C

The primary function of air conditioning is to

maintain conditions that are comfortable to humans,
or are those as required by a product or process
within a confined space, to perform this function;
equipment of the proper capacity must be installed
and controlled throughout the year. The equipment
capacity is determined by the actual instantaneous
peak cooling load requirements. It is impossible to
measure the actual peak cooling load in any given
space, and hence these loads must be estimated, In
the context of air conditioning in a built
environment, it is generally known that there would
be space heat gain from external as well as internal
sources. However,' it is necessary to understand that
there are four related but distinct hear flow rates,
each of which varies with time. These are:
(a) Space heat gain
(i) From external sources
(ii) From internal sources
(b) Space cooling load
(c) Space heat extraction rate
(d) Cooling coil load.
The space heat gain is the rate at which heat is
transferred to and/or generated in a space at a given
time. The space cooling rate is the rate at which heat
must be removed to maintain space air temperature
at a constant value; the space heat extraction rate is

7
 C

the rate at which heat is removed from the

conditioned space by the cooling and dehumidifying
equipment. Cooling coil load is the rate at which
energy is removed at the cooling coil which serves
one or more conditioned spaces in any central air-
conditioning system.

7
 C

The primary function of air conditioning is to

maintain conditions that are comfortable to humans,
or are those as required by a product or process
within a confined space, to perform this function;
equipment of the proper capacity must be installed
and controlled throughout the year. The equipment
capacity is determined by the actual instantaneous
peak cooling load requirements. It is impossible to
measure the actual peak cooling load in any given
space, and hence these loads must be estimated, In
the context of air conditioning in a built
environment, it is generally known that there would
be space heat gain from external as well as internal
sources. However,' it is necessary to understand that
there are four related but distinct hear flow rates,
each of which varies with time. These are:
(a) Space heat gain
(i) From external sources
(ii) From internal sources
(b) Space cooling load
(c) Space heat extraction rate
(d) Cooling coil load.
The space heat gain is the rate at which heat is
transferred to and/or generated in a space at a given
time. The space cooling rate is the rate at which heat
must be removed to maintain space air temperature
at a constant value; the space heat extraction rate is

7
the rate at which heat is removed from the
conditioned space by the cooling and dehumidifying
equipment. Cooling coil load is the rate at which
energy is removed at the cooling coil which serves
one or more conditioned spaces in any central air-
conditioning system.
2.1 SPACE HEAT GAIN
Space heat gain, i.e. the instantaneous rate of heat
gain is the rate at which heat enters into and/or is
generated within a space at a given instant of time.
Heat gain is classified by:
• the mode in which it enters the space,
and
• whether it is sensible or latent gain
The first classification is necessary because of
different fundamental principles and because
equations are used to calculate different modes of
energy transfer. Heat gain occurs in the form of:
1. Solar radiation through transparent
surfaces
2. Heat conduction through exterior walls
and roofs
3. Energy transfer as a result of ventilation
and infiltration of outdoor air
4. Heat conduction through interior
partitions, ceiling and floors

8
 5. Heat generated within the space by
occupants, light and appliances
6. Miscellaneous heat gains.

The second classification, sensible or latent, is

important for the proper selection of cooling
equipment. The heat gain is sensible when there is a
direct addition of heat to a space by any or all
mechanisms of conduction, and radiation. The heat
gain is latent when moisture is added to the space.
To maintain constant moisture content in a space,
water vapor must be condensed out in the cooling
apparatus at a rate equal to its rate addition to the
space. The amount of energy required to do this, the
latent heat gain. Essentially equals the product of the
rate of condensation and the latent heat of
condensation. The distinction between sensible and
latent heat gain is necessary, because any cooling
apparatus has a maximum sensible heat removal
capacity and a maximum latent heat removal
capacity for particular operating conditions only.

7
The various components of space heat gains shown
schematically Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are described on the
next page.

FIGURE 2.1 Schematic diagram of heat gains in a space from

internal and external sources.

8
FIGURE 2.2 Types of heat gains in a space from
internal; and external sources.
2.2 HEAT GAIN FROM EXTERNAL SOURCES
The first four types of heat gains in Figure 2.2 Eire
distinctive in that these are heat gains from external
sources and are weather-related variables. The
principal weather-related variable influencing a
building's cooling load is solar radiation. Hence,
prior to discussing these heat gains, particularly the
first two, a brief review of solar radiation would be
appropriate.
2.3 SOLAR RADIATION

9
The factor that has maximum influence on the
cooling load of a building is the solar radiation, of
load.
The earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical
orbit, as shown in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 as the earth
moves, it also spins about its own axis at the rate of
one revolution every twenty-four hours. Its axis of
rotation is tilted 23.5° with respect on its orbit
around the sun. This angle of tilt essentially causes
the distribution of solar radiation over the earth's
surface and, consequently, the change of seasons.

1
F
Dc
SPRIN
The Earth G
is
inclined

SUMM
ER
Ea
rth
June WINTE
Ax
R
is

Direct

4, m
§mm®

FIGURE 2.3 The earth's revolution about the sun.

The Earth
revolves in
an orbit
FALL
September
23rd

1
1
'.-ST®
Arcti
c
Circl
e
<
n
>

T
r
o
p
i
c

o
f

C
a
n
c
e
r

Equator

Tr
opi
c
of
Ca
pri
co
rn

A
n
t
a
r
c
t

1
i
c
C
i
r
c
l
e

1
3
through the atmosphere and reaches the earth's
surface directly is called direct or beam radiation.
The intensity of direct radiation depends on the
orientation of the surface, it is a maximum when
the surface is normal to the sun's rays and zero
when it is parallel to the sun's rays. A major part
of the sun's radiation is scattered, reflected back
into space and absorbed by the earth's atmosphere.
A part of this radiation is re-radiated and reaches
the earth's surface uniformly from all directions. It
is called diffuse or sky radiation. As it is diffusing
in astute, it does not normally change with the
orientation of the surface. The total radiation
reaching a surface is equal to the sum of direct and
diffuse radiation. When the sky is clear, the diffuse
radiations are usually a very small part of the total
radiation. However, with a hazy or cloudy sky, the
diffuse radiation increases and the direct radiation
decrease considerably.

2.4 Solar angles: The sun's position in the sky is a

major factor in the effect of solar energy on a
building, It essentially defines the direction of the
sun's that are affected by (a) location on the,
earthl's surface, (b)time of the day, and (c) day of
the year. These three quantities are -conveniently

1
specified by the latitude, the hour angle h and the
sun's declination &, respectively, as shown in
Figure 2.5. The latitude 1 is the angle between line
OP and the projection of OP on the equatorial
plane. The hour angle h is the angle between the
projection of P on the equatorial plane and the
projection on that plane of a line from the centre of
the sun to the centre of the earth. The sun's
declination & is the angle between a line
connecting the centre of sun and earth and the
projection of that line on the equatorial plane.
Figure 2.6 shows the apparent path of the sun and
the sun's declination angle.
Figure 2.7 shows the variation of sun's declination.

1
5
y$r
V Potoffe

FIGURE 2.5 Latitude angle <p, hour angle d>,

W,

North Celesta! Pole

FIGURE 2.6 Schematic celestial sphere showing

South Celestial Pole

apparent path of sun and sun's declination angle.

z (zenith)

e (east)
n (north)

\I
In air-conditioning calculations the sun's position is
defined in terms of the solar altitude angle (3 and
solar azimuth angle 6 which depend on 1, h and &
defined earlier. The solar altitude angle /3 is the
angle between the sun's rays and the horizontal to
the earth. The solar azimuth angle 6 is the angle in
the horizontal plane measured between South and
the projection of the sun's rays on that plane. The

1
7
angle of incidence 6 is the angle between the sun'S
rays and the normal to the surface. Figure 2.8
illustrates the angles mentioned above.
2.5 Solar insulation values: The amount of direct
solar radiation or insulation falling on a given
surface is equal to the product of the direct of the
direct radiation falling on a surface normal to the
sun's rays, /DN, and the cosG. The intensity of the
2
direct normal irradiation ldn, in W/m at the earth's
surface on a clear day may be estimated from the
following equation:

where A is apparent extraterrestrial insulation and B

is the extinction coefficient. The value of B
depends on the time of year and the amount of
water vapor present in the atmosphere. The total
solar energy flux Ire on a

1
terrestrial surface of any orientation and tilt with
incident angle 9 is equal to the sum of the direct
solar component IDN COSQ, the diffuse component
of solar radiation IDS coming from the sky, and the
reflected short-wave radiation from the surrounding
terrestrial surfaces IR Thus. I TO = IDN cosQ + IDs
+ IR
2.5.1 Solar radiation through transparent objects:
When solar radiation impinges on an unshaded
glass window, part of the radiant heat (around 10%
for clear glass) is reflected back outdoors, part of it
(5 to 50%, depending on composition and thickness
of glass) is absorbed by the glass and the remainder
is transmitted directly indoors. The three
components of the radiation are shown in Figure
2.9.
Incident radiation

Absorbed radiation

P
Radiation and
^ convection
heat (low

X
Transmitted radiation

1
9
 \

FIGURE2.8 Absorption, reflection and transmission

of solar radiation in glass
The total instantaneous heat gain through the glass
area can be obtained from the following heat
balance:
Qtotal=Q*T+Qr+Qc--- -1.3
where
Qtotai is the
2 !
total heat transmission through the
glass (W/m )
is the heat flow due to temperature difference
between outdoor and indoor
QR is the radiation directly transmitted through the
glass QC is the inward flow of absorbed radiation
QSHG is the solar heat gain.
The last two terms in the above are to be
considered only when the surface is exposed to
solar radiation. Combining the last two terms, we
get
S
Q,0,a,=Q^+Qs
i.e. Total heat transmission through glass =
conduction heat gain — solar heat
2
The total load through the transparent glass area is
the sum of the load due
to conductive heat gain and the load due to solar
heat gain (SHG).
The surface optical properties of glazed surfaces.
are described by the
following relationship
a+p+x=l

where
a is the
absorptivity
p is the
reflectivity x
is the
transmissivity
.
The relative magnitude of each of these terms
affects the solar heat gain. The solar radiation
^transmitting through such transparent glass area
may be expressed by the equation: Qsr = A(7rl] +
Falx) = AI} (n + Fa) —1.6 Where,

2
1
I] is the total solar radiation incident on the surface
2
(W/m )
F is the fraction of absorbed radiation
transferred by conduction and
convection to inside environment
hQ is the outside heat transfer coefficient
2
(W/m .K)
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the
2
glazing (W/m "K).
Under steady conditions, F=U/ho Equation (1.6)
can then be restated

The expression /, is referred to as solar heat gain

as

2
2.5.2 Structural heat gains
Incident solar radiation heats up the exterior
surfaces of a building and raises its temperature.
Heat gains through the exterior building envelope,
i.e. walls and roof if derived in the same way as
those through glass areas. However, heat transfer
conducted through these w;alls differs not only
because of their opaqueness but also because the
walls are constructed of different materials in
layers to form into a composite wall or roof.
For calculation of heat transfer through structures,
it is convenient to combine the effects of the
outdoor air temperature T0 and the total solar
radiation incident on the surface Ii into a single
quantity, known as the sol- air temperature Tc
which is formally defined as follows:
Sol-air temperature is the temperature of the
outdoor air that, in the absentee of all radiation
changes, gives the same rate of heat entry into the
surface as would the combination of incident solar
radiation, radiant energy exchange with the sky and

2
3
other outdoor surroundings, and convective heat
exchange with outdoor air.
The general expression for the heat balance at a
sunlit surface gives the heat flux on to the surface
as
+
K(T0 -Ts)-adR- -(1.8)
where
a is the coefficient of absorptivity of the surface for
solar radiation
Ii is the total solar radiation incident on the. surface
2
(W/m )
ho is the coefficient of heat transfer by long wave
radiation and convection
at the outer surface
T0 is the outdoor air temperature (°C)
Ts is the surface temperature (°C)
is the hemispherical emissivity of the surface
SR is the difference between the long wavelength
radiation incident on the surface from the sky and
surroundings and the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at T0.
Introducing the equivalent, i.e. the sol-air
temperature T0 the theat transfer

2
Q = h (Te-Ts) (1.9)
A
From Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9) T =T+—L-—
'° K K
For horizontal surfaces receiving long-wave
radiation from the sky only, the ilong-wave
correction term s5RIH0 is about -4°C and the
same for vertical surfaces is 0°C. The average
daily sol-air temperature can be calculated for any
situation. 2.5.3 An Example
Calculation of the instantaneous sol-air
temperature for a wall with the following known
conditions:

2
5
To
35
0
tal
W
dir
/m
ec
2
t
an
d
dif
fu
se
so
lar
ra
di
ati
on

2
Su
0.
85
rfa
ce
ab
so
rpt
ivi
ty,
a

2
7
O
20
W
ut
/m
si
2
de.
K.
su
rfa
ce
he
at
tra
ns
fer
co
eff
ici
en
t

2
O
35
ut
°
C
si
de
su
rfa
ce
te
m
pe
rat
ur
e

2
9
So
l-
air
te
m
pe
rat
ur
e,
T.
=7
+
^--
£^
=
35
+3
085

*
350

+
0
=
49
.9
°
C
hu
M

20
2.5.4 Ventilation heat gain
Provision of ventilation air is mandated by local
codes and ordinances, The ASHRAE Standard 62
recommends minimum ventilation rates for most
common applications, For general applications,
such as offices, 10 liters/s per person in
recommended. Ventilation air is generally
introduced at the AHU rather than directly into
the conditioned space, It thus becomes a cooling
coil load component instead of a space load
component.

Heat gain corresponding to a flow rate of V

through an enthalpy difference of Ah (for an air
3)
density of 1.20 Kg/m is shown below: Sensible
heat gain corresponding to the change in diy bulb
temperature AT for a given air flow (standard
conditions) V is
Qs = 1.20(1.005 +
\Ms)VAT = \.23VAT
where

3
1
Qs is the sensible heat change
(W) m is the specific humidity
(kg water)/(kg dry air) v is the
3
air flow rate (m /s).
Latent heat gain corresponding to the change in
specific humidity (Ac?) for a given air flow V is
=1.20x2500 Q2Ao) = 3010QsA6)
2.5.6Infiltration heat gain
The entire infiltration load should be considered in
the space heat gain calculations. The procedure for
calculating infiltration air is discussed in Chapter
11. Sensible and latent heat from infiltration gains
can be calculated in the same way as ventilation
air.
2.5.7Heat Gain from Internal Sources
Internal heat comprises sensible and latent heat
gains from occupants, lights, appliances and
equipment and piping, etc.
2.5.8Occupancy
The occupants in conditioned space give off heat
and moisture at rates depending on their states of
activity. Often these sensible and latent heat gains
may constitute a large percentage of the total load.
While the latent heat gains are considered

3
instantaneous, all of sensible heat gains do not
become cooling load because of the thermal storage
characteristics of the space. Table 13.22 lists the
rates of heat gains from occupants in conditioned
spaces. 2.5.9.Lighting Load
Lighting is often a major component of space
cooling load, Like occupancy, the rate of heat gain
at any instant can be quite different from the heat
equivalent of power rating of the installed light
fixtures. Part of the energy emitted from lights is in
the form of convective heat that becomes
instantaneous cooling load, The remaining part is
the radiant heat which is initially absorbed by the
walls, floor, furniture and upholstery and then
released to the room air after a time lag (Figure
1.10)

3
3
 FI
G
C
U
R
E
2.
10
Th
er
m
al
st
or
ag
e
eff
ec
ts
in
co
oli
ng
lo
ad
fr
3

o
m
lig
ht
s.
Th
e
in
sta
nt
Qel is the heat gain (W)
W is the total light wattage
Ful is the lighting use factor
F^ is the lighting special allowance factor.
The special allowance is the ratio of the wattage in
use, for the conditions under which the load estimate
is being made, to the total installed wattage, The
value may usually be taken as unity. 2.5.10 Power
The instantaneous heat gain from equipment operated
by electric motors within a conditioned space is
calculated as o =(Pr }F F
1
zZtm ' m)1 UM !M

G^ is the heat equivalent of equipment operation (W)

P is the motor power rating (W)
E is the motor efficiency, as decimal fraction <1.0
M

F is the motor use factor, 1.0 or decimal fraction

UM

<1.0
FM is the motor load factor, 1.0 or decimal fraction
<1.0
The motor use factor may be applied when motor
operation is intermittent
.For conventional applications, its value would be 1.0.
The motor load

3
factor is the faction of the rated load being delivered
under the conditions
of the cooling load estimate.
2.5.11 Miscellaneous heat gain
Fans: Fans that circulate air through the air-
conditioning system add energy to the system by the
following processes: (a) temperature rise in the air
stream from fan inefficiency.
(b) Temperature rise in the air stream as a
consequence of static and velocity pressure, and
(c) Temperature rise from heat generated by motor
and drive efficiencies.

Duct heat gain and leakage: Heat gained or lost by

supply duct could be significant and it is normally
estimated as a percentage of space sensible cooling
load (usually about 1 %). Air leakage out of or into
duct work can have much greater impact than the
conventional duct heat gain or loss. The outward
leakage from supply duct is a direct loss of cooling
and dehumidifying capacity and needs to be
compensated by increased air flow. A properly
designed duct system should not leak more than 1-3%
of the total system air flow. An improperly designed
and constructed duct system can have leakage rate as
high as 30%.
The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must
be removed to maintain a constant space air
temperature at the desired value, It may be noted that

3
the summation of all space instantaneous heat gains at
a given time does not necessarily equal the cooling
load for the space at the same time. The space heat
gain by radiation is partially absorbed by the surfaces
and by the contents of the space and does not affect
the room air until
SOX

surfaces, for example, walls floor, and ceiling,

and by the material in the space, for example,
furniture, curtains, upholstery, etc. Once these
surfaces and objects become warmer than the
space air, some of their heat will be transferred
to the air in the room by convection (Figure-
212). The thermal storage effect can be
exploited for economical equipment selection.

3
FI
G
U
R
E
2.
1
2
Di
ff
er
en
ce
be
tw
ee
n
in
st
an
ta
ne
3
ou
s
he
at
ga
in
an
d
instantaneous cooling load.
2.5.12. Storage of heat in building
structure
The relationships between instantaneous heat
gain and cooling loads is shown Figures 13.12
and 13.13 It may be seen that the peak heat
gain is delayed as expected; for heavy
construction. The highly varying and relatively
sharp change of the instantaneous solar heat
gain results in a large portion of it being stored
at the time of peak solar heat gain.

3
Ligh
t
co
ofl
m
cti
on
M
ed
iu
m

H
ea
vy

FI
G
U
R
E
2.
1
3
A
ct
ua
l
co
ol
in
g
lo
ad
co
m
pa
re
d
wi
4
th
in
st
an
ta
ne
ou
s
he
at
ga
in
The upper curve in Figure 2.13(a) is typical of the
solar heat gain and the lower curve is the actual
cooling load that results in an average construction
application with the space temperature held constant.
The cross-hatched areas (Figure 2.13 (a) represent the
heat stored and the stored heat removed from the
construction. Since all the heat entering the space
must be removed, these two areas are equal.
Figure 2.13 (b) illustrates the relationship between the
instantaneous heat gain and the actual cooling load in
light, medium, and heavy construction. With light
construction, less heat is stored at the peak, while
with heavy construction more heat is stored at the
peak.
One more item that significantly affects the storage of
heat is the operating period of the air-conditioning
equipment. All the curves of Figure 2.13 (b) illustrate
the actual cooling load for a 24-hour operation. If the
cooling equipment is shut down after a certain number
of hours of operation, some of the stored heat remains
in the building construction. This heat must be
removed when the equipment is turned of the next
day.

2.6 SPACE HEAT EXTRACTION RATE

The space heat extraction rate is the rate at which
heat is removed from a conditioned space, It equals
the space cooling load only when the room air
temperature is kept constant, which rarely occurs.
Once the control system is designed properly, the
computation of the space heat extraction rate results in
4
a more realistic value of energy removal at the
cooling equipment rather than using the values of the
space cooling load.

2.7 COOLING COIL LOAD

Cooling coil load is the rate at which energy is
removed at the cooling coil which serves one or more
conditioned spaces in any central air- conditioning
system. It is equal to the instantaneous sum of the
space cooling load for all the spaces served by the
system, plus any additional load imposed on the
system external to the conditioned spaces. Such
additional load components may include (a) outdoor
hot and moist air introduced into the system for
ventilation and (b) heat gain into the air duct system.
2.8 CONTROL AND ZONING
A zone is a section of a building which has the same
air supply throughout- under the control of a single
thermostat. In order to maintain similar conditions in
all the areas or rooms of a zone, it will be necessary
for these areas or rooms to react thermally with time
in a similar manner. Where fairly uniform internal
conditions are present the areas with similar daily
load variations may be grouped into one zone. The
daily variations in load are due to:
o Variations in occupancy and equipment loads.
• Variations in the location within the building so
that solar loads,

4
 shade factors building construction,
etc. are different. ® Variations in fresh
air requirement.

Areas must also be zoned (a) where there is a need

to maintain different internal condition and (b) where
the hours of operation of the air- conditioning system
vary.
The zones of a building may be achieved in the air-
conditioning system by the following methods:
• Separate air handling plant or unit air
conditioners to serve each zone.
• Common air handling plant with separate cooling
coil and/or heating
coil installed in the main supply duct to each
zone.
• Common air handling plant delivering air to
terminal units (mixing
boxes, induction units, etc.) located in each zone.
• Common air handling plant with volume domes
at each zone.
® Common air handling plant supplying hot and
cold air which is mixed according to the
requirements of the zone.
CHAPTER 3: Cooling load calculation
procedures

4
3.1 Simplicity, accuracy and uncertainty in
cooling load calculations For each cooling load
calculation method, there are several
benefits/limitations which feature each method.
Simplicity and accuracy are two contradicting
objectives to be fulfilled. If a method could be
considered to be simple, its accuracy would be a
matter of question,' and vice versa. While modern
methods emphasize on improving the procedure of
calculating solar and conduction heat gains, there are
also other main sources coming from internal heat
gains (people, lighting and equipment). Handbooks
include tables for the heat gain estimations from the
internal sources. However, such tables are incomplete.
For example for equipment not mentioned in the
tables, only
-limited information is indicated about them.
Sometimes recommendations are mentioned about
using 25% to 50% of the nameplate power
consumption, where the final value is left to the
interpretation of the designer. In other times it is the
accurate predictability of the occurrence is also
important, e.g. the frequency of using of equipment is
very important to determine the heat gain. This
example for internal heat gain shows that, when
thinking about accuracy, it is not only the method
(simple vs. complex) which is effective, but
uncertainties in the input data are also important.
There are high degrees of uncertainty in input data
required to determine cooling loads. Much of this is
due to the unpredictability of occupancy, human
behavior, outdoors weather variations, lack of and
variation in heat gain data for modern equipments,

4
 and introduction of new building products and HVAC
equipments with unknown characteristics. These
generate uncertainties that far exceed the errors
generated by simple methods compared to more
complex methods, Therefore, the added time/effort
required for the more complex calculation methods
would not be productive in terms of better accuracy
of the results if uncertainties in the input data are
high. Otherwise, simplified methods would, likely,
have a similar level of satisfactory accuracy. 3
3.2 Cooling Load Calculation Methods
In this report five standard methods for the
calculation of heat load are presented in brief. They
are based on hourly calculation of the cooling load.
These methods deal with the sensible heat load.
However, for the latent heat, the main source is
people.
Heat gain from people has two components, sensible
and latent. The total values and proportions of
sensible and latent heat vary depending on the level
of activity, age and gender. Those values are listed in
tables. The latent and sensible heat gains from
occupants should be computed separately until
estimating the building refrigeration load, where the
two components are combined. The latent heat gain is
assumed to become cooling load instantly, whereas
the sensible heat gain is partially delayed depending
on the characteristics of the conditioned space.
According to the ASHRAE regulations, the sensible
heat gain from people is assumed 30% convection

4
(instant cooling load) and 70% radiative (delayed
portion).

The five methods which will be presented here are:

1. The Heat Balance Method (ASHRAE 2001)
2. The Radiant Time Series (ASHRAE 2001)
3. CLTD/SCL/CLF (ASHRAE 1997)
4. The Admittance Method (CIBSE 1986)
5. VDI Methods (1996)

3.2.1 Heat Balance Method (ASHRAE fundamentals

2001) The procedure described by this method is the
most reliable mean presented by ASHRAE for
estimating cooling load for a defined space. Other
ASHRAE methods are simplifications of the heat
balance principle. In fact, any cooling load estimate is
no better than the assumptions used to define
conditions and parameters such as physical makeup of
the various envelope surfaces,-conditions of occupancy
and use, and ambient weather conditions outside the
building. The ASHRAE 2001. Fundamentals mentions
that the Heat balance method (HB) and the Radiant
time series method (RTS) have superseded (but not
invalidated) other methods including CLTD/SCL/CLF.
. Main Features
– Accurate method as it based on heat balance
models
– By this method it is possible to calculate: the
cooling load assuming a constant zone; air

4
temperature, or the floating zone air temperature when
there is no cooling system,
or zone temperature when cooling system is on.
– For heat transfer through walls, conduction
transfer functions (CTF) are used which include a
time-series method. The determination of the CTF
coefficients is relatively complex. To determine the
CTF coefficients, two methods could be
implemented: one
,based on using an excitation function with a known
Laplace transform and ztransform,
the second is based on matching the frequency
response to the frequency response of the s-transfer
function at several frequencies. The calculation of the
heat transfer includes multiplication of present values
of interior and exterior surface temperatures, past
values of interior and exterior surface temperatures,
and past values of surface heat flux. 4
Assumptions
Room surfaces can be treated as entities having:
– Uniform surface temperatures
– Uniform long- and shortwave irradiation
– One-dimensional heat conduction Advantages
– Using a complete heat balance would give
better results than simplified methods as the former
balances all energy flow in each zone (which is not
guaranteed for the approximate methods)
– Additional information about the component
performance could be determined and not only
cooling load (e.g. surface temperatures at various
times)

4
– The zone air balance equations can be
formulated to solve for cooling load assuming a
constant zone air temperature, or floating zone air
temperature when there is no cooling system, or to
find zone temperature when cooling system is on. \
Disadvantages
– A fairly complete description of the input data
should be provided by this method, noting that
simplified methods tend to simplify the procedure by
precalculating cases and grouping the results with
various correlating parameters which reduces the
amount of the required input information. Typical
requirements of input data will be shown later for
this method.
– Iterative procedure is included because all of
the heat balance equations must be solved
simultaneously, and therefore, a computer program
should be used
Walls, roof and floor
Heat transfer balance equations arc set for the outside
and inside surfaces and
connected with the CTF solution for the heat
conduction process.
Windows
Heat balance equations are formulated for the
windows taking into consideration the absorbed
radiation by the window and the heat exchange at the
exterior and interior surfaces to find the window
surface temperatures. For the transmitted radiation,
direct and diffuse radiation are calculated and
summed up. Internal heat gains

4
The amount of heat gains from people, lighting and
equipment are estimated from tables for the specified
components. Total surface irradiance
It is calculated from summing the direct, diffuse and
ground-reflected irradiance from equations (this is
applicable for the method presented by the ASHRAE
Fundamentals 2001), according to the location, time,
solar angles for the surface, and surface, ground and
sky properties.
3.2.2 Radiant Time Series Method (ASHRAE
fundamentals 2001) This method is simpler to
apply than the Heat balance method. There is no zone
heat balance. The storage and release of structure
energy are approximated with predetermined zone
response. The cooling load is found directly but the
zone air temperature is assumed constant. Main
Features
– Zone air temperature is assumed constant.
– Periodic response factors are needed to find the
conduction heat fluxes for walls. The
response factors for a single pulse are composed of
24 factors for steady periodic input. A computer
program on a CD-ROM can be used to generate these
factors for any multilayer wall.
– Radiant time series, which is consisted of 24
radiant time factors, should be generated for the
conversion of the radiative portion of heat gains into
cooling loads. A computer program for the heat
balance method, or a database for weighting factors
have to be used to generate these factors.
Assumptions

4
– Sol-air temperature is assumed for the outside
air. Hourly sol-air temperatures are calculated
according to the location from equations for the
incident solar radiation, radiant energy exchange with
sky and other outdoor surroundings, and convective
heat exchange with the outdoor air (ASHRAE 2001)
– Zpne air temperature is taken as a constant
– Solution is based on steady periodic conditions
(where the design weather, occupancy,
and heat gain conditions are identical to those for the
preceding day, so that the load is
repeated on a 24 hours basis)
Methodology
– Periodic response functions for the heat
conduction through walls, roofs, and floors, which
involves 24-hour-coefficients
"-"The radiative, portions of the hourly heat gains are
converted into hourly cooling loads
using radiative time factors (24 factors)
– The hourly cooling load is determined by
summing up the loads from the convective portions
and cooling loads due to radiative heat gains
Advantages
– This method is a simplification of the heat
balance method which can be performed step by step,
therefore it does not require iterative calculations
– Can be implemented in a computerized
spreadsheet
– Can be used to find peak load
Disadvantages
– Results in small (!) overpredictions. However,
significant overpredictions are noticed

5
specially for zones with large quantities of high
conductance surfaces
– The sol-air temperatures for the 24 hours have
to be found for each surface 7
– The hourly periodic response factors for the
conduction heat transfer have to found for each type
of wall, roof, or floor according to its layers
composition, thickness, properties (computer programs
are available on CD-ROM for calculating the periodic
response factors for any multilayer wall)
– Similarly, a procedure should be implemented
to generate the hourly factors of the radiant time
series, which involves using a zone heat balance
method (by a computer
program) or a data base for weighting factors
- Not suitable for manual calculations because of the
involved computerized calculations to find the
periodic response factors for the related different
walls, and the radiant time factors for the a specific
construction Walls, roof and floor
Conduction heat fluxes are found from knowing the
sol-air temperature and the periodic response factors
for the walls. Internal heat gains
Heat gains from people, lighting and equipment are
estimated from tables for the specified components.
Splitting the radiative and convective portions
Since this method is based on the procedure of
collection of all heat gains and then
splitting them into radiative and convective portions,
following is a list of percentage

5
radiative andpercentage convective portions of the heat
gains, respectively:
Wall and window conduction 63%, 37%
Roof conduction 84%, 16%
People 70%, 30%
Lighting 67%, 33%
Equipment, 20%, 80%'
Transmitted solar heat gain 100%, 0%
Absorbed solar heat gain, 63%, 37%
Infiltration 0%, 100%
3.2.3 CLTD/SCL/CLF METHOD (ASHRAE
fundamentals 1997) (Cooling load temperature
difference/solar cooling load factor/cooling load
factor) Accurate simulation of a proposed building
design without correct data is impossible. However,
the many variables required for consideration in good
simulation often become tedious and force designers
to spend valuable time consulting tables and
performing repetitive calculations. This is especially
true for the Transfer Function Method (TFM) which
pertains this repetitive nature and is identified by
ASHRAE as the fundamental methodology of peak
cooling load calculation. Transfer function method
was first introduced in 1967. This procedure is based
on response factors and the interplay of heat
exchange between various surfaces and sources of
heat. Transfer functions are based on two concepts:
the conduction transfer factors (CTF) and the
weighting factors (WF). The CTF are used to describe
the heat flux at the inside wall, roof, partition, ceiling
or floor as a function of previous values of the heat
flux and previous values of inside and outside

5
temperatures. The WF are used to translate the zone
heat gain into cooling loads. As a result of the TFM
complexity, ASHRAE developed a method called the
cooling load temperature difference/cooling load
factor CLTD/CLF (1975) which was derived from the
TFM. The CLTD/CLF method depends on tabulated
data to simplify its operation for manual use. This
method was subjected to several revisions to
accommodate the problems that rose from
approximations and limitations to cover more accurate
tabulated data. Due to this, ASHRAE published the
cooling load temperature difference/solar cooling
load/cooling load factor (CLTD/SCL/CLF) method
(ASHRAE 1993, 1997), which is a revised
CLTD/CLF method. This method is a simplified
method, simpler than the RTS method. Main Features
– Zone air temperature is assumed constant.
– Three factors are used to deal with the
conduction heat gains, solar heat gains, and internal
gains, which are respectively, CLTD/SCL/CLF.
Those factors are calculated using the transfer
function method (TFM) which yields cooling loads
for standard environmental conditions and zone
types.
Assumptions
– Sol-air temperature is assumed for the outside
air
– Zone air temperature is taken as a constant
Methodology
This method uses tabulated CLTD (cooling load
temperature difference), SCL (solar cooling load

5
factor), and CLF (cooling load factor) data. CLTDs,
SCLs, and CLFs all include the effect of (1) time-lag
in conductive heat gain through opaque exterior
surfaces and (2) time delay by thermal storage in
converting radiant heat gain to cooling load. This
simplification allows cooling load to be calculated
manually. The data are generated by weighting
factors and conduction transfer coefficients, which
yield cooling loads for standard environmental
conditions and zone types. The cooling loads are then
normalized for the specified zone conditions, so it
would be possible to calculate the cooling loads for
each hour with a simple multiplication. 9)Hourly sol-
air temperature values are presented in tables for
various orientations of a surface for 21 July at 40 N
latitude, with standard surface absorption factor for
light and dark coloured surfaces. The sol-air
temperatures are listed for a given air temperature
cycle. Adjustments can be introduced for other dates,
latitudes and air temperature cycles.
When this method is used in conjunction with custom
tables generated by appropriate computer software,
and for buildings where external shading is not
significant, it can be expected that it will produce
results very close to that produced by the TFM.
When the printed tables are used, some additional
errors is introduced. However, in many cases the
accuracy should be sufficient. Advantages
– A simplified method
– More suitable to be a manual calculation
method including spreadsheet use

5
– The zone response can be accounted for more
accurately by using ample available printed tables
covering most common constructions, or using a
computer program to generate a set of tables for a
specific zone, latitude and month
Disadvantages
– The adjustment for a wall or roof which is not
matching one of the listed groups is one source of
errors
– The inaccuracy of correcting for other
months and latitudes Walls, roof and floor
The heat gain is calculated by using the sol-air
temperature. The cooling load is calculated from a
modification of the conduction equation qcond— U
A CLTD. Hourly CLTD values for 40°N latitude are
tabulated for outdoor maximum temperature of 35°C
with mean temperature of 29.5°C and daily range of
11.6°C. An adjustment equation is indicated to
correct for conditions other than the mentioned base
case. Windows
The absorbed and then conductive portion of the
radiation through the windows is treated like the
walls where CLTD values for standard glazing are
available to find the cooling load. For the transmitted
radiative portion, the cooling load is calculated by the
solar cooling load SCL factor which accounts for
both the solar heat gain and the zone response. The
fraction of solar gain that is transmitted is accounted
for with a shading coefficient (SC) to correct for
transmittance and shading devices qrad- A SC SCL

5
Internal heat gains
Cooling load factors CLF are used to account for the
time lag of the cooling load caused by the building
mass which is generated by heat from internal sources
(lighting, people,
appliances, etc.). The hourly heat gains for people,
lights and equipment are specified. The weighting
factors equation determines the CLF factors where a
CLF represents the fraction of the heat gain that is
converted to cooling load Qinternai_ loads ~~
Qintemaljgains CLF. The CLF for people load is
dealing with the sensible part of the occupancy heat
load, where the latent part is taken as instant loads.
The CLF is a function of the time people spend in the
conditioned space and time elapsed since first entering
the space. The appropriate CLF is selected from tables
according to zone type, occupancy period, and number
of hours after entering.
CLF data for lighting is tabulated also. They were
calculated according to the assumptions that (1) the
conditioned space temperature is continuously
maintained at a constant value, and 10 (2) the cooling
load and power input to the lights eventually become
equal if the lights are turned on for long enough. For
power driven equipments, the radiant part of the
sensible heat gain is delayed in becoming cooling
load, and CLF values from tables are used in the
same manner for other components. 3.2.4 The
Admittance Method (CIBSE)
For climatic reasons, the application of air
conditioning to office spaces in the UK in the post

5
 war period lagged behind that of the U.S. It was not
the need for the calculation of cooling load, but with
the need to calculate maximum temperatures in natural
and mechanically ventilated buildings that the
Admittance method was first developed. Unlike
ASHRAE, whose methods were directed toward
assuming a constant internal temperature, CIBSE
primary aim was to demonstrate the role of internal
mass in modifying room temperature.
Another difference between the earlier U.S. calculation
methods, and the U. K. methods is that the dynamic
model of the room fabric is integrated with a
simplified zone convection and radiant heat transfer
model. The room model is known as the
environmental temperature model. Two internal nodes
were defined, one of which was the air node, the
other being an environmental temperature node. The
likely reason for this is that, the U. K. methods were
originally developed for calculating heating loads, and
with a preponderance of hydronic radiant heating
systems, a

the load was met by AN axT-D&SSC. sy stern.. ,

T~ic ixjziz. pi TUT PUNL V^SS
of more interest. Main Features
– The admittance method allows the calculation of
overheating temperature for the room, or peak cooling
load calculation for a constant (internal)
environmental temperature.

5
– Three factors are involved in this method. The
decrement factor is used to account for
the heat transmission through the structure due to
external excitations. For the internal heat gains, two
other factors are used, the fabric admittance and the
related surface factors. The values of these factors
are calculated using a frequency domain solution to
the unsteady conduction equation with assumed
sinusoidal input fluctuations. Assumptions
– Sol-air temperature is assumed for the outside air
– The concept of the environmental temperature
Tei is used to account for the combined
radiant and convective heat exchange with interior
room surfaces (Tei= 1/3 tai+ 2/3 tm, where fj§is
the inside air temperature, tm is the mean surface
temperature for a room). Its concept is similar to
that of the sol-air temperature used to define
external surface heat transfer in that a combined
radiant and convective conductance is used.
– Assuming sinusoidal external excitation (with a
period of 24 hours) for the heat flow transmitted
through the structure. Sinusoidal internal excitation is
also assumed on the zone fabric.
– The thermal network is defined by three nodal
temperatures (sol-air, environmental, and air
temperatures).
Advantages
– Simple
– No iteration is needed

5
– Allows the calculation in two modes: overheating
calculation (floating temperature), and a peak cooling load
calculation

5
Disadvantages
– The environmental temperature model was lately
(1992, 1996) shown to have several logical flaws
– Tends to under predict lighter weight zones
cooling loads and over predict loads for heavyweight
zones.
– There are some criticisms about the treatment of
solar gains because of the reliance on
solar gain factors, and the treatment of the radiant
part of the internal gains which causes
underproductions: Walls, roof and floor
Conduction gains are always added directly to the
environmental temperature node. The main component
of the conduction gains can be pre-calculated for each
hour. This is because these gains are calculated based
on analytical solution to sinusoidally excited conduction
heat flow. Internal heat gains and Windows
The internal heat gain and the solar gain through
glazing are calculated, and are then divided into radiant
and convective portions, where they are added to the
environmental temperature node and the air temperature
node. This is done for the mean and the fluctuating
components.
3.2.5 VDI 2078-CooIing Load Calculations of
Air-conditioned Rooms (1996)
The air temperature of a room is defined by the sum of
all influencing convective heat flows.
Heat flows due to radiation affect the air temperature
only after absorption at a room enclosure surface,
delaying heat storage there, and subsequent conversion
into convectively transmitted heat. Plants with high
radiation heat removal (cooling ceilings) are not dealt
6
with under the basic approach of this regulation, and
require separate consideration as they change the
building storage and the operative temperatures. Due to
increased importance of surface cooling systems, the
regulation plans to treat cooling loads under such
circumstances in detail in future editions. Two methods
are presented in VDI 2078 for the calculation of
cooling load, the Abridged (short-cut) method, and the
Computer method.
The Computer method was introduced in order to
extend the scope of the application to virtually any
boundary condition (variable shade, variable room
temperature, ...etc.). In which, the room reactions can
be found independent of the load by the "convolution
mathematical process" using the control functions step
response (transfer function)/pulse response (weighting
factor). It is thus possible to register the room
reactions to any boundary condition within the
framework of the calculation formulation. This requires
greater expense in calculation terms. Main Features
– The Abridged method assumes a constant
temperature inside the room, while the computer
method can handle different boundary conditions.
– For the Abridged method, cooling load factors
are used to convert the internal heat gains to cooling
loads. For the cooling load caused by the heat
conduction through walls and roofs, an equivalent
temperature difference is used in the basic form of the
conduction heat transfer equation.
– For the computerized method, weighing factors
have to be found for the room reaction. With the

6
convolution principle, the value of an output time
function at a particular time is calculated by the
integration of the product of the weighting function
by the input time function at a previous time period.
By using a recursive filter, the
number of necessary weighting factors can be
considerably reduced. Where the
transfer function is known, the weighting factors can be
determined.
Following are the mean features of the simpler method
is presented, the Abridged
Method:
Assumptions
– Assumes periodic internal and external daily load
variation cycles
– For calculation of cooling loads for fixed
boundary conditions (constant room temperature)
Advantages
– Simple
– Involves straight forward calculations
Disadvantages
– Data given are for Central. European conditions
(e.g. solar radiation at 50° latitude, true local times,
mean atmospheric turbidity... etc.).
– Corrections and adjustments are required for
parameters deviating from the standard

6
 C

conditions defined to evaluate the tables for the

equivalent temperature difference and the cooling load
factors which includes inside and outside temperatures,
surface characteristics, constructions.. .etc. Walls, roof
and floor
The effects of the unsteady state heat flow through the
external walls and roofs are incorporated by
implementation of the equivalent temperature difference.
The wall and roof structures are classified into six
construction classes according to their attenuation and
delay behavior. If other structures exist a time
adjustment must be introduced in order to account for
such deviations. Corrections for the equivalent
temperature differences are introduced for external
surfaces which have absorption factors and emissivities
deviating from standard boundary conditions. Internal
heat gains and Windows
The cooling load factors from external solar radiation
through windows and internal loads due to people,
lighting and machines are treated with cooling load
factor. Four room classes are defined according to their
thermal storage capacity (very light, light, medium, and
heavy). A typical room dimensions are defined. The
cooling load factor for internal gains is multiplied by
the internal heat gains to find the corresponding
component of the cooling load. Similar method applies
for the external load.
CHAPTER 4: PROGRAM CODES

6
The software has been programmed in the Turbo C++
programming language. Several data tables have been
used to find out necessary value of the factors and
parameters. For some cases a built in interpolation sub-
program has been used to find the value in between
two available value.

DESIGN GUIDELINES
The general procedure required to calculate the space
cooling load is as follows:
(a) Building configuration and characterizing: The
building location, orientation and external
shading, building materials, external surface
color and shape are determined. These details
are usually obtained form building plans and
specifications.
(b) Outdoor design conditions: The outdoor
weather data for the building location are
obtained and select the outdoor design
conditions are selected.
(c) Indoor design conditions: Temperature,
humidity, air velocity, etc are specified.
(d) Operating schedules: A schedule of lighting,
occupancy, internal equipment, appliances and
processes generating heat load are obtained.
(e) Date and time: The time of the day and month
to estimate the cooling load is selected. Several
different times of the day and several different
months need to be analyzed to determine the
peak load time. The particular day and moth
are often dictated by peak solar conditions.

6
Design Conditions

In principle, the heating and cooling loads are

calculated to maintain the indoor design conditions
when the outdoor weather data do not cxcced the
design values.
Outdoor Design Conditions
It is not economical to choose either the annual
maximum or annual minimum values of the outdoor
weather data in determining the outdoor conditions. The
outdoor design data is usually determined according to
the statistical analysis of the weather data so that 1 to
5% of the total possible operating hours is equaled or
exceeded the outdoor design values.

Summer Design Condition

The recommended summer design and coincident wet
bulb temperature, when chosen as being equalled to or
exceeded by 2.5% of the total number of hours (i.e.
2928 hours) in June, July, August and September, are

(i) 23 C dry bulb temperature, and

(ii) 28 °C wet bulb temperature

The Code: Programmed in TC++

6
#include
<stdio.h>
#include
<string.h>
//include
<conio.h>
//include
<math.h>
#include
<process.h>
//include
<ctype.h>

#define
north 1
#define east
2 #define
south 3
//define
west 4
//define
roof 5

double sumQ=0; H total Q