral atom, # of protons =
# of electrons = atomic number.

Electrons surround the nucleus. We don’t know where the electrons are, but we can figure out where
they’re most likely to be found with quantum mechanics.

II. Wave Nature of Light

 Electromagnetic radiation: energy that acts like a wave when it travels through space
Electromagnetic spectrum: all forms of electromagnetic radiation
*in order of increasing frequency: radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, UV rays, X rays, gamma rays

Wavelength: distance btwn corresponding points on waves that are next to each other (how “long” the wave
is)
Frequency: # of waves that pass a given point at a specific time [1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 wave/second]
Speed of light (c): 3.00 x 10^8 meters/second

Speed = wavelength * frequency or c = λv

III. Particle Nature of Light

Photoelectric effect: when light hits metal, electrons are emitted—but only if the light is above a certain
frequency. This is because matter can only absorb light in whole numbers of photons.

Quantum: minimum quantity of energy that can be lost or gained by an atom

Photon: particle of light with no mass and carrying a quantum of energy

Planck’s constant (h): 6.626 * 10^26 J*s

Energy of radiation (photon or quantum) = Planck’s constant x frequency of radiation or E = hv

IV. Bohr Model

[It was based on the hydrogen atom…and then people realized it ONLY worked for the hydrogen atom. OTL]

Electron can only orbit the nucleus in, well. Orbits. Atom + electron has definite, fixed energy when the
electron is in a certain orbit. Electrons cannot be “in between” orbits.

Ground state: the “orbit” closest to the nucleus = least energy.

Excited state: atom has higher energy than in its ground state.
Emission: electrons falls into lower energy state and loses energy in the form of a photon.
The energy of the photon = difference between energy of initial state and final state.
Absorption: electron steals energy and goes to a higher energy “orbit.”

Line-emission spectrum: bands of light you see when you take the light emission of an excited element and
separate it with a prism. Every element has a unique spectrum. Bohr was trying to explain this with his model.

V. Calculating Energy Changes Between Levels

Neils Bohr numbered the energy levels (n) of hydrogen, with level 1 (n=1) being the ground state, level 2 being
the first excited state, etc.

There’s a maximum energy that each electron can have and still be part of its atom. Beyond that energy, the
electron isn’t part of the atom anymore—it’s escaped, it’s floating in space. Final energy level  infinity.

Energy of any particular level (n) is calculated using

E = -B/(n^2) B = 2.179 x 10^-18 J

To calculate the change in energy when moving from one level to the next:
 ∆Energy level = B(1/(Ni)^2 – 1/(Nf)^2)

*where Ni = initial level, Nf = final level, and B = 2.179 x 10^-18 J

Note: When ΔE is negative, energy is released by the atom in the form of light. When ΔE is positive, the atom
has absorbed a photon.

VI. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

It’s impossible to know the position and velocity of an electron/other particles at the same time.

VII. Quantum Numbers

Orbitals: 3D region around the nucleus that indicates the probable location of an electron
Quantum #’s: specify the properties of atomic orbitals and their electrons.

Principal quantum number (n) : tells you the energy level of the electron. n = 1, 2, 3, 4…etc. For electrons in
ground state, n can only equal 1-7.
Angular momentum number (l) : tells you the shape of the orbital that the electron’s in. Each energy level
allows l = 0 and all positive integers less than n. If n = 2, then the values of l allowed are 0, 1, and 2.
l values are represented by letters. 1 = s, 2 = p, 3 = d, 4 = f, 5 = g, 6 = h, 7 = i.
Magnetic quantum number (ml) : tells you the orientation of the orbital—is it turned sideways? Upside-
down?
m = all integers from –l to + l. In other words, if l = 2, then the values of m allowed are 2, 1, 0, -1, and -2.
Spin quantum number (ms): an electron can only spin one of two ways. Therefore, there are only two spin
values: +1/2 and -1/2. One orbital can only have TWO electrons, because they must be in opposite spin states. So
if one electron in an orbital is +1/2, the other MUST be -1/2.

n describes the energy level, l and m describe the shape/orientation of the orbital, and spin describes…spin. l is
dependent on n, m is dependent on l, and spin = +1/2 or -1/2.

So in each n energy level, there are n possible orbital shapes, 2n+1 possible orientations for each orbital shape,
and 2 possible spin states for each electron in the orbital.

In each n energy level, there are n sublevels, n^2 orbitals per energy level, and 2n^2 electrons per energy level.

VIII. Orbital Shapes, Orientations, and Diagrams*

For pictures, I suggest you look at p. 108 – 109 in the textbook.
Orbital shape is specified by values of l.

L = 0 = s = sphere.
L = 1= p = dumbbell (like ∞)
L = 2 = d = double dumbbell—two ∞’s crossed over each other*
*d has 5 possible orientations (5 different m values). The 5th one is different from the others.

Orbital orientation is specified by values of ml. Different values of ml mean the orbital is lined up with certain
coordinate axes (like graphing in algebra? Yeah.).
s-orbitals are always the same, because they’re spheres.
p-orbitals can be along an x, y, or z axis
d-orbitals *x^2 – y^2); xy; yz; xz; (z^2)
(again, I suggest you look at the textbook—this really doesn’t make sense until you see the pictures.)
IV. Electron configurations

…arrangement of electrons in an atom

Notation methods:

1. “spdf notation” – you describe n with a number (like 1, 2, 3), l with its letter (s, p, d, f, etc), and the number
of electrons in the sublevel (not the orbital, the SHELL) as an “exponent.” Ex: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3. (This is the
kind used most often.)
2. noble gas notation – the same as spdf notation, only you shorten it by using the atomic symbol of a noble
gas for any complete configurations you have.
Ex: Phosphorus’s spdf notation = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3. Noble gas notation: [Ne] 3s2 3p3
(Ne’s spdf notation = 1s2 2s2 2p6 , so you’re just subbing in the symbol to make it easier.)
3. orbital notation – you use boxes/empty lines to represent orbitals (labeled according to the first 2 quantum
numbers, like and up/down arrows to represent electrons (up/down = different spin states).

 looks like this

Rules:

1. Aufbau’s principle: an electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital available.

This is The Chart. It is important.

It tells you the order of the lowest-energy orbitals.
Follow the arrows. When you reach the end of an arrow, go to the next
arrow.

2. Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in the same atom can have the same 4 quantum numbers. This is
mainly important in that it tells you that if one electron in an orbital has spin number +1/2, then the other has to
have spin number -1/2. There can only be TWO electrons per orbital because there are only TWO possible
spin numbers.

3. Hund’s rule: shells are like buses, orbitals are like seats and electrons are like old ladies: no electron wants to
pair up until they absolutely have to. Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron until all the
orbitals are half-filled, and then electrons have to pair up.

How:

Determine the number of electrons in the atom, and then fill in the orbitals using the chart.

Each s orbital can hold 2 electrons, each p orbital can hold 6, each d orbital can hold 10, each f orbital can hold
14, and each g orbital can hold 18.

V. Exceptions to the "Chart" *do we really need to know these? O_O

Elements with observed configs that are lower states that expected. Usually, it’s to keep electrons from pairing
up. (Bus seats and old ladies, remember?)

Chromium: [Ar] 3d5 4s1 – this is the arrangement with least energy for Chromium, because all the electrons are
unpaired.

Copper: [Ar]4s13d10 strips an electron from the 4s, just like Chromium

Niobium (Nb): [Kr]5s14d4

Palladium (Pd): [Kr]4d10, stripping away the 5s shell completely

Elements of the 6th/7th periods: 4f and 5d shells are so close that electrons often jump back and forth without
losing/gaining energy

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

Planck’s constant/equation; Bohr’s constant/equations; the Quantum Numbers; orbital
shapes/diagrams; the electron config “Chart”; list of exceptions to the “Chart”

CHAPTER 5

I. Relationships on the Periodic Table

Blocks: describe where the valence electrons of the elements are.

In blue—the s block on the left (elements here have valence in the s-orbitals), the p block on the right (valence
in the p-orbitals). Together they make the MAIN GROUP (A). (Everything else is labeled B, as you can see
from the table above.)
In orange—the d block (valence in the d-orbitals), aka the transition metals which are retarded and have way
too many exceptions.
In greenish-grayish-whatever—the f block (valence in the f orbitals), which would be smack in the middle of
the d block if we didn’t take them out and put them on the bottom of the table to save paper.
Metals, non-metals, metalloids definitions—see Chapter 2 Section II

See the bold line? Metals are to the left; non-metals are to the right.
Metalloids are touching the line—B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te.

Group 1 (1A): the alkali metals (ns^1)—soft, ductile, silvery metals, extremely reactive because they only
need to lose one electron to become “noble”
Group 2 (2A): the alkaline earth metals (ns^2)—harder, denser, stronger than alkali metals; less reactive than
alkali metals but still pretty damn reactive.
Group 17 (7A): the halogens (ns^2d^10p^5)—EXTREEEEMELY reactive nonmetals because they only need
one more electron to complete their shell
Group 18 (8A): the noble gases (ns^2d^10p^6)—almost completely unreactive because they have a filled
electron shell

II. Ion Configurations

You remember electron configuration, right? (See Ch. 4 Section IV, if not.)

When an atom becomes an ion, it tends to gain/lose as many electrons as it needs to become the closest noble
gas. (Metals usually lose, nonmetals usually gain.) So its electron configuration will be the configuration of the
noble gas.

For example, sulfur ([Ne] 3s2 3p4) becomes like argon by gaining 2 electrons. So now, its configuration is just
[Ar].

BUT WAIT. IT HAS A CHARGE!!

So instead of [Ar], it’s [Ar]2-. What a sneaky dastard.

III. Periodic Trends

Electron shielding: when there are a lot of electrons blocking each other from the nucleus’s positive charge, and
repelling each other because they all have negative charges.
Atomic Radius: measured by averaging the distance between the nuclei of two of the element’s atoms bonded
together.
Increases down a group (higher energy levels = more shells = bigger electron cloud)
Decreases across a period  (more protons = attracting electrons in more)

Ionization Energy (IE): the energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom. (Ionization = formation of an
ion) First IE = energy it takes to remove the first electron, Second IE = second electron, etc. First IE < Second
IE < Third IE …
(once you remove the electron, the atom becomes POSITIVELY CHARGED, which means it will attract anything that’s
negatively charged including its own electrons. Harder and harder to take away the electrons.)
Decreases down a group (electrons are farther away with higher energy levels, more electron shielding, harder to hold
on)
Increases across a period  (more protons = more charge to hold on to electrons)

Electron Affinity: energy change that occurs when an electron is ACQUIRED by a neutral atom. Can be energy
release (shown as negative number) or gain (shown as zero because it’s impossible to measure—too unstable)
(note: there are a lot of exceptions to rules for affinity. Just a heads up.)
Decreases down a group (more shells, more electrons, electrons are farther away from the nucleus, more shielding)
Increases across a period  (more protons, more charge, attracts more electrons)

Ionic Radius: cation = positive ion (removed electron); anion = negative ion (added electron)
Increases down a group (same as atomic radius)
When an atom becomes a cation, it gets SMALLER cuz 1) it lost an electron = smaller electron cloud and 2)
less electrons = more positive charge for the rest of the electrons to share = everyone gets pulled in tighter.
Decreases across a period  (Losing more electrons = less shield effect  (stronger nuclear charge for the electrons
left behind)
When an atom because an anion, it gets BIGGER for exactly the opposite reasons. Figure it out.
Decreases across a period  (you’re filling up the shell, so each ion in the same period (same shells) ends up with the
SAME amount of electrons, but moving across a period, you get more PROTONS, which pull the electrons in more and more)

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

list of trends

CHAPTER 6
I. Bonds and Electronegativity

Ionic bonding: chemical bonding from the electrical attraction between cations and anions
Metallic bonding: when metal atoms are together, their orbitals overlap and the electrons are shared freely,
keeping the metals attracted to each other. (See Chapter 2, Section II)

Covalent bonding: sharing of electron pairs between two atoms

Multiple bonds: double/triple bonds—where more than 2 electrons are shared between 2 atoms in a bond.
The more electrons are in the bond, the shorter and stronger the bond is.
Bond energy: energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms. Usually in kJ/mol
(energy need to break 1 mol of bonds in isolated molecules)
Bond distance/length: average distance between 2 bonded atoms. Usually decreases with stronger bonds.

Electronegativity: measure of how much an atom in a compound attracts electrons from another atom in the
compound. Fluorine gets an EN of 4, and everyone else is relative. It basically shows trends the same way as
electron affinity. (See Chapter 5, Section III)
(EN has more exceptions to trends because it’s based on atoms in bonds, not individual elements.)
(some noble gases don’t form compounds because they’re stuck up jerks. So you can’t measure their EN.)

Classifying bonds:
1) ionic bonding = nonmetal + metal; molecular bonding = nonmetal + nonmetal
2) (only when there are two atoms) difference in electronegativity: 0 to 0.3 = nonpolar covalent; 0.3 to 1.7 =
polar covalent; 1.7 to 3.3 = ionic [OR 0.7. This is somewhere in his notes, apparently!]

Intermolecular forces: attraction between molecules

Dipole: some molecules are POLAR which means that the electrons are more attracted to one end of the
molecule than the other which means that ONE END IS MORE NEGATIVE IN CHARGE.
(electrons are attracted to the more electronegative molecule)
Dipole-dipole forces: forces of attraction between polar molecules
Induced-dipole: when the positive end of a dipole gets near a neutral atom, OPPOSITE CHARGES attract
and all the electrons of the neutral atom get pulled towards the dipole, and the neutral atom momentarily
becomes a dipole.
Hydrogen bonding: a hydrogen atom bonded to a very electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of
electrons in an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule.

II. Lewis Theory

Chemical bonds are formed when atoms transfer (ionic bonding) or share (covalent bonding) valence electrons to
attain noble gas electron configuration.

Lewis structures: formulas where atomic symbols = nuclei/inner-shell electrons; dot-pairs/dashes between 2
atomic symbols = pairs in covalent bonds; dots next to only one atomic symbol = unshared electrons

Octet rule: chemical compounds form so that each atom has an octet of valence electrons.

Writing Lewis structures

1. Count up the total number of VALENCE electrons in the compound.

2. Arrange the atoms so the atom with the lowest electronegativity is in the middle.
3. Make all the atoms happy with 8 electrons through sharing or stealing, doesn’t matter which.
4. Count up the electrons to make sure the numbers are right.
 5. Represent the single bonds with one line, the double bonds with two lines, etc.
6. To draw for an ion, simply add (when anion) or subtract (when cation) the “charge number.” Ex: (CO3)-
has ONE extra electron.

RESONANCE STRUCTURES: bonding in molecules/compounds that can’t be represented in one Lewis structure.
REMEMBER THAT THESE EXIST. If he asks you to, you must DRAW ALL THE POSSIBLE resonance structures,
and connect them with “doubleheaded arrows” (<—>)

III. VSEPR

Bonding pairs: pairs of electrons that are shared as part of a covalent bond—attached to 2 atoms
Lone pairs: pairs of electrons that aren’t part of a bond—they’re only attached to one atom

VSEPR Theory: pairs of electrons in covalently bonded atoms try to get as far away from each other as
possible.
Notation: ABxEy x = number of atoms bonded to CENTRAL atom
y = number of PAIRS of UNBONDED ELECTRONS ATTACHED TO CENTERAL
ATOM
Find by drawing the Lewis diagram.
You must memorize the following stupid notations with their shapes, bond angles, and names.

VSEPR Notation Name Bond Angles

AB2 Linear 180 degrees (360
divided by 2)
AB3* Trigonal planar 120 degrees (360
(3 atoms on one divided by 3)
plane)
AB2E Angular 120 degrees
AB4* Tetrahedral 109.5 degrees
AB3E* Trigonal pyramidal 107 degrees
AB2E2 Angular 104.5 degrees

* THREE DIMENSIONAL—USE THE GAY RAILROAD TRACKS TO DRAW

“3 points for 1 plane. Make the railroad tracks bigger as the bond gets closer to you, and smaller when it
gets farther away.” – Mr. Fendell
 V. Polyatomic Ions*

Acetate (C2H3O2)-
Ammonium (NH4)+
(THE ONLY POLYATOMIC
CATION)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)-
Carbonate (CO3)2-
Hydroxide (OH)-
Nitrate (NO3)-
Nitrite (NO2)-
Phosphate (PO4)3-
Sulfate (SO4)2-
Sulfite (SO3)2-

*putting this chart here so I

don’t waste paper.

Multiple central atoms: treat every central atom and the molecules it’s bonded to as a separate molecule, and
list the molecular geometry for each central atom.

Polar molecules: LOOK AT THE GEOMETRY. Do the bonds cancel out (ex CCl4, where each Cl is pulling on
the electrons in a different direction so the “net force” is 0)? Is the molecule bent (ex H2O)?

V. Exceptions to Octet Rule

Octet rule: chemical compounds form so that each atom has an octet of valence electrons.

Hydrogen: fills its 1s shell—only wants 2 electrons. Occasionally, it wants to lose its one electron, too.
Boron: only wants 6 electrons. *It takes too much energy to strip the p shell of an electron and then strip the s shell, it also
takes too much energy to add 5 electrons, so it compromises at 6.
Beryllium: [He]2s2—only wants 4 electrons.

Expanded valence: elements get more than 8 electrons. (Ex: PF5, SF6) Only in elements in period 3 and
beyond.

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

VSEPR names + bond angles, polyatomic molecules, exceptions to the Octet Rule
 CHAPTER 7
I. Molecular Naming

1) if there is only one element, compound name = element name

2) prefixes: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
3) positive element comes first; add a prefix ONLY if there’s MORE THAN ONE ATOM
4) second, negative element gets “-ide” added to its name (it’s carbide. Don’t ask why.), ALWAYS GETS A
PREFIX

II. Ionic Naming

1) In a NEUTRAL compound, the oxidation #’s have to cancel out to be 0.

2) if a metal has more than one oxidation number, you must WRITE the oxidation number (i.e. copper (III) or
iron (II)), and you must also memorize the oxidation numbers.
3) more than one nonmetal—they’re grouped together in a polyatomic ion
4) take the FIRST element name and add it to the second element name + “ide” (ex. sodium chloride)
5) Hydrate: ionic compound with H2O molecules attached. Ex: CaCl2•6H20, aka calcium chloride hexahydrate.

III. Oxidation States, Numbers and Exceptions

Multiple Oxidation States
0. All elements/atoms/compounds/FUs in their NEUTRAL form = oxidation # = 0.Chromium (Cr) (II, III)
1. Ions have “net” oxidation numbers of…whatever charge they have. Manganese (Mn) (II, III)
2. In compound, group 1 metals = +1; group 2 metals = +2 Iron (Fe) (II, III)
3. In compound, fluorine = -1 Cobalt (Co) (II, III)
4. In compound, hydrogen = +1 Copper (Cu) (I, II)
Tin (Sn) (II, IV)
5. In compound, oxygen = -2 Lead (Pb) (II, IV)
6. In compound, group 17 nonmetals = -1, group 16 = -2, group 15 = -3
*THESE RULES ARE HIERARCHICAL. Transition elements usually
This means that a rule becomes obsolete if it is overridden by a rule above it. have multiple states.

Exceptions are usually transition elements. You need to know these   

Note: before reading the following sections, recall conversions with moles/molar mass.

V. Formula Mass

FU: formula unit, the most-reduced set of atoms from which you can figure out the ionic formula
Formula mass: sum of all the average atomic masses of all the atoms in the formula of the compound/ion you’re
looking for (usually with the FU (formula units) of ionic compounds, since you can’t tell the exact numbers of
those, only the most basic ratio—ionic compounds are stupid that way).
Molecular mass: the formula mass of a covalent compound. It is definite.

Finding the Formula/Molecular Mass of a Compound:

(they’re the same thing, really. One’s for ionic compounds and the other’s for molecular compounds.)

(number of atoms of Element 1 x atomic mass of Element 1) + (number of atoms of Element 2 x atomic mass) + etc.

[REMEMBER: the “number of atoms” is a DISCRETE number and does NOT count in sigfigs.
ROUND THE RESULTS of formula/molecular mass to the THOUSANDTHS place (0.000).]
VI. Empirical Formula

Empirical formula: symbols for the elements combined in a compound + subscripts showing the SMALLEST
WHOLE-NUMBER RATIO of the different elements
Molecular formula: ACTUAL FORMULA of a molecular compound. May or may NOT equal the empirical
formula.

Percent Composition  Empirical Formula

1)Pretend you have 100 grams of the compound. Since you know the PERCENT COMPOSITION, you now know
how many grams of EACH ELEMENT you have, because the PERCENTAGE OF GRAMS that each element takes
up in the compound is ALWAYS the same.
(ex: O: 77.4%, N: 22.6%. If you have 100 grams of the compound, then you have 77.4 grams of O and 22.6
grams of N.)
2) Convert each mass in grams to number of moles, using the molar mass of each element.
3) Divide the #’s of moles by the SMALLEST NUMBER OF MOLES that you can see.
4) Round off the values to pretty whole numbers.
5) If they don’t round off to whole numbers, or if you can still divide everything by a factor, DIVIDE IT. Or multiply
it. Do WHATEVER YOU NEED to get whole numbers. (remember: you have to multiply EVERYTHING by the
SAME FACTOR, or else the ratio will change!!) If you can’t get to a whole number, you’re doing something wrong.
6) The remaining ratio is the empirical formula.

Given mass  Empirical Formula

Just start from step #2 above.

Empirical Formula  Molecular Formula

1) You are probably given the molecular mass of the molecular formula.
2) Find the formula mass of the empirical formula.
3) Divide the formula mass by the molecular mass.
4) You should now have a whole-number factor. If not, you did something wrong.
5) MULTIPLY EACH NUMBER in the empirical formula by the factor you found. The resulting formula is the
molecular formula.

Finding a Molecular Formula with a Hydrate

Just pretend that water is an element. Use the method for “percent composition  empirical formula” above. When
converting the mass in grams of water to moles, use the molecular mass (18.01528 grams/mol).

VIII. Percent Composition

Percentage by mass of each element in a compound

Find Percent Composition

Find the formula/molecular mass. Don’t forget to round to the thousandths place!
Calculate the total mass IN GRAMS of the element in the compound you want. (ex: NO3  O has a TOTAL mass of
3 x 15.9994 = 47.998)
Divide the total mass (in grams) of the ELEMENT by the total mass (in grams) of the COMPOUND).
(ex: NO3  total mass of O = 47.998 DIVIDED BY total mass of NO3 = 62.005  0.774)
Multiply by 100. (0.774 x 100  77.4%.)

STUFF TO CONSIDER PUTTING ON YOUR INDEX CARD

special oxidation states
 CHAPTER 8
I. Types of Reactions

Synthesis/composition: 2/more compounds add up to make a new one

A + X  AX
Decomposition: a compound breaks down into 2/more
AX  A + X
Single-displacement: one element replaces another one in a compound
A + BX  AX + B
Double-displacement: ions of 2 compounds exchange places to make 2 new compounds. *note: takes place in
aqueous solution and only works for ionic compounds!
AX + BY  AY + BX
Combustion: substance + oxygen = new thingy + H2O + CO2 + heat (cough IT BURNS cough)

II. Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Figure out the reactants and products if they aren’t given. Either
a) you have a word equation and you have to use the names of the elements, or
b) you are given the reactants and you have to find the products.
You have to figure out what kind of reaction it is (see TYPES OF REACTIONS, p. 3)
2. Write out the unbalanced equation with the reactants/products (with the right subscripts!!)
3. Balancing an equation means that the numbers of atoms on ONE side of the equation MUST EQUAL the numbers
of atoms on the OTHER. This means that the coefficients (4 O) AND the subscripts (O2) must be balanced.
(ex: 4 OH  2 O2 + 4 H – there are 4 oxygen atoms and 4 hydrogen atoms per side.) (note: this equation is
simply an example. It does not exist as far as the writer knows.)
Start by balancing ONE ELEMENT.
4. Balance the other elements.
5. Double check.

III. Types of Nuclear Reactions

Fission: nucleus breaks into different pieces

Fusion: nuclei combine to make new nuclei
Decay: nuclei are unstable and spontaneously spit stuff up
Alpha (α): He nucleus, mass # = 4, atomic # = 2 (2 neutrons and 2 protons)
Change in mass #: -4; Change in atomic #: -2
Explanation: nucleus is too big, gets rid of some protons/neutrons
Beta –: electron emission (β-): electron, charge = -1.
Change in mass #: 0; Change in atomic #: +1
Explanation: neutron breaks down into proton/electron; the electron gets ejected
Beta +: electron capture (β+): positron (same mass/opposite charge of electron), charge = +1
Change in mass #: 0; Change in atomic #: -1
Explanation: proton grabs electron and turns into neutron
Gamma (γ)*: electromagnetic radiation, doesn’t affect anything

IV. Balancing Nuclear Equations

1. Figure out the type of reaction. (see TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS, p.2 )
2. Figure out the numbers first. Instead of balancing coefficients and subscripts, we’re balancing mass numbers and
atomic numbers. In other words, the number of NEUTRONS and the number of PROTONS—and the charge—must
be EQUAL on both sides of the equation.
3. After you figure out the numbers, figure out the element by looking at the atomic # which tells you which element it
is. DON’T forget that change in atomic # = change in element!!
4. Double-check.

V. Redox

Oxidation-reduction reaction: any chemical change where elements change oxidation numbers
Oxidizing agent: the one who oxidizes and is reduced—that is, its oxidation number decreases
Reducing agent: the one who reduces and is oxidized—its oxidation number increases

VI. Balancing RedOx Reactions

1. Assign oxidation #’s to every individual atom (not molecule, atom) in the reaction.
Don’t forget that an unbonded atom is NEUTRAL (oxidation state = 0)!
2. Figure out which atom has been oxidized (the oxidation state increased—like from -2 to 0, or +4 to +7), and which
has been reduced (the oxidation state has reduced—like from 0 to -3 or +5 to +3). Write this down.
3. “Swapping coefficients.”
Take how much the oxidized atoms were oxidized by (from -2 to 0 would be 2, from +4 to +7 would be 3) and
use that as the coefficient for the atoms that were reduced. Take how much the reduced atoms were reduced by
(from 0 to -3 would be 3, from +5 to +3 would be 2) and use that as the coefficient for the atoms that were
oxidized.
4. Balance the other atoms. If balancing the other atoms contradicts the “swapping of coefficients,” it’s okay to change
it—balance it so it works.
5. Balance hydrogen.
6. Balance oxygen—you should be done by now, this is a way to check your answers.
7. Double check.

Diatomic molecules (not in the review sheet, but I’ll list them anyway): hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine, chlorine (the above are gases at room temperature), bromine (liquid), iodine (solid)

CHAPTER 9
I. Stoichiometry

You can ONLY compare moles to moles, NOT moles/grams or grams/grams.

Composition stoichiometry: mass relationships of elements in compounds

Reaction stoichiometry: mass relationships btwn reactants and products in a chemical reaction
Mole ratio: conversion factor that relates the amounts in moles of any 2 substances involved in a chemical
reaction.
Ex: 2Al2 O2 (l)  4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
Sample mole ratio: (2 mol Al2O2)/(4 mol Al)

Types of Conversions:
Conversions of Quantities in Moles
Given quantity (molA) * conversion factor (molB / molA) = unknown quantity (molB)
Conversions of Amounts in Moles to Mass
Given quantity (molA) * conversion factor (molB / molA) * molar mass (gB / molB) = unknown mass (gB)
Conversions of Mass to Amounts in Moles
Given mass (gA) / molar mass (gA / 1molA) * conversion factor (molB / molA) = unknown quantity (molB)
Mass-Mass Calculations
Given mass (gA) / molar mass (gA / molA) * conversion factor (molB / molA) * molar mass (gB / molB) = unknown mass
(gB)

Know how to convert mass   moles. Basically, just use DAs to convert everything to moles (using molar
mass), and make sure the units cancel out correctly and you’re golden. (See Chapter 3, Section VIII) NEVER
assume that the equation is balanced. Fendell is a tricky dastard.

II. Limiting reactants

These limit the amount of product that can form. (excess reactant = the reactant you have too much of)

To find these you must calculate how much of a product you can get with EACH REACTANT, separately.

For example, if you have 15.5 grams of O2 and 16 grams of H2 to make H2O, and you want to find which is the
limiting reactant:
1) balance the equation that gives you water (it’s 2H2 + O2  2H2O
2) figure out how much H2O you’ll get with 15.5 grams of O2 (the theoretical yield with 15.5 grams of O2)
3) figure out how much H2O you’ll get with 16 grams of H2 (the theoretical yield with 16 grams of H2)
4) Take the one that gives you less. That’s the limiting reactant.
[The answer is O2, btw~]

Fendell will also give you questions where:

• You have to figure out how much of the product was formed. (just figure out which is the limiting
reactant. In the process, you’ll find out how much product there was.)
• You have to figure out how much of the excess reactant is left over. (figure out the theoretical yield
with the limiting reactant, work backwards to find out how much of the excess reactant you need to
get that yield, and subtract that amount from how much excess reactant you have)

III. Percent Yield

Ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield multiplied by 100%.

(percentage yield = (actual yield/ theoretical yield) x 100%
(Theoretical yield: the maximum amount of product you can make from a given amount of reactant.)
(Actual yield: you’ll never get theoretical yield, because mistakes happen, or in real life most reactions are reversible
and reach equilibrium before the reaction is completed)

Fendell will give you questions where:

• He gives you the actual yield, the amount of reactants, and you have to find the percentage yield. (Don’t
forget that a reactant might be limiting, so figure out the right theoretical yield!)
• He gives you the percentage yield, and asks you how much of a reactant you need to get so-and-so
amount product. (Work backwards—use the percentage yield to find out how much of a product you
“theoretically” need to get the amount he’s asking for.)
*for reference: theoretical yield = (actual yield x 100%) / percentage yield