Chapter 35: Plant Structure and Growth

April 16, 2008

Contents
1 The Plant Body 2
1.1 Both gene and environment aect plant structure . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves . . . . . 2
1.2.1 The Root System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 The Shoot System: Stems and Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Plant organs are composed of three tissue systems: dermal, vas-
cular, and ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Plant tissues are composed of three basic cell types: parenchyma,
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Parenchyma Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Collenchyma Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Sclerenchyma Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 The Process of Plant Growth and Development 5

2.1 Meristems generate cells for new organs throughout the lifetime
of a plant: an overview of plant growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Primary growth: Apical meristems extend roots and shoots by
giving rise to the primary plant body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Primary Growth of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 Primary Tissues of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.3 Primary Growth of Shoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Secondary growth: Lateral meristems add girth by producing
secondary vascular tissue and periderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.1 Secondary Growth of Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.2 Secondary Growth of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development 8

3.1 Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants . . . . . . 8
3.2 Growth, morphogenesis, and dierentiation produce the plant body 8
3.3 Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion . . . . . . . 8
3.3.1 The Plane and Symmetry of Cell Division . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3.2 The Orientation of Cell Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3.3 The Importance of Cortical Microtubules in Plant Growth 8

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 Feature Monocot Dicot

Embryo 1 cotyledon 2 cotyledon

Leaf venation Parallel Net
Vascular Tissue (Stem) Complex arrangement Ring arrangement
Roots Fibrous Tap
Flowers 3n 4n, 5n

Table 1: Monocots vs. dicots.

3.4 Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.5 Cellular dierentiation depends on the control of gene expression 9
3.6 Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of
a cell's location in its developmental fate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7 Phase changes mark major shifts in development . . . . . . . . . 9
3.8 Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristems
change from a vegetative to a oral phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1 The Plant Body

1.1 Both gene and environment aect plant structure
1. Morphological adaptations (evolution) for environment;

2. Structural responses (individual). Much ↑ adjustable form than ani-

mals.

3. Physiological adjustments: hormones. Ex: close stomata.

1.2 Plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and

leaves
1. Dicot (mainly eudicot with common ancestor; others independently.

2. Separation of resources: root system for water, minerals; shoot system

for sugar.

1.2.1 The Root System

1. Fibrous roots hold topsoil → prevent erosion.

2. Taproots anchor more rmly. Food. Tap water sources.

3. Root hairs ↑ surface area of root. Extension of epidermal cells.

4. Adventitious (L. extraneous ) grow from stems, leaves.

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1.2.2 The Shoot System: Stems and Leaves

Stems.

1. Nodes attach leaves; internode has no leaves.

2. Axillary bud forms in angle (axil) between leaf and stem. Potential to
form vegetative branch.

(a) Most dormant; active ones concentrated in apex (tip).

(b) Terminal bud (shoot apex) has developing leaves.

(c) Apical dominance inhibit growth of axillary. Partly caused by

terminal bud.

i. Cut o → axillary grow

3. Modied shoots:

(a) Stolons (strawberry) grow on surface; asexual reproduction. Run-

ners.

(b) Rhizomes (ginger) horizontal stems underground.

(c) Tubers (potato) swollen ends of rhizomes.

(d) Bulbs (onion) vertical, underground shoot; swollen bases of leaves.

Leaves.

1. Blade at;

2. Petiole stalk; joins to stem. Monocots often don't have.

3. Simple, compound, and doubly compound. Wind, pathogen protection.

4. Modied leaves:

(a) Tendrils cling to support.

(b) Spines

(c) Succulent plants store water in leaves.

(d) Brightly colored attract pollinators (look like petals).

1.3 Plant organs are composed of three tissue systems:

dermal, vascular, and ground
1. Dermal/epidermis single layer; cover and protect young parts.

(a) Root hairs.

(b) Cuticle.

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 2. Vascular tissue

(a) Xylem water and minerals

i. Elongated cells dead at functional maturity. Cell wall do job.

ii. Tracheids

A. Long, thin.

B. Move through pits regions with only primary wall.

C. Hardened with lignin → support.

iii. Vessel elements

A. Wider, shorter.

B. Linked to form xylem.

(b) Phloem transport sugar from leaves → roots.

i. Sieve-tube members transport stu into tubes. Alive, few

organelles (no nuke).
ii. Sieve plates pores, uid ow.

iii. Companion cell connected by plasmodesmata. Help load sugar.

3. Ground tissue

(a) Pith inside vascular.

(b) Cortex outside vascular.

(c) Photosynthesis, storage, support.

1.4 Plant tissues are composed of three basic cell types:

parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma
1.4.1 Parenchyma Cells

1. Primary walls thin, exible; no secondary.

2. Usually least specialized. Typical cell. Exception: sieve-tube members.

(a) Metabolism.

(b) Fruits mostly parenchyma.

(c) Developing plants parenchyma. Can dierentiate.

1.4.2 Collenchyma Cells

1. Support.

2. No secondary cells or lignin → both support and grow.

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1.4.3 Sclerenchyma Cells

1. Support.

2. Thick cell wall + lignin.

3. Dead at functional maturity. Walls skeleton. Often grow secondary wall

as spring, so plant can elongate.

4. Xylem two functions:

(a) Fibers

(b) Sclereids entirely specialized for support.

2 The Process of Plant Growth and Development

Continuous growth and developmentalways embryonic parts.

2.1 Meristems generate cells for new organs throughout

the lifetime of a plant: an overview of plant growth
1. Indeterminate growth not limited by size, but not immortal.

(a) Annuals.

(b) Biennial. Separate vegetative and owering years.

(c) Perennials. Die because they get beat up, not old age.

2. Meristems perpetual embryonic regions.

(a) Apical meristem increase length. Primary growth.

(b) Lateral meristem (non-woody only) thicken tissue formed by pre-

vious growth. Secondary growth.

2.2 Primary growth: Apical meristems extend roots and

shoots by giving rise to the primary plant body
Primary plant body is part produced by apical meristems.

2.2.1 Primary Growth of Roots

1. Root cap protects meristem, secretes slime to lubricate soil.

2. Zones graded; no bright lines.

3. Zone of cell division: apical meristem, primary meristems (derivatives).

(a) Quiescent center divide slowly; resistant to chemical and radiolog-

ical damage. Reserve to restore damaged meristem.

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 (b) Primary meristems: protoderm, procambium, ground meris-
tem produce dermal, vascular, ground tissues respectively.

4. Zone of elongation up to 10× longer. Main source of pushing.

5. Zone of maturation dierentiate.

2.2.2 Primary Tissues of Roots

1. Epidermis allows entry of water, minerals.

2. Stele develops xylem, phloem. Dierentiated in dicots only.

(a) Pericycle develops lateral root. Vascular tissue continuous with

lateral.

3. Ground tissue store food, uptake minerals.

(a) Endodermis 1-cell thick; barrier between cortex, stele. Selective

barrier; regulates solute passage from soil.

2.2.3 Primary Growth of Shoots

1. Axillary buds left by islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristem.

2. Most growth in internodeactual elongation and mitosis.

3. Branches emerge from axillaryon surface of shoot. Vascular tissue of

shoot near surface.

Primary Tissues of Stems.

1. Vascular bundles not in center.

2. Surrounded by ground tissue (mostly parenchyma, some sclerenchyma).

3. Xylem inside in dicots.

Tissue Organization of Leaves.

1. Mesophyll (Gk. middle-leaf. ) parenchyma with choloroplasts. Dicots:

(a) Palisade mesophyll columns.

(b) Spongy parenchyma air spaces, irregular shapes.

2. Veins subdivided into leaf.

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2.3 Secondary growth: Lateral meristems add girth by
producing secondary vascular tissue and periderm
Secondary plant body

1. Vascular cambium produces secondary xylem/phloem

2. Cork cambium produces covering; replace epidermis.

3. All gymnosperms, most dicots, rarely monocots.

2.3.1 Secondary Growth of Stems

Vascular Cambium and the Production of Secondary Tissue.

1. Cylinder of meristematic cells.

2. Divides into xylem inside, phloem outside. Self doesn't ↑ length.

3. Forms from parenchyma that regain mitosis ability.

4. Ray initials proliferate cambium through tissue. Fusiform initials pro-

duce new vascular tissue.

5. Lignin gives wood hardness.

(a) Early wood (spring) maximizes water delivery (large diameter trans-
port).

(b) Late wood (summer) maximize support.

Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm.

1. Cork cambium forms in outer cortex, secondary phloem.

2. Deposit suberin waxy material, die. Protect water loss, physical.

3. Periderm replace epidermis.

(a) Lenticels areas where periderm split open for gas exchange.

(b) Bark includes all tissue external to vascular cambium. Periderm +

phloem.

4. Cork cambium doesn't last long; eventually parenchyma in phloem form

cork.

5. Heartwood no longer transports; resins and other stu clog it to protect

from fungi, wood-borering insect.

6. Sapwood functional.

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2.3.2 Secondary Growth of Roots

1. Vascular cambium in stele.

2. Cork cambium in pericycle of stele → periderm.

(a) Impermeable to wateronly young roots uptake.

(b) Root gets woody.

3 Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development

3.1 Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants
Who cares?

3.2 Growth, morphogenesis, and dierentiation produce

the plant body
Morphogenesis is development of body form and organization.

3.3 Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion

3.3.1 The Plane and Symmetry of Cell Division

1. Very importantsingle le vs. random clump.

2. Asymmetrical cell divisionone daughter receives more cytoplasm

common, signal key development event.

(a) Guard cell formation = change in plane. Guard cells: epidermal cell
divides into guard mother cell that is smaller. Guard mother cell
divides perpendicular to form stomata.

(b) Preprophase bind concentration of microtubules. Sets plane of

division. Late interphase.

3.3.2 The Orientation of Cell Expansion

1. Animals must synthesize lots of cytoplasm; plant mostly water.

2. Cellulose microbrils synthesized by enzyme complexes that move in plane

of plasma membrane. Microtubules form banks than conne enzymes.

3. Cell expands perpendicular to grain of microbrils. They don't stretch.

3.3.3 The Importance of Cortical Microtubules in Plant Growth

Preprophase bands do not form → cortical microtubules random → microbrils

cannot be arranged to determine direction of elongation.

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3.4 Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation
1. Positional information inuences much development. Indicates cell's
location within embryonic structure. Protein gradients.

2. Polarity inform root and shoot end. → unidirectional hormones move-

ment.

3. First division asymmetricalpolarizes shoot and root.

4. Hoemotic genesmaster regulator genes.

3.5 Cellular dierentiation depends on the control of gene

expression
1. Absence of homeotic gene GLABRA-2 → root hair.

2. Genomes intact: cells can dedierentiate.

3.6 Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the im-

portance of a cell's location in its developmental fate
1. Random changes can reorganize meristem.

2. Outermost cell usually divide into plane perpendicular to surface of root

tip.

3. Final position in organ determine kind of cell.

3.7 Phase changes mark major shifts in development

1. Apical meristem changes.

(a) Mature vegetative growth. Branches reect maturity of stem.

(b) Older shoot bear juvenile leaves because they were laid earlier.

3.8 Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a

meristems change from a vegetative to a oral phase
1. Cues: day length, hormones trigger.

2. Terminates branch growthapical meristem consumed.

3. Meristem identity genes switched on.

4. Positional information change cell into organ.

5. Organ identity genes control which organs from which cells. Mutations
→ weird owers.

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(a) Codes for transcription factorsinduce genes.

(b) ABC hypothesis: 3 identity genes:

i. A: sepal

ii. A + B: petal

iii. B + C: stamen

iv. C: carpel

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