If you’re Happy and Sustainable,

Clap your Hands.

Is the Pursuit of Happiness Sustainable?

A Dissertation submitted in Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Design (Hons)

Joanne E MacFadyen

Jewellery & Metalwork

Number of Words in Main Body of Dissertation: 7697

Duncan of Jordonstone College of Art & Design

The University of Dundee

Dundee, Scotland

January 2010

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Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 3
Preface ............................................................................................................................... 4

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter One: Understanding Sustainability ..................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Understanding the Pursuit of Happiness .................................................. 15
Chapter Three: The Paradoxical Nature of Consumer Happiness .................................. 27
Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................... 35

Bibliography

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 Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to express my huge appreciation to my friends and
family for their continued support and guidance throughout the duration of this
dissertation. In particular I would like to express my deep gratitude to my sister Lauren,
for her unwavering strength and motivation throughout the completion of this
dissertation, and to my boyfriend Barry, whose wisdom, insight and constant support
was truly indispensible during the development of this paper, to you both I am forever
indebted.

I would also like to thank the individuals who took time out of their busy lives to
answer my questionnaires, thank you for your time and incredibly valuable responses.

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 Preface

Happiness is a myth we seek,

If manifested surely irks;
Like river speeding to the plain,
On its arrival slows and murks.

For man is happy only in

His aspiration to the heights;
When he attains his goal, he cools
And longs for other distant flights.

If you should meet a happy one

Who is contented with his lot,
Unlike the rest of all mankind,
Pray his Nirvana disturb not.

Kahlil Gibran

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 Introduction

As humanity faces one of its biggest challenges in our collective history, sustainability

is an issue at the forefront of political and academic debate. Focus has been

predominately environmental; however there is a deeply social aspect involved which

needs to be addressed.

As we explore an answer to how humanity can survive and flourish in the future, more

than just the environmental aspects of sustainability require analysis. Sustainability

must also be addressed in a social sense.

This paper aims to highlight that a greater understanding of humanity‟s pursuit of

happiness and its links to sustainability are required to properly understand how

humanity may move forward.

The main aim of this paper is to establish if the achievement of a sustainable society has

any links with the understanding of how and where individuals and society search for

happiness. Therefore, through analysis, aim to establish if our pursuit of happiness

contributes to a positive or negative overall affect on humanities chances for achieving

sustainability.

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The initial intention of this paper is to explore sustainability as a term, concept and most

importantly, as a worldview. This will be achieved through a critical review of existing

literature on the subject, drawing on different views of sustainability to highlight the

key factors that contribute towards the ideology of the concept.

It will also be established in the first chapter how sustainability relates to the individual,

and what this means for the future of sustainability.

Further to this, happiness will be discussed through a critical review of literature and

primary research. The focus of this analysis will centre on the main philosophical views

regarding the key types of happiness. This will allow a basis for further discussion

relating to the affects of happiness on sustainability

Further to this analysis, the key philosophical and psychological meanings of happiness

will also be considered. This will allow a deeper understanding of happiness and its

contributing and motivating factors, thus providing a solid basis on which to fulfil the

objectives of this paper.

Finally, to fully discuss happiness and the possible links to creating a sustainable

society, it is necessary that the paradoxical aspects in relation to happiness in a

consumer society are considered. Some underpinning reasons that society and the

individual pursue happiness through materialistic modes will be discussed at this point.

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 Chapter One: Understanding Sustainability

The purpose of this chapter is to establish the key existing meanings of sustainability,

with the aim of determining some fundamentals about what sustainability means in

various contexts.

Initially the beginnings of the terminology and meaning will be established, with a view

to discuss the evolution of sustainability as a concept.

It is intended that the ambiguity of sustainability as a concept will be highlighted,

showing that this contributes greatly to some misunderstanding of the term. Thus

highlighting in one sense why there may be difficulty in implementing a pragmatic

solution to sustainability.

Through comparing varying understandings of sustainability it will be established if

there is the possibility within the less conventional for a more practical and meaningful

ideology of sustainability.

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Sustainability, as highlighted by Lele (1991) cited by Fergus and Rowney (2005) can be

understood to have three meanings. These are said to be the literal meaning, “the

continuation of anything” (Fergus & Rowney, 2005), the ecological meaning, which

refers to the preservation of the “ecological basis of human life” (Lele, 1991), and the

social meaning of sustainability which encompasses the maintaining of “social values,

institutions, cultures or other social characteristics” (Lele, 1991).

Sustainability as the main path for humanity moving forward abiding by the above

meanings have however become increasingly indistinct as highlighted by Fergus and

Rowney (2005) with the introduction of the term „sustainable development‟. Sustainable

development as a concept was widely adopted in 1987 when it was popularised by The

Bruntland Commission. At this point the following definition was given to sustainable

development, “...development that meets the needs of the present without compromising

the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Bruntland, G.H. et al, 1987).

Within this outline of sustainable development, there lies huge scope for interpretation.

Due to the lack of a pragmatic definition and ambiguity of the term, sustainable

development as the driving force to a better future runs the risk of being used in a

negative sense.

As a result, social goals and cultural values can be interpreted in many different ways

depending on the perspective of the interpreter. Although the parameters for what

sustainable development should encompass were widened by the Bruntland report, thus

providing what could be called a utopian ideal of the future (Gifford, 2007), it also

blurred the lines of what sustainability and sustainable development meant as a

worldview.
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Previously, sustainability had been understood to mean limiting growth; however the

Bruntland Report advocated that prosperous countries could continue to grow their

economies as long as it was done efficiently. This being under the guise that economic

growth was indispensable in tackling environmental derogation (Lele, 1991, p613).

As a result, Development was understood to mean that industrial productivity could be

increased, thus allowing businesses to substitute the real meaning of sustainable

development, (Johnson et al, 2000), i.e., a limit to growth with one that now meant

sustainable growth, while under the pretence of sustainability, thus rendering

sustainable development an oxymoronic definition. (Redclift, 1987)

In a 1992 World Bank report, this contradiction was glaringly obvious when it was

subsequently asked, “What is sustainable? Sustainable development is development that

lasts” (Sachs, 1993).

Changing of perspective on what sustainable development means, has led to the focus

now being that economic development is seen as what should be sustained. Many

governments have put emphasis on cutting our carbon emissions and developing

technology to combat pollution, thus changing the focus to one dominated by process,

measured by an economic sense (Fergus & Rowney, 2005).

With the prominence on this type of focus, it can be concluded that this is a sticking

plaster of a solution covering the bigger issue of sustainability out with economic

growth.

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Consequently, without addressing the more important issue of sustainability and its now

indistinguishable and confusing counterpart development, there is a real danger that

focus is on the wrong thing. If we focus mainly on economic development, in relation to

a purely „bio economic‟1 sustainable world view, the real meaning of what sustainability

is, if not addressed as the main issue, may be the iceberg waiting to sink our ship.

So what are the alternatives to a „bio economic‟ view of sustainability? On one hand it

is essential that we become ecologically sustainable, if we deplete our finite resources

without developing alternative methods, and leave un-healable scars on the planet in our

developing economy‟s wake, having a broader more heuristic definition of sustainable

development will not save us on its own (Foster,2002).

However, as highlighted, sustainability should be used as a capacity for our continued

cultural and social development through a set of deeper social values (Foster, 2002).

...sustainability is a vision of the future that provides us with a road map and
helps us focus our attention on a set of values and ethical and moral principles
by which to guide our actions. (Veiderman, 1995)

In a move towards a definition of sustainability that encompasses the sentiments

expressed in the above quote, is John Fosters (2002) concept of ‘deep sustainability’.

This terminology refers, in general terms to a frame of mind that goes with the grain of

nature rather than against, it counteracts the superficiality of a purely bio economic view

of sustainability. Foster (2002) points out, even if hypothetically humanity develops the

technological power to sustain life indefinitely, can we continue with the current

„techno- managerial‟ frame of mind widely adopted at the moment?

1
Foster, 2002 deep sustainability.

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Whilst it is unrealistic to think that simply a change of mindset will be enough to sustain

human life forever, it is also unsustainable to think that humanity can go on seeking the

sort of growth we pursue currently. “No great improvements in the lot of mankind are

possible until a great change takes place in the fundamental constitution of their modes

of thought.”(Mill, 1989)

Life is, in essence emergent and unpredictable (Irwin, 2009), however our current mind-

set encourages us to control for every possible threat that we may encounter. Our desire

for almost complete control over the undeniable and inherent uncertainty that life poses,

may in fact do more harm than good in the long run. As Foster puts it, this mode of

thought is going against the grain of nature and thus renders it unsustainable in essence.

It is not just that chance will not ultimately be tied down; life, in any but its
simplest material domains, is radically open. To the extent that we focus on
guaranteeing some future outcome, we risk disordering current living, of which
the essence is growth in response to unanticipated change, and so rob ourselves
of both the present and the future. (Foster, 2002)

However, within the current paradigm of sustainable development, there appears to be a

lack of parameters required for this to be achieved. As pointed out by Schumacher

(1973) humanity is battling to win a fight with nature, which essentially we are only

fighting against ourselves, as we fundamentally are part of nature.

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As we strive to be in control of every aspect of the future, we are faced with the reality

that many of the choices we are forced to make about technology and public policy

about our future have unknown and unquantifiable consequences, that may, or may not

be environmentally sustainable. To be deeply sustainable would mean that we would

have a possible method to guide us through such decisions.

The ethos behind „deep sustainability‟ is in direct contrast to the over rationalisation of

modern society. Rationalisation which, highlighted by Jenkins (2000) is one of two

forms of disenchantment that Weber (1930) describes as one of the fundamental

downfalls of modern society.

The philosophical basis for sustainable development and Weber‟s (1930) description of

disenchantment are crucially interconnected. In societies current path, the over emphasis

on efficiency and predictability through science and bureaucracy are closing off

evocative and spiritual realms of in favour of conventional and knowable material

values. If this continues to be humanities main objective, this will render us

unsustainable.

“Too much safety seems to yield only danger in the long run. In wildness is the

salvation of the world."(Leopold,1949). What is evident is that the unknown must be

fostered, thus allowing the individual to create meaning and a spiritual dimension in

themselves in an attempt to truly encourage a deeply sustainable society, where the

individual spirit and essence is nurtured. “You can't insure against the future, except by

really believing in the best bit of you, and in the power beyond it.”(Lawrence, 1960)

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This important link between sustainability and spirituality especially in connection with

nature was highlighted in longitudal research into sustainability conducted by Lange

(2008). The research was intending to show that sustainable lifestyles and societies

could be created through personal and social actions. However, some of their findings

were unexpected, when participants were contacted at a later date it was evident that

even years after the course many had engaged in some sort of spiritual pursuit as a result

of the course.

The main aspects were, firstly participants now described a connection to nature as

being “life-giving and re-invigorating.”Participants also indicated that they were now

aware of the recuperative influence of nature, which was explained as “a spiritual

connection”, with many reporting that they created a place of beauty and serenity in

their homes, described as somewhere to “feed their spirit”.

Further to this, participants described a “deeper awareness” and “greater sense of

connectedness.” This was also combined with participants saying that they now

understood the world differently, with many “seeking the intentions of my higher self”.

With a new heightened consciousness about how media targeted society in an attempt to

deviate them from their “higher goals”. They also now felt a “connection to the

universe” which inevitably allowed them to live in the moment, with many also

describing that they now had a connection to the universe or a higher power.

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Furthermore, the majority of participants also now felt themselves becoming less

controlled by the need to achieve and fulfil materialistic desires, recognising the

destructive nature of a path solely revolving around a consumer worldview.

This type of phenomenological experience of a deeper connection to self and nature,

through the intentionality of sustainability allows it to be concluded that the intrinsic

nature of these experiences hold greater scope for a deeply sustainable society.

What these findings point to, is that an understanding of sustainability, and pursuing it

out with economic gratification may be capable of much more than simply becoming

environmentally sustainable.

A greater respect for the environment is required of a truly sustainable society, but what

is also is apparent from the review of literature that a sustainability guided by intrinsic

motivation creating a sense of re-enchantment also heightens this.

If deep sustainability is partnered with a greater connection to self, others and the

environment, then this may create the framework for a sustainable future, which could

allow humanity to move towards a different future ideology of sustainability. This

leaves room for our understanding of sustainability to be placed in a far more heuristic

context allowing for a holistically driven agenda based on a different set of core values

measured out with an economic quantification.

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Chapter Two: Understanding the pursuit of happiness

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight some of the key philosophical facets of

humanity’s quest for happiness, with the aim being to establish how theses philosophies

relate to each other through an analytical comparison of each.

It will also be determined through a critical review of the literature how these factors

of happiness motivate and satisfy the individual in their quest for happiness. This will

also be explored through primary research in the form of a questionnaire, in an attempt

to confirm some of the main findings from these comparisons at the level of the

individuals’ happiness.

It is necessary to establish the main motivations to provide a basis for discussion in

relation to links with sustainability and to facilitate analysis of the paradoxical nature

of other attempts to manifest happiness as explored within the third chapter.

We all desire happiness and we all try to achieve it in one way or another, with some

being more apt than others. The ease of this statement does not however translate into a

simple solution as to how to give rise to it. Happiness is experienced differently by us

all and in a huge variety of ways, which due to the tacit nature of happiness, renders it a

difficult to define.

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There have been numerous attempts to grapple with the issue of how humanity pursues

happiness, with a wide range of disciplines now trying to address and truly understand

it.

Historically it has been the staple of philosophers, however many other schools of

thought have joined the crusade in an attempt to add their own insights into happiness.

Although undeniably important to understanding happiness, this paper will not address

the findings from neuroscience, the focus of this chapter will be on the philosophical

and psychological definitions of happiness, allowing further discussion in relation to

sustainability and our pursuit of happiness to be conducted in later chapters.

Happiness is a large umbrella of a term that covers a wide range of idioms. Paul Ekman

(2003) highlights that there may be as many as sixteen pleasurable emotions that can

come under term happiness. These range from the sensory pleasures to wonder, ecstasy

gratitude and compassion, with many in between.

It seems impossible to define happiness as a concise concept as it encompasses many

different emotions and experiences. The philosophy of happiness however goes some

way to help categorise the types of happiness we experience.

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What happiness is, and how to give rise to it has been pondered for centuries by

philosophers, and more recently by the discipline of positive psychology. Due to the

complex nature of happiness, there is not one concrete philosophical view of happiness.

However, the field of positive psychology and the work of Dr Martin Seligman have

established that the pursuit happiness can be categorised into three main elements, these

are stated as being pleasure, engagement and meaning

The philosophy of happiness from pleasure dates back to the Greek school of

philosophical thought from the 5th century BC. The teachings of Aristippus of Cyrene

advocated that happiness should be derived from immediate sensual pleasure, and that

pleasure is the ultimate goal of all our actions.

With the main emphasis put on achieving pleasure, this view can be categorised as a

hedonistic form of happiness. The main ethos behind this is that when we dwell on the

past or speculate about the future, it can result in feelings of insecurity and concern.

Cyrenaics were of the thinking that only the sensations experienced in the present

moment could ever be truly known. (Slack,2008)

Dr Martin Seligman identifies a happiness gained through a life of seeking of pleasure,

as one that strives for „positive emotion‟ and is referred to as the „pleasant life‟. In other

words, having a life of experiencing as many pleasures as possible and learning how to

sustain and intensify them.

However In his TED talk Dr Seligman highlights that although many find this mode of

seeking happiness through pleasure and positive emotion a way of life, it has inherent

drawbacks. A life of positive emotion is, “heritable, habitual and not very malleable”

(Seligman, 2004).
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Another drawback of happiness sought in the experiencing of pleasure, is in the quality

of experience. The first experience is the most intense, and the following experiences of

the same pleasure will never be as intense or as fulfilling as this first time. However he

also points out that a life of seeking only pleasure can be intensified by learning skills to

allow you to savour and stretch these moments for as long as possible.

Additionally the following quote further highlights that happiness sought through

pleasure only is not as satisfying as other pursuits of happiness. Although it should be

noted that is not valueless.

An orientation to pleasure is not as strong an individual predictor of life

satisfaction as orientations to engagement or to meaning. But neither is pleasure
irrelevant to life satisfaction, because it represents value added to a life rich in
engagement and meaning and value subtracted from a life deficient in these
respects. (Peterson, et all, 2005)

It is possible then to conclude that the pursuit of positive experience is, although rewarding

to a point, in itself may not lead to live a wholly satisfied life.

Further to this, Ross McDonald, writing in „The future of Gross National Happiness‟

reinforces the downfalls that are predominant in a life of pleasure seeking. He highlights

the Hindu word ‘dukkha’ which is a term referring to a way of “unskilful conscious

modality that includes happiness”.(McDonald, 2008)

„Dukkha‟ is a word that not only means happiness but is also used to mean suffering.

Thus, the type of happiness derived from pleasure that is conveyed by the term points to

a happiness that is fraught with a duality to suffering.

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 To seek dukkha is ultimately to seek mere pleasure and the temporary

happiness that is derived from this tends to be unstable, superficial, self-centred and

short sighted. (McDonald, 2008)

‘Dukkha’ reveals an imperfect realisation of happiness that creates a constant need to

recreate the initial pleasure, which as confirmed by Seligman, is never as pleasing as the

first experience and has an immutable quality, which also renders it a more difficult

form of happiness to pursue and sustain. (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002)

Thus, it is possible to conclude that seeking happiness through only pleasure is in

essence unsustainable. It is also possible to devise from the highlighted literature that it

may also be destructive as a primary means of satisfying ones desire for a lasting form

of happiness.

One indication however that it is possible to develop from a state of dukkha, and thus

happiness sought by the pursuit of pleasure, can be found in the development from

dukkha to what is called sukkha. The key differences of these two states are found in the

quality and the integral factors of which they consist.

Sukkha is a happiness that does not rely on outside influences to sustain it and is

dependent on inner sources. Thus providing a more mature and stable form of

happiness, which can be more directly relied on. (McDonald, 2008)

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On further analysis of the previous literature an interesting factor is the sentiment of the

cyreneics is worth mentioning again. This is in relation to the move away from the

superficial nature of a happiness found from pleasure.

The belief that only the present moment is really known, and should be what we

concentrate on can also be found in more current philosophical thinking of Eckhart

Tolle.

Tolle(2004) writes in the „Power of now‟ that it is only the present moment that really

exists and that it is our ego that stops us from really experiencing the now, which he

believes is the essence of enlightenment and thus a truly meaningful form of happiness.

To the ego, the present moment hardly exists. Only past and future are
considered important. It says: "One day, when this, that, or the other happens, I
am going to be okay, happy, at peace."(Tolle, 2004)

What this thinking points to, is the possibility that happiness only really exists in the

now. Although similar to a point with the Cyrenaics School of thinking, in as far as it is

the present moment is the most important for truly experiencing. Essentially, the

difference is that what is being sought with how it is being sought fundamentally

differs. This is identified in that the Cyrenaics are classed as ego hedonists, (Parry:

2009) thus standing in stark contrast to Tolle (2004).

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Tolle (2004) states that while the „egoic‟ mind is the controlling factor to our happiness

we will continuingly feel the need to fill a void inside ourselves by superficial means.

To be truly happy and enlightened one must be able to separate themselves from the

ego.

The mind in itself is not dysfunctional. It is a wonderful tool. Dysfunction sets in

when you seek your self in it and mistake it for who you are. It then becomes the
egoic mind and takes over your whole life. (Tolle, 2004)

Tolle advocates a deeper connection to ones inner self, out with the controlling factors

of the ego. Which as stated above encourage one to search for themselves in the past or

future, thus losing the connection to the individuals true being, through, in a sense,

something that doesn‟t exists, as only the now is truly where the self is experienced.

A move towards a deeper connection to ones true self can be likened to a eudemonic

view of happiness, which can be understood to mean the cultivation of one‟s true self

and inherent nature through the individuals‟ intrinsic motivation. A eudemonic

happiness is found in the quality of one‟s life as a whole, it requires one to be aware of

their individual virtues, and to actively nurture them and thus live in unanimity with

them(Aristotle,2000).

This search for happiness is indicative of what Seligman calls a „life of engagement‟.

Seeking happiness through these means is categorised by a complete connection to ones

passion, be it work, love or leisure. A life of engagement is a life that the individual is

aware of their highest strengths and has built their life around them.

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Evident are the links between a „life of engagement‟, and social theorist Mihaly

Csikszentmihalyi's concept of „Flow‟. Flow can be described as a moment of deep

concentration, typically, when an individual is deeply immersed in the completion of a

task that challenges their area of expertise. This experience is so enjoyable that

individuals engaged in flow describe a feeling of time standing still and a connection to

something higher than themselves. (Csikszentmihalyi, 2002)

Through carrying out a questionnaire involving a cross section of individuals, it was

shown that individuals describe what sorts of activities or things made them the

happiest. It appears that people are in fact happiest during times when flow is possible.

When asked the question, “When are you at your happiest?” Similar answers to the

following ones were common, “when I'm at the work bench and things are going well”

(Appendix 1), “When I am sailing or playing the fiddle or other musical instrument.

“When I am engrossed making something in the workshop.” (Appendix 2)

This clearly shows that being in a situation that has the right conditions for flow to be

created can contribute toward happiness. As highlighted by Csikszentmihalyi,

individuals more often than not pursue out with the material gains due to the highly

satisfying nature of engaging with ones passion.

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The essence of the flow experience can be further highlighted; during flow many

participants describe a feeling of ecstasy during the process. The intriguing aspect with

this insight into flow is how the word ecstasy is described in the Oxford dictionary of

philosophy;

(Greek, standing outside) A state in which normal sense experience is suspended

and the subject becomes joyfully conscious of higher things

Both the English and Greek meanings of this word help illuminate the true essence of

flow. In his 2004 TED talk Csikszentmihalyi elaborates on this by stating that, flow

offers the participant the experience of a different reality so they are literally „standing

outside‟ their everyday actuality.

Due to the high levels of concentration involved during the flow experience the

individual is so immersed in the moment that only the task at hand is what they are

aware of, all outside factors are no longer in the mind with existence essentially

becoming temporarily suspended.

Furthermore, the feeling of flow also instils a greater internal lucidity in the individual.

The individual also feels a sense of stillness, with the outside world and inner anxieties‟

becoming something the individual is increasingly unaware of thus enhancing the

feeling of being outside our normal existence. (Csikszentmihalyi, 2004)

Again, further links with Tolle‟s description of a true connection to ones inner being are

evidently present when an individual experiences flow. As the individual moves beyond

the boundaries of the ego, the ‘egoic’ mind no longer becomes the controlling aspect of

the individual in those moments of flow.

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Experiencing flow allows one to become free of the ego, and to experience their true

selves out with the confines of physiological time and internal background noise from

the „egoic‟ mind, as the individual moves deeper into the present moment.

The eternal present is the space within which your whole life unfolds, the one
factor that remains constant. Life is now. ..., the Now is the only point that can
take you beyond the limited confines of the mind. It is your only point of access
into the timeless and formless realm of Being. ..., that intensely alive state that is
free of time, free of problems, free of thinking, free of the burden of the
personality. (Tolle, 2004)

In addition to a life of engagement, is a life of meaning or „the good life‟, which in

many respects stands aside a life of engagement. The „good life‟ as described by

Seligman is in essence the same as a life of engagement in the sense that the same

motivations and experiences are what create it, with one factor in addition, „the good

life‟ is when someone uses their skills and virtues for something higher than

themselves. The main defining aspect that separates the two is in that although both are

propelled by personally intrinsic motivations, the good life also is fuelled by a desire to

use these motivations for cause “outside of themselves”(Maslow, 1965).

Maslow (1965) describes these two types of life styles in a sense of our human needs. A

life of engagement and the good life could be classed as forms of „self actualisation‟. He

highlights that someone who is self-actualising is someone who has devoted their lives

to “something that is very precious to them – some calling or vocation” (Maslow,

1965).

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Maslow (1965) also establishes that self-actualisation is a search for what he calls

“being values” or the “ultimate values”, which he confirms as intrinsic. Maslow has

coined the term „meta-needs‟ for these motivations. He also states that a life devoid of

these needs creates „meta-pathologies‟.

These are described in a sense of a “sickness of the soul”. Interestingly he also says that

these „being values‟ “are the meaning of life for most people” (Maslow, 1965), although

the majority of us are not even aware of these meta-needs.

Furthermore Maslow (1965) states that in moments of self-actualisation we experience

the moment “vividly, selflessly, with full concentration and total absorption”,

expressing that the person is “wholly and fully human” in that moment. In addition to

this, we lose our self-consciousness and self-awareness during actualising the self. All

of which profoundly link them to the core themes running through Seligman‟s, Tolle's

and Csikszentmihalyi‟s ideologies.

Finally, Maslow highlights that to truly self-actualise, the individual must be true to

one‟s self by being aware of their personal likes and dislikes out with what they think

they should like or dislike dictated through the society they belong to. Immanuel Kant

sums this sentiment perfectly when he puts forth a mantra for enlightenment, “Sapere

aude [Dare to be wise] Have courage to use your own understanding.” (Kant, 2009)

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Through critically reviewing, the existing literature it can be concluded that the pursuit

of happiness can and does encompass a wide range of ideologies and it is through a

review of these that it is evident that happiness can be manifested in a variety of ways.

The key findings of this review show that the pursuit of happiness may in fact carry a

theological aspect to it. This was shown in the clear metaphysical sentiments found in

the experience of the intrinsic motivations of one‟s inner self devoid of the ego, which

propels ones pursuit of happiness through engagement and meaning.

What this shows is that happiness can certainly be understood to mean more than

simply feeling good. If our energies are channelled in accordance with our true self the

phenomenological experience can in fact allow one to move beyond happiness

controlled by dependence on outside factors. In summation, by understanding happiness

in this context, and seeking it thus, it essentially is a very robust and sustainable pursuit

of happiness

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 Chapter Three: The paradoxical nature of consumer

happiness.

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the ways in which we pursue happiness in a

predominantly consumer lead society. This will be discussed through critical review of

the literature, with the aim of highlighting the driving forces behind this pursuit of

happiness.

This is necessary to determine how these types of pursuits of happiness contribute

towards happiness and well-being as to allow further discussion to their relation to

sustainability.

Since the 1950‟s, certainly in the western world, our lives have become more and more

affluent, with our standard of living now much higher than any time in our history.

However, as our standard of living has increased, have our levels of happiness increased

as a result of this material gain?

Perhaps ironically, research into our level of happiness since the 1950‟s show that levels

of happiness have not increased with levels of wealth (Layard, 2005). Between 1973

and 2001 GDP per capita in the United Kingdom increased by 66% without any

increase in life satisfaction (Real World Economic Outlook, 2003). This for many is a

surprising finding, as the consensus is that the more money and the more things we

posses, the better our lives will be.

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Since Adam Smith‟s „The Wealth of Nations‟(1776), economic growth has been the

doctrine of economists and politicians the world over. To a point economic growth has

been a positive thing, without a free market economy we would not have the advance

we now take for granted, and money is important to a point, however it seems that this

is only worthwhile to a certain level.

Research shows that as individual income increases to a minimum of $10,000 per

capita, it is in direct correlation to happiness with this also increasing. Beyond this level

however, the correlation stops, as income rises beyond $10,000, happiness remains

static (Layard, 2005). What this points to is that after our basic needs are met; more

money really does not contribute to our wellbeing (Stutz, 2006).

However in the current economic paradigm, growth is given as the answer to

everything, as highlighted in chapter one, it is also used as the answer to having a

sustainable future, which as shown is contradictory in terms.

Moreover, unadulterated economic growth may not only have no power in terms of

increasing our levels of happiness; it may also contribute negatively to it. To understand

this, some economic theory must be highlighted. Economists‟ use A “Gini Coefficient”,

it is the calculation used to highlight unequal gains in income across a society (Bannock

et al, 1992).

28
One such application of this calculation has shown that in the United States between

1997 and 2001, the upper 1% of earners received significantly more of the “real national

gain in income” compared to the bottom 50% of the population (Crook,2006). This

disparity in income distribution is not only worrying in itself at the seemingly unfair

share of wealth, but may have wider unforeseen implications on our happiness.

This relates to another concept from economics, externalities. Externalities in

economics explain the detrimental effects of an action, that isn‟t accounted for in the

price, or more significantly to this discussion, in the market system (Bannock, et al,

1992). Studies into behavioural economics show that externalities play a direct role in

happiness from consumption.

What is shown is that our happiness is in fact directly affected by what others around us

have. The paradox is that even as relative income has increased, if our income is in fact

sufficient, our happiness can be adversely affected by what our peers are perceived to

have in comparison. (Layard, 2008)

So the bleak findings that the rich are getting richer, whilst the rest of us watch in awe

are only adding to the paradox of seeking happiness in a capitalist economy. Society is

bombarded with images of the grotesquely rich on television and through the media.

With the cult of celebrity enhanced by glossy magazines and sitcoms, which generally

portray the upper classes, we are lead to believe this is the level of materialism we

should be aiming for. As the rich get further and further beyond our reach, our

worldview is being abstracted, encouraging us to consume more in an attempt to keep

up in an unwinnable race. The only result apparent is to fuel our unhappiness through

this externality.

29
Furthermore we are now so disjointed from our communities that again this increases

the power of this externality, as what we observe through the media are in a sense our

neighbours and who we compare our lives to (McKibben,2007). Thus, we are fuelled to

spend more time working to earn and consume more in a futile attempt to match up to

this lifestyle (Litman,2007).

Our happiness is intertwined with trying to keep up with these fictional peers, leaving

our lives and quest for happiness fraught by our ineffective quest for satisfaction

through consumerism. As a result, we will continue to be unable to distinguish the

difference between the “good life” and the “goods life” (Kasser, 2006).

Another aspect of the paradox of seeking happiness through consumerism, is the

overwhelming increase of choice, with the advances in every aspect of life, choices are

endless in every sphere of our lives. The paradigm that freedom of choice equates to

happiness is misleading. What Schwartz (2004) proposes is that we in fact have too

much choice. Instead of liberating, the vast amount of choice cripples us; we find it

incredibly hard to choose and are far more likely to conclude that we made the wrong

choice.

When there is no clear preference, making a choice may be a difficult task,

because the available options may appear to be similar in their overall
attractiveness....., the final choice implies that the non-chosen options and their
attractive features have to be foregone (Festinger, 1964).

30
Therefore, we are never really happy in our decision, with the very real risk of being left

feeling chronically dissatisfied. Therefore, too much choice ends in the majority of us

feeling regret in our decisions coupled with a feeling of self-blame. (Lin, et al, 2006).

Therefore, not only do we find it difficult to make these choices, they can actually have

a negative effect through regret and self blame.

Moreover, society is now heavily mass individualised, as a result of our free market

system. This system promotes that the individual will mainly be concerned with

maximising his or her own satisfaction or profit. (Bannock et al, 1992) "The first

principle of Economics is that every agent is actuated only by self-interest."(Edgeworth,

1881) further to this Schumacher (1973) states, “The modern economy is propelled by a

frenzy of greed and indulges in an orgy of envy...the very causes of its expansionist

success.”

This economic paradigm of mass-individualisation drives us to, in the main, be

concerned with our own self-interests. Thus, we consume on a huge scale regardless of

the wider impact of this on the environment, and much of the time, our own financial

situation highlighted with personal debt soaring, now crippling many people through

their insatiable desire to consume regardless of cost.

Much of this insatiable desire can be accredited to the motivators highlighted above;

however there are also many more motivators in our society that fuel this type of

behaviour which will now be discussed further.

31
To truly understand how economists view the pleasure or satisfaction derived from our

purchases, it is necessary to further highlight some economic theory. In economics,

pleasure as a result of the consumption of a product is described as the utility of that

product2. It is assumed by economists that these choices are spurred by rational

behaviour. The economic view that consumption and happiness are intertwined,

inexplicably allows our economies to advocate growth as a positive thing. (Gilbert,

2007)

This however is a flawed outlook, In an economy that is hell bent on growth, it certainly

make things easier in a sense that, if the decision is a rational one, then consumption is

always positive and it can assumed that the individuals are exercising a logical need or

want. However, it can be shown that this is not always the case. Our purchases are

heavily influenced by advertising and emotion, which highlight the irrational nature

underlying in many of our purchases.

Advertising for example uses imagery of what could be classified as views of human

happiness, with community and friendship being used to promote products. In turn, we

are influenced to buy. Consciously or not, we are not only buying that product, we are

also buying into the lifestyle being portrayed. The reality is that we have only consumed

a product; the idyllic lifestyle portrayed does not ensue with the purchase. (Mckibben,

2007) This again highlights the paradox of seeking happiness in a materialistic domain;

we are in essence trying to buy happiness, with the end result leaving us dissatisfied.

2
“Utility is defined as the ultimate goal of all economic activity, but it is not a label for any particular set
of pursuits such as sensual pleasure or the acquisition and use of material goods.”(Bannock, et all,1992)
32
In addition, our drive to consume is also stimulated by our emotions. One example of

this can be found in the aftermath of September 11th in the words of the former

American president,

We cannot let the terrorists achieve the objective of frightening our nation to the
point where we don‟t conduct business where people don‟t shop … Mrs. Bush
and I want to encourage Americans to go out shopping. George W. Bush
(October 12, 2001)

When shopping is being sold to us in the shiny packaging of patriotism, tied together

with a big ribbon of emotion, namely fear, how can we possibly refuse? Under this

guise, Americans readily cooperated. (Arndt et al, 2004) highlighting why this is the

case, terror management theory as pointed out by Arndt(2004) shows that humans seek

meaning and self esteem from the cultural paradigms in situations of danger out with

our control. With Shi (1985) (cited by Arndt et al, 2004) showing that materialism is

engrained in the psyche of American individuals, thus Americans naturally turned to

this method of alleviating existential threats.

The role that emotion plays in consumerism can be further exhibited by research

highlighting the link between self-esteem and materialism. It was found by Chaplin and

John (2005) that adolescents with low levels of self-esteem were more materialistic,

with the opposite also being true. This can be understood in the sense that material

objects are used as a way to express self with this correlation is also found amongst

adults (Kasser, 2002).

33
This again shows that society is trying to fill a void within a materialistic sphere.

Richins and Dawson (1992, p304) define materialism as the “pursuit of happiness

through acquisition rather than through other means” (cited by Chaplin and John, 2005).

Thus the search for a meaningful happiness is more often than not confused with a

desire to consume, which in turn does not have the intended outcome of increasing an

individual‟s well being (Kasser, 2002).

It seems our collective worldview is sadly dominated with the type of searching that has

been detailed in the above literature. We seem to be taking the casual term „retail

therapy‟ far too literally with meaning, satisfaction and lasting happiness being sought

in a consumer society. With the current economic paradigm for growth encouraging this

type of behaviour, It seems evident however that we cannot find happiness in this mode,

shopping malls are not the pantheon that we have built them up to be.

34
Conclusion

The aim of this dissertation was to highlight the links between sustainability and

happiness and to establish if humanity‟s pursuit of happiness will have a positive or

negative effect in relation to achieving a sustainable future.

It was evident from the findings in chapter one that the various concepts of

sustainability as a driving force for change are incredibly split in their ideologies. Thus

formulating a pragmatic solution that will be able to bridge the gap between each is

difficult.

It can be concluded that a „bio-economic‟ view of sustainable development advocates

economic growth, However as highlighted by Schumacher (1973), a continuance of

“unlimited generalised growth” rather than “growth to a limit” is unsustainable by

nature.

Another key finding was the inherent qualities of a deeply sustainable worldview, which

encompassed a much broader view of what sustainability could mean. What was

highlighted is that this worldview encompassed the possibility of a sustainable future

that encouraged meaningful connections to nature, the self and the unknown mysticism

of life.

It was also shown that the search for sustainability can be incorporated with a search for

a spiritual dimension in ones life; this was found through an evident reconnection with

nature and ones true self.

35
Through analysing the key philosophies of happiness it was found that, the „good life‟

and a „life of engagement‟ had core connections with the theory of Flow, self-

actualisation and enlightenment. Through this connection, it could be concluded that

the „good life‟ and a „life of engagement‟ include the possibility that a profound

connection to ones inner being can be achieved by seeking happiness in this way.

It was evident as a result of these intrinsic realisations, that happiness sought in this way

allows for a deeper connection with ones actualised self and a deeper understanding of

being out with materialistic realms.

To provide context for happiness in relation to happiness, the current social paradigm of

seeking happiness through materialism was discussed allowing a fuller understanding of

how our current consumer worldview relates to sustainability.

Thus, the conclusion to this paper has two distinct sides. On one hand, if we continue to

use the current understanding of sustainable development as the framework to guide us

to sustainability, optimising economic growth in an attempt to achieve this, coupled

with inefficient quests for happiness, sustainability is a contradiction in this context.

On the other hand however, the findings from the discussion relating to the alternate

viewpoint on sustainability, when discussed alongside pursuing happiness through

intrinsic motivations, may hold the key sustainability. If this was the widely held

paradigm for how we pursued happiness, it can be concluded that in conjunction with

a framework dictated by deep sustainability, there is promise for a sustainable future

out with economic growth and materialistic values.

36
It is key however to highlight the limitations of this conclusion, what also must be

addressed is how pragmatically society free themselves from the dominant paradigm of

economic growth and the belief that we can find happiness as consumers.

In an attempt to touch on one way, although certainly not a complete solution to the

problems highlighted above, is the concept of gross national happiness, as employed as

the driving force for policy in the Kingdom of Bhutan. This may go some way to

shifting the paradigm over to one in which society‟s well being is measured with greater

importance than personal wealth.

It seems appropriate to end with a quote from Mahatma Ghandi, which poignantly

embodies the key summations of this paper.

Western civilisation is very well advanced on the material level. If it were as

fertile in developing techniques for inner development as it is in developing
technology, it would be at the forefront of the modern world. But when man
forgets to cultivate his inner life, he turns himself into a machine and becomes a
slave to material things. Then he is a human being only in name

37
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