ConcreteBlock Manufacture - 9781440047312

CLASSIIC
REPRIINT
SIERIIES
CONCRETE-BLOCK MANUFAC;TURE
Processes and Machines
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CONCRETE·BLOCK
PROCESSES AND
MANU 'ACTlJRE
MAC
INES
BY
HAR:\TON
H(_HV_ARD
RICE
FI/..'ST
FIR:-;T
EDITION
THOL'SA:-.Tn
xr.w
YORK
,.
LONnO:-.T:
JOB:\"
\VILEY
S:
&
SOXS
Lrxirrnn
CH.\P:'ITA:.J
H:\1.1.,

I
PREFACE.
THE
object
of this book is to present principles to the manufacture
in a simple which p actice blo ks for of concrete
those
well-established hollow walls,
of concreting
has shown applicable building The theoretical result
and technical questions which arise in c nnccarc only considered in the actual in so far as bene t may of bloc sand manufacture
tion with the industry to the operator
their use in construction. The conclusions only of the author's consideration of operators careful phases of the which have been reached experience and failures articles have that been arc the res It not areful by a of a large n Imber supplemented on published par .icular in cement, c itical.
III
in actual work, but of a
of the successes throughout subject it will of the many which appear
a series of years,
\wighing
bearing
engineering, To many
and building
magazines. this book is unduly grows

As the industry
For this no apology is offered, the evil herein criticised of the industry eradication) attain that that work may, in some measure, to the end that
ch of
will pass away, and it is hoped th t this
aid in giving
which
to the wea ancsses their may universally
prominence
can alone sccur blocks in loculi tics whcr
concrete
high regard
now accorded
they
are manufactured
by really a ble hands.
I
PREFACE.
allusion to patents is made in the text, the author deems it air to here state that very many of the designs and mac incs shown arc protected by letters patent. To t ose manufacturers whose ready cooperation has been both a p werful stimulus and a substantial aid in the production of this ark grateful acknowledgment is rendered. To those who hay so generously furnished illustrations of the machines they rna e, and of the buildings, blocks, and special members , produce in machines or molds of their manufacture, the author's thanks a c due. This list is as follows: The Winget Concrete Machine Co., Columbus, Ohio, Figs. II and 18; The Cement Working Machinery Co., Detroit, Michigan, Fig. 44; Kells' Foundry and Machine Co., Adrian, Michigan, Fig. 5; Miracle Pressed tone Co., Minneapolis, Figs. 10, 13, 38, and 39; H. s. Palmer ollow Concrete Building Block Co., Washington, D. C., Figs. 3, 14, and IS; J. B. Prescott & Son, 'Vebstcr, 1vfa5sachusetts, Fig. 40; White Cement M achinery CO'1 Jackson, Michiga , Fig. 43 i The Hayden Automatic Block Machine Co., Col mbus, Ohio, Figs. 17 and 34; Contractors' Supply and Equipme t Co., Chicago, Fig. I; Municipal Engineering r.nd Contract ng Co., Chicago, Fig. 2; Ideal Concrete Machinery Co., Sou h Bend, Indiana, Figs. 28, 30, 31, and 35; Simpson Cement Iold Co., Columbus, Ohio, Fig. 45; The American Hydrauli Stone Co., Denver, Colorado, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 19, 21, 23, 4, :25, :27, 29,3:2, 33, 36, and 37; The Pettyjohn Co., Terre H ute, Indiana, Figs. 16, 22, and :26; Concrete Block Machine Co., Auburn, Indiana, Fig. 4; Century Cement Machine Co., Roc ester, New York, Figs. 41 and 42; Chase Foundry and Manufac uring Co., Columbus, Ohio, Fig. 20. The IrontispIece 15 resented by courtesy of The Cement Age, New York.
HARMON HOWARD D£:r:... ER, .V
COLO.,
RICE.
March
1906.
CONTENTS.
CI-L\['TER
l.
PA~E
Definition
Ceneral
theory
n onstruction ·· of block
.
· .
:. rona lit hi c constructi
Advantages
CH."\l'TEE
CJo:\IE="T.
II.
History Puzzolan ;';atural
of hydraulic
.cments
········
cement.
cement
. . . .. . . .. . . .
. . . . . . . .. . .
. .. . . .. . ...
..
45 () 7 7
.. _............................................
Port]" ncl CC'm eut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pro cess cs of manufa 'ture _ _ ' T es ling' ce men t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C I L\ PTE R Ill.
Deli
11 ilion
Sand .. ,.
'
. .. ~. _ ..•....... .
,.
••••• t. ~~ ••••
r _ ~
"
~~. ~ ••....
4.~·
.+~
9 9
~
n of sizes Screenings. ,
Cra\'el all([ broken
Gr,l(ldt1n
•••
•••
•••••••
r.
••
••••
+.
[0
' s one - .....•................................ ' ,
. .
Ir
II I~
Cinders.
di
VI!1
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
WATER.
IV.
P .\l ~ To:
Pu ri ty. (~uantity, Water in curing In winter work ' , ,
.
. . .
13
CH;\PTER
()THER
V.
IK(; RETlTf:XTS.
Li1He , ITyd rated lime, , C hem i cal ad ulte r.ui Is \\'aterprnoiing compounds Coloring-matter
_.. _
__ .. _
. . ,. , .. , .. , .. "
, .................••........
I')
CHi\l'TER
1:-' RO PO RTl 0:-;:
VI.
rx o , ' •. ,.,. . ,. ..,.... ,
20 20
J'vT hods () f expressing .. , et , ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• Importance of ascertaining local conditions _ .. ' . . . . . . . . . .. Theory of correct proportions. _ ,., Determ ina lion hy speci fie gra vity .. , ,. . .. Determination by the water method , , Deterrni na tion hy r clati \"C \'01 u mc , . . . . . . . . . . • . ..
:::I :::I
22 "22
CIL\PTER
;\IIXIKC;.
VII.
Importance of thorough manipulation, Method of hand-mixing . Power-mixing ', .. ' _ , Continuous ZlS. batch mlxers.,... ,
,, , '"
. . . .
27
CIIAPTER
SHAPE (_)F
VIII.
BLOCKS.
Ad van tages of hollow space .. ' Descri ption of representative ly pes
. , ••••••.••
..
I
,.,
..
;_.
...
31 ~ 33
CONTENTS.
IX
CHAPTER
PROCESSES.
IX.
PA(;E
Classi fica tion of processes. . Hand and pneumatic tamping !'ouring Casting in sand M ec han ical pressu re Hydraulic pressure '
. '.' ...............•........ '.' . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ' CIIAPTER

PI.ASTle!TV.
'......... " .... . ..
43 4-144
X.
Discussion of norma! con sistency Dry mixture __ ~\[edium and 'Yet mixtures CIIAI'TER
L\Cll\G.
'. . . . . . • • • . .. . XL
48
49
50
Difficulty of facing in general concrete Vu rious methods of facing- bloc ks Colort'tl bcing _. _
\\"aterproof facing. Form of face-plates _
work
.
. '" . .
53
;4
54
CHAPTER
OR" A TIl EXT
XII.
A T I () X •
Met hods of prod ucing
CHAI'TER
CT;RI:\G.
xnr.
1[\1porlan ceo ............•........•........•••• Secrets of success Method and tuue Stea lll- Cll ri ng Curing in winter
__ _.. - ..
. -
ON TEN TS.
CH.' PTER
<
XIV.
j'_ICE
L\CllL'U:S.
Cb;;_~incation of machine» Objects of lllachines., .. , Dcscri ption of re prcscn tati ve

111,
chi nes _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
('6
CH\I'TER
PL\:\T
XV.
ARRA:\CE",l F:\T.
Location. , ' Rucks .u«! C~lrs._ , .. " Ove rlie.ul hi ns and conveyors _, Curing-yard. " ,',
.
".............................
75
76 7S 7S
, , , .. , XVr.
"............... " '.......
CH. PTER
1>1.A.·1' E)]PLUYEES.
F 0 reman
.......•.............
So .
. SJ
.\[old-llukcr \ludekr Cornmou l.t 1)(1 r _\ OilS, ....•••• las
, ••
, •••••••.•
CH, l'TER
VUIII',;.
XVI!.
Cbss i 1lGl tion of ca uses (;Lld,ltion of :lggreg'ate \lixing,, Adequate matrix Cnnd ensu tion.. . .. .
. " ".. ,................. , . . .. . XVTlT.

la.OCKS.
.. ,... .. .......
" _. . . .
S-l05 05 S:;
CHiPTER
(XU,\LlT1ES
( F C():t'{CRE1'E
Soundness " ' Strength., ...............................•..................... Lklblty., ... , ...........•....................................... 1III pt lTl l eabi I ity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..,
"
st, "
CONTENTS.
Xl
[·'ire"resic;tann' Sound-proof \. erm in-proof Vem ilation Durability
' , _ " . _. ,
. . . . _, .................•
CHAl'TER
TFS'I'I'>(;
XIX.
I:LOCKS.
General
neglect,.
_. _. _ .. , , .
1'hi Iade I ph i a speci II cal ions f(l r corn pi ell' tests _.

Demo nst r.rti ve tests..
CHAPTER
XX.
Adaptability
for all classes
of buildings.,
"
_. _,
101
CHAPTER
XXL
Culpable
C:lUSt:S 01
er rors of the machin« manufacturers, tai 1u rc chargeable to the oper;l tors ..
CHAPTER
COST.
XXII.
Cost ;111<11 ys is. _ :'II et hod () f co rn pu ti ng; cost L:I hor cost. Ad min i strati on
ant]
, . __ . _ _ of mn tcrials
. . .
J:: r
incirl e n t.ils. ,
CHAPTER
XXIII.
ARCIllTEC'I'l-RF:.
:n artis tic conception of ope ra to rs. , , , , __ .. i\ reh itectu ral st ric s uscept i I)le uf i III proveme 11 t

I
XII
CONTENTS.
CIIAJYI'ER
IT I 11)1
J'"OLJ
:XXIV.
'\G CO'\"STl{ tTCTIO"-f.

P_.ll;L
nda tion S a nd for ti I1g-S. . "......................... Supportiug joists ani Riniers............... . , ,..... Fluors.. . \\'idth of walls " i';lrtitions ..........................................•.....•...... .:\"ailing to walls , Blocks of s peeial sh: pes. , ," , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-"ollo\\"ing plans, , , , .. . .......................•..........
130 130
131 131
131
1]1
13:::
J
33
CH;\l'TEH
IT 11 ,I)] '\{;
:\:XV.
)'\"S.
1,' H;t'LXlll
Philadelphia reg ul.u I killer rCg'lli:ttion:.; Synojlsis (If ~lillllC:ll Synojlsis of .:\"c\\,;ll·k (~CII c r:IJ critic ism an
ons i 11 full., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . , ............•...........•...... olis n;guLltlollS .......................•...... reguI;Jtiolls, , I s uggcsti Oil. ,
II full.,
. . . . . . . . . ..
l]-l-
130
I-l-I l-l-::: , • • • • • •• 1-l-2
CHAPTER
XX\'l.
1.-\\"1' r.\ CIT RE () i"·\CCESSO]{IES, '
Accessory rr.olds.. . . . . ,,,.... }.[ethod of nuking ;1 HI using molds..
. . . . . . . .. ,
•...•••••...•.... , •••...•••••••..
J-I-5 l..J.7
ILLUSTRATIONS
F ron tis piece, Fig.
Office Bu tTi ngton
Pl.m t l11ino is Stce
Co. . .
.
r. Rotary mixer. , ,, 2. Cube mixer .. , , , . , . _, .. _. _ 3. 110110\\' blocks a nd wall.. , . , , .. _ 4. Til ree- web hollow blocks ;l1ld wa ll 5. Blocks of two slabs \\-i t h mct.i! ties 6. Two-piece blocb a :HI 1\-aIL . __ , 7. Di;q;r;un of t \\'o-p ieee wall. _ _. _. , , O. AIlg-(~lus Hotel, EI Paso, Texas.. _ c,;. Interlocking three-member w;J\I, 1(,. Block wi t li staggered air-space I I. Pneuma tic ta m per in 0 per:] t ion , , , , I" () m ::llllcn tal work j 0 r PO\\'\c r- 110\1S(· ,, 13, :\1old S ;t 11 d accessori es of 1'U H-over type. q. 1. 'pl-ight machine wit}: drop corcs . 15. L prigllt-111ClChine rl'lc;lsing--block.. " 16. :\1 ovi 11 R t ht 111oi( I 1':1 the I' th.ui the block. .." , 17. Facedown machine. _.. _. _ ___ .. , IS, Combin.u ion uprig-ht and bee-down m a .hinc J 9 .. \ I tl: h;1 n i (';LI press mali ing t wo- pi eete blocks, 20. Car suitable [or concrete blorks 2 I. Sys telll Ill' c\ rs ;11](1 11':](: ks. __ ,
22.
I'A,'"
2~ 20
28
. . . ,_ . . . . ,..... . ,. . .
.
32
35
37 37
38 40
-1-1
44 57
62
. .
.
77
R Uil1S of Carbon, Iud., fire. 23- Ruins of Lstbe rvill« fit-e. :q.. Column d er:l oust r.ui ng Cil rc ngth.. 25. :,\It.:l]]{)dist church, \ll:Cook . .:\eb
,." . . . ..
xin
. . 99
101

I
xiv
IlLUSTRATIONS.
r_.\ ~~ !-o:
Fig. :::(,. Entrance to Cottag-c Hill Cemetery ........•••.••.••..... '27· Cutt:l).;·e at i\ .ishvill«, Ttn n ...............•••.•.•...... 2;), Church at _:\;orth Liberty, Ind .............•••••••....... 2(J. Rc,.;idc.:nu· at :\ aslrvill«, Tcnl1 , ........•••••.......
102
3°_
+
]{(,,_,id,:lln:
HO;llC
a t \Val"s:\w,
l rid
10
\Yis, 31. , .32 l\._c,.;id l" Jl cc at J kn ler, Colo, , __ ',\"arhurWtl Building, Tacuma, Wash 33· Ohio, , _ 34- j{('sidt'llcc ill Columbus, to Fairview, Bluffton, Ind , 35· Entrance 36. 1\ chraska Stelle ); ()rmal School, ..............•.......... 37. Deco r.u in: fl'a t urcs of t \\'0- piece wall .........•........... in cone rete blocks , , . . . . .. 38. Be;] u t: fui decoration Urn ,llll ell t.itiou ul- a pitch-face wall , . . . .• .• . 39·
at l 'o rt \Ya"hing-toll,
. ,,. . . .
10,) III III I 12 113 115 J2..j.
.. . .. ,
~
12
l:::S
J
4°, 'fecil wall-plug- , . , .. , _. , . , . ,

h 41. \,..a ri 0 II S :-.; . I pes ;t l1 d des i gn s \Tariet)" in sJ/e anrl stylc, 4:::.
> + + 4 ~ ~ ~
,
~ •••• ~ v •• ~ • ~ • ~ • • .. • •• to
31 32
••
l 3:;
~
••••••
••••••••••
ft
•••
43.
CC1\lCnt
sill-mold..
.,
, .. ' .........•.••....
, ........•.... .. . . . . . .. . . ..•.. _• • • . . . . . ..•••.. .
147
140 149
44. Orn.imen tal accessories 45. Porch column and balustrade.
I
CONCRETE-BLOCK M NUFACTURE, PROCESSES AND ACHINES.
CHAPTER
CO.'l"CRETE.
1.
ONE of the greatest difficulties cnco mtered in the introduction of concrete blocks has been ignor nee of the character of concrete, its ingredients, its qualities, ts uses, and its limitations. It is scarcely necessary to dw II upon the importance of this knowledge to those in any man er interested in concrete blocks. Concrete may well be defined as a hard, stone-like mass resulting from the mixture of aggregat s of various nature and size with a cementitious substance pos ssing sufficient hyrlrauIicity to become thoroughly indurated y the addition of water. It will therefore appear that there is a wide range of variance as to the bonding material, as to the ggrcgatc, as to proportions and manipulation of the mass, a. to methods of condensation and curing, and as to form, size, and shape of the resulting construction. In modern practice in the United tates, concrete has been limited to the usc of various aggregates with hydraulic cements;

I
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE,
aggregates a sand, gravel, \ ork, hibiting o this limitation
have usually is carried than
been limited still further, Portland
to such materials. concrete-block as procoating especially
stone, or cinders.
In ordinary cements.
the use of other particles
The general theory of concrete involves the thorough

the larger of the aggregate bonded apparent with sand together
and cement
ortar, and the coating of the smaller particles with neat cement
p stc, so that all are thoroughly

a the cement. It is therefore
by the crystals.
f rmed in course of the chemical action resulting from hydration

that cement is the vital arc of importance governed by as related other. ~
e ement in the production of concrete; that the quantity of water

a d the time and method a d that
t
of its application
the qualities
of the concrete
are largely
c character
of the aggregate of aggregate compacting, thorough
and by its quantity as related to each
the cement, and also by the relative quantities kinds and echanical factors of manipulation in mixing,
of the different
s zes and depositing
The
of
of methods
itions to secure
ot of less value. The
and of maintaining proper concrystallization in the final set, arc

have developed from
multitudinous
uses of concrete
i s plasticity, and the consequent ease with which it assumes a y desired form. It would be somewhat aside from the intent
o this work to speak of the uses of concrete outside of walls
a d the construction of buildings, especially as these afford ample roof of its adaptability, it being now generally utilized, either
lain or reinforced, From uilding a d government for every member of high-class and retaining-walls engineers it was an easy step is due The major construction. of railroad to monolithic portion of the the dams, reservoirs, construction,
and it is to its success that the developwith plain concrete
cnt of block construction
e pensc, in connection
walls built in placet
CONCRETE.
3
of the cona satisfacof blocks upon securing
lies in th
construction
of forms and the handling attendant
crete, whi c the difficulties the better were facture equipped class.
tory surfa e have led to the use of veneering To obviate which these difficulties, might bra gh t forth. vith suitably
for structures concrete
be constructed to secure
in factories for manuresults qualities inciand
designed molds and appliances calculated Thus arising from the inherent the abnormal down and resetting and thoroughly entirely absent art, hands
der conditions in plastic
the best expense
by adhere
of concret dent upo
cc to the demands form.
the labor of taking
forms,
of deposit ng the concrete, factory" work. is also open' that it ha minish th The
is eliminated,
and in its place is the systematized facilitated
small lab r cost of a well- equipped ilc the compacting matter and the i portant item of curing,
of the mass is greatly
in monolithic
and the fact
of easy accomplishment. field in decorative
Block manufacture docs not diblocks lies in
an illimitable ultimate
thus far fallen into incompetent advantage. advantage relative
g eatest
of concrete
the use of shapes resulting cally qualified) containin that their therein. combination
in hollow walls i and it may hereafter to concrete blocks, not otherto mean either blocks hollow spaces spaces or blocks of such shape shall be taken
be unders ood that any reference one or more hollow
in a wall will produce
CHAPTER II.
CEMENT.
THE history of hydraulic cements is a. matter of grc t antiquity, as some combination of materials properly classed under this heading was evidently known to the ancient Egyptian, and employed by them in the massive structures testifying to their genius in structural engineering.
It is, however, principle mixed puzzolana more customary to date the discovery that a f the
of hydraulic
cements
from the time that the R vould

act is
with lime, and demonstrated
of burned clay and lime resulted in a material which crystallize, or set, upon the application of water. This so 'Nell authenticated that when, after a lapse of centurie James Parker discovered in the Isle of Sheppey natural rna of composition suitable for the production of hydraulic c that cement came to be called Parker's or Roman cement, development of the Portland cement industry followed
attention of engineers was drawn to its possibilities, and as
, 11r,
crials
ment,
The hem-
ists discovered the requisite constituents and the natural rials in which those elements occur in form most availa cement manufacture. Puzzolan cement derives its name from the ancient c ment of the Romans. It properly includes cement made by gr nding together, without subsequent calcination, a mixture of hy rated lime and such other material as slag, burned clay, or trass ob ained
from volcanic tufa. In American practice, however, the ingre-
dients
of Puzzolan
cement
arc limited
to hydrated
lim
and
www.forgottenbooks.org ,
C MENT.
granulated cement,"
blast-furnace
sla.
It is no longer
called
II
slag
for the reason that, i the manufacture
of certain brands base. to Puzzolan-cernent after mixing. concrete. a green
of true Portland manufacture is prehydrated, than Portland, While
cement, fum, cc-slag is used as a hydraulic
The point to be borne in mi d in reference They are, however, ground t
is that the mate ials are not calcined extreme fineness, but little wat r is required and the prese ce of sulphides strength m y approximate
and, as the lime
in mixing produces that
Pnzzolan cement is of a light-Ii ac color, of a lower specific gravity color in the fracture its tensile of a pat which has been long under water. of Portland, is much less. It is not suitable bove ground, as oxidation results and it is therefore evident that, ded of concrete blocks, it is maniarne implies, produced from natuStates, The analyses and even in for
its strength under compressio for any usc in dry places or in cracks and disintegration; service dema for the ordinary
festly unfit. Natural cement is, as its
ral cement rock found in val' ous sections of cement adjoining rock vary greatly
In
of the United localities,
and is the same as the Roman cement of England. different sections in the same district. closely the requ rements manufacture
Tn some cases it approxiof the raw materials two or
mates rather Portland-cement
'while in some factories
more kinds of rock arc mixed, but without analysis obtaining of manufacturing temperature tion merely sequently some similar natural ce
that definite chemical The process so high gas. a the calcinaCon-
in the man facture of Portland. ent does not involve
in the kiln as in the case of Portland, sufficing to liber tc the carbonic-acid is more easily ground; recent I installed employed, the clinker have
and for this puralthough of
pose burr-stones factories type
were former y universally
grinding-machinery
to th at used
in Portl and mills.
Kat ural cc men t
6 is well adapted the concrete practice between problem. work, construction, requires be required
CONCRETE.BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
for use in the interior that a larger
of heavy masonry, or blows; bu be used than of dcterminat
where good would on as
will not be su bject to attrition

proportion question of Portland, and the
demands
the use of the two becomes,
in such cases, an ceo amie of the blocks in g ncral

DUm\,
It is apparent that it is not suited for concrete block

and the desirability of providing a large with
as the severe service demanded
space by making face-sections

a cement beyond cement definite usually Portland ing together substances, burning is produced proportions
as thin as consistent
or doubt. by intimately of argillaceous and grinding
atety,
possible criticism
mixing or and calc the re ultant
75% of the former to sernifusion powder.
and 25% of the latter)
this material cement hom
clinker to an impalpable
The features which disti guish cements are the intens entering product
Portland
rate
all other
heat
at which the pulverized proportioning These composition. than
raw materials essential are elements
are calcined, and the accuclements lime,
of the
i to its
and n t less and
silica, alumina
oxide of iron, and there must be in the finished mentioned. the following employed:
CALCAREOUS ':\iATERIALS. ARGILLACEOUS
1.7 times as much lime by weight as of the other ele ents

These elements are found in various includes
material:
com
classification
all raw materials
only
MATERIA S.
Limestone. :Marl. Chalk.
Cement Rock. Clay. Shale. Slag.
The which
raw
materials been
were formerly
ground
between burros ones, and tube mills,
have
generally replaced
by ball-
I
CEMENT.
Griffin or Kent mills. The grinding of the materials to extre e fineness before calcination is one of the greatest factors in s c ccssful cement manufacture; and in this connection, as well as in the grinding of the clinker, the Griffin mill, which opera es on a principle similar to a gyratory crusher, has been a disti ct factor in the development of the Portland-cement indust y. After grinding, the material is again sampled and chemi al analysis made. When the prescribed proportions have b en obtained, the material is fed into a long rotary kiln, into lower end of which the fuel is introduced. The revolutions of this kiln, the injection of fuel and the feeding of the charge bei g under the direct control of the operator, insures a product of such uniform excellence as could not be approached under ie burning in intermittent dome-kilns or continuous vertical ki ns formerly in vogue. Indeed, it may be said that to the rot ry kiln, more than to all else, is due the remarkable growth in he manufacture of American Portland cements, the increase in their quality and uniformity and the decrease in their cost. Fr m these long kilns the clinker is delivered in particles about he size of peas; and it is a fact worthy of notice that these partie cs are inert, for it accentuates the later observation that the hydn ulicity of cement increases with fineness of grinding. By me ns of grinding-machinery already mentioned, this intensely ht rd clinker is reduced to the Portland cement of commerce. The wet process formerly differed radically from the d Y, and involved the formation of slurry bricks, which vvere th n introduced into kilns of a style no longer in usc. At the pres nt time, hO\VeVeI,the difference between the two processes in ie United States only involves mixture of marl and pulverized cl y in pug-mills or edge-runners, with subsequent grinding in v et tube-mills, after which the process is continued as alrea y described.
I
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MAN
FACTURE.
The extreme care exercised in the manufacture of standard brands of American Portland cemen 5, the large number of factories operating in a.ll sections of t e country, the enormous increase in production and consumpt on of the product and its satisfactory usc in the most irnpor ant work of government and railroad engineers, leave no room f r doubt as to its adaptability for the highest class of concret -block construction, and afford no excuse to those who refuse 0 abandon the prejudice which favored European brands in th days of the infancy of this great American industry. Of the standard tests for cement, t at of greatest importance to the concrete- block manufacturer i the test for constancy of volume; and it especially commend itself because requiring no apparatus other than a glass mol ing-board and pieces of glass on which the pats may remain uring the period of test. Circular pats should be formed three nches in diameter, a half inch thick at the center and tapering toward the edge. After remaining in thoroughly moist air for twc ty-four hours, one should be steamed for about four hours. Th s is called an accelerated test, and tends to quickly develop any i perfections. It is usual to specify that, in case of failure in the a eelerated test, the cement may be again tested twenty-eight days ater, as it may withstand this severe test when properly aged. Another pat should be exposed in moist air, and still another i mcrscd in water, results being noted in the latter two cases at intervals during twentyeight days. If the cement be sound, t should not disintegrate, or show expansion cracks in the edge of the pat. A slight curling of the edge is not harmful in the air pecirncn, but should not occur in one immersed in water, Shri kage cracks on the center and hair cracks on the surface arc c mrnonly, in neat cementwork, the result of careless manipula ion, excess of water, or too rapid drying, and may be disrcga dcd in the test.
CHAPTER III.
AGGREGATE.
THE inert coarse aterial which, in combination with cement and 'water, produces concrete is termed the aggregate, and is divisible into fine a gregate of sand or stone screenings and coarse aggregate of ravel, broken stone, or cinders. The mineralogy f sand has but slight effect upon its combination with cement, and the best authorities consider it of so much less impor ance than the physical properties that it may safely be passed without discussion. The shape of grai has been carefully considered, and while some tests appear to show as grea.t strength in round grains as in sharp, and while atisfactory work has been done with sand of rounded grains, t e best engineers continue to specify that sand shall be sharp. Where local conditions admit of choice between the two, th sharp sand should, other qualities b<:;ing equal, invariably be elected. The strength and firmness of the grains is an item of much importance; and perhaps the best method of choosing and is to determine Its firmness and grit by rolling in the pal of the hand or between the fingers, meanwhile applying considerable pressure, Another excellent method is to test the sand fo absorption. This cannot be accomplished in the manner of us al percentage tests, as the capillary attraction between grains "ill take up a considerable amount of water, even though the sand be practically non-absorbent. The proper
9
10
CONCRET
BLOCK MANUr"ACTURE.
way is to let the sand so k for an hour, and then examine it in the manner already men ioned for firmness tendency and grit.
Or
A sand
which shows the slightcs such treatment
to dissolve
soften under
should bc discarded.
The sand should be lean, and free from foreign matter of every kind. In general concrete work there has been a disagreement among engine rs as to the permissibility of a certain percentage of loam or clay! and some have claimed that it increased the strength of the cone ete. A careful consideration of such reports, supplemented by exhaustive tests, has established the fact that such reported in rease in strength only obtains in lean concrete of porous texture in which the voids arc not properly filled, and that, in every ase of reasonably rich concrete of such density as required in co crete blocks, strength is lost by such admixture. concrete recommended in its natural The selection respect The object blocks this work is to raise the quality manner, that of in every possible condition and it is therefore sand, which be washed with the
to every c ncrete-blockmaker
ontains any foreign matter, .onsideration block-maker in connection
until the water is no Ion er discolored. most important of sand the is the inexperience ize and gradation of sizes. commits supposing In this grave that to
often
error by the selection of me sand, it contains obtain greater strength
erroneously
a smaller perc ntage of voids, and hence hoping by use of stated proportions. of solids in a perfectly
As a matdry mixture
ter of fact, the percentag
of fine and coarse sand, b th shaken to refusal, is approximately the same, and any differc cc is due merely to shape of grain; but, upon the addition in greater a water, than the volume of the fine sand there are and thereincreases ratio the coarse, because
marc grains between
whi h the water is introduced, more porous
fore a fine sand becomes distinctly
than a coarse
AGGREGATE.
II
sand. greater
arne manner it will be seen that, by mixing cementcoated) a much propor ion will be required nd proportions
5
paste with sa d until every grain is thoroughly The best resu ts are obtained in such sizes filling the voi in the coarse by mixing sand, coarse
for fine sand than for coarse. and fine sand tend toward a maximum
that the finer grains thus securing of cement.
density with a minimum
quantity
I t has bee stated by eminent authorities tha t crusher screenings give grcr ter strength than natural sand, and tests have
generally shox n results in accordance which the screenings results natural with this statement where the stonc fro This doubtlcs of the mixing averag came was of proper texture.
from the variation so uniform and sand, thus
in the size of screenthe screenings obtained accom-
ings, which a e not nearly plish to a ccr ain extent of gra cd sand. For the co rsc material run in size fro veniently a quarter be
in size as are the grains by a careful
the same result
of the aggregate, at a reasonable the block
gravel is commonly price.
used where 10 ally obtainable ace mmodated in
It should
from manu-
inch to as large pieces as can be conmold. Usually for concrete-block
i"
to I" sho rld
the maximum
and t c principles of gradation already stated for sand must be obse vcd in the use of gravel. A great deal of time has been spe t in discussing the relative merits of gravel and
facture, broken stone, time tests of extending enced ave questionable" nd tests appear tone concrete long periods to show greater strength on shortwhile tests It is or than of gravel concrete,
of time show little diITerence. than the mere
hether the results of such tests other sizes of aggregate in employing
may not be influuse of gravel or hardness broken stone of the as a
by can iderations
stone, such as the relative stone used.
It must b
remembered,
12
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTUR
concrete-block aggregate, that concrete will not possess strength in excess of that of its aggregate, and hence s ft sandstones or the softer limestone formations should not b used. A hard limestone, however, is a very desirable aggrega c, and is largely employed in general concrete work by railroad .nginccrs. Conglomerate rock makes good concrete, while gran te and trap-rock arc the best that can be obtained. Cinder concrete has often resulted in failu e, and, while its light weight commends it for partition-walls, is usc cannot be generally recommended, and never in any placc where its failure would jeopardize the integrity of other member of the building.

I
CHAPTER IV.
\VATER.
is the chemical agent which unites with the cement, and esults in that crystallization of the silicates which is commonl known as the setting of the cement. Both in the initial and nal sets, there are certain scientific principles relative to the a plication of water which have been abundantly demonstrate in actual practice. e first consideration is pure water. Neither muddy water, stagn nt water, water impregnated with alkali, nor water discolor d by the refuse from factories, sewers, reduction-works, Or th like, will give the best results. The matter of water, both pure nd clean, has been generally disregarded; but it is of so great importance as to justify consideration in the location of a plant, as well as some expense in its equipment. T e quantity, method, and time of applying water has been grossl disregarded, and it is to the haphazard methods of using water that much of concrete-block failure is justly chargeable, It is mpossiblc to overestimate the importance of using in the mix n amount of water sufficient to reduce the cement to such plasti ity that, with reasonable manipulation, it will thorough ly he particles of the aggregate. No good concrete can be ed in any other manner; and it is a fact worthy of note oncrcte engineers have generally abandoned the dry rnix\. TER
13
CONCRETE-BLOCK MANUFACTURE.
turc of bygone days, and the old specification consistency ture. which quantity is now universally replaced from
of a
dampc
n
by a "quaking the aggregate;
nuxthe
The application
will not wash should
of water should the cement
always be in a m nncr
an by decamp
not be so copious
as to cause
by " drowning" Relative
of the cement, or to cause hair-cracks
ushthat
ing neat cement to the surface. to the matter of curing, it may be here note
in the oppor unity off ered of thorough induration before going in to th e wall. ran y feel that the hardening: of a block after making is a matter r quiring no though t and no skill. in the making and quantity yard. It is in reality th e cri tical time of the rna ufactime, locks to the of a block; and the best thought in relation to the application
concrete blocks possess a distinct advantage
turer of blocks may well be given to the details of method, of water
after they come from the molds, and before they leave the c ring-
In winter work, the mixing-water is often heated and are very satisfactory, especially if the aggregate also be h It is, of course, evident that the time allowed for setting
cement before suspension by freezing is thus greatly lcng while it has been amply demonstrated that crystallizati accelerated conditions where expense by the use of hot water. of operating However, under a. block-machine
cncd,
n is
or inary
in a closed bu Iding to incur the extra
the sand-bins of heating
are s t1Ilicien tly warm cd by artif cial heat necessary water. amount cau: s no
to drive out the frost, it is scarcely
In freezing weather, salt is often added to the water u cd in

mixing concrete, loss in strength. nature and the usc of a reasonable Various formulas based have been devised temper value.
the turc,
of a sliding-scale
on the registered
but none of these appear
to be of great practical
All are
I
IS
based upon a certain percentag degree registered below 32° Tests of the water by weigh t.
I
It is
evident that, by the common r ile of using weather, be excessive. not injurious.
('::0 of salt for each

would, in hero IoI~{ of salt is
., the quantity ave shown that
CHAPTER V.
nER
INGRr.;nTENTS.
VARIOUS
other ing edients to those
are used by certain
block-makers In gen-
in addition should until
entionecl in preceding as adulterations service have
chapters.
eral, it may be said that the admixture be regarded tests and actua
of any other substances demonstrated not merely of the
and viewed with suspicion
usefulness for a specific action on the cement added material It The use of lime in attention. unfitted and hence for such
purpose, but the fad that no deleterious
csults, as well as the permanence
in rela ion to the life of the cement. oncrete blocks has of late received much that unslaked greatly been lime is eminently increases its bulk, There are, before is well known
use, as hydration lime has
only slake
employed.
however, unslaked particles as in Germany,
in every lime-bed,
and, even though,
the li e be allowed to slake for months
using, this criticism re ains true to a greater or less degree. It is evident that, with he thorough mixing of well-made concrete and with the su isequent saturation of the block during the period of indurati n, any such particles are liable to cause trouble by swelling, p oducing expansion cracks, and resulting in possible failure of e member through disintegration. The block-makers avoring the use of lime have therefore
adopted the slaked nd sifted powder offered commercially
16
INGREDIENTS.
under sidered
the name of product, as standard practice metho in tube-mill, by paddles,
Being comparatively in its manufacture. There
new appear in the broken the
as a commercial
it is difficult to say what may be conThe first consists
to be two principal in a crusher revolves and
use of a hooded pan-mixer or gound the water
i to which the lime, previously

is supplied by automatic reducing The the screens
is fed, and, as the mixer sprayer, the slaked lime often being process second
mass is thoroughly as fine as those involves
agitated
to powder, which is afterwr .d screened, used in c merit-testing.
the use of a rotar cylinder of design somewhat simi .. lar to the kilns used in cc nt manufacture, the moisture being supplied by a perforated st am-pipe forming the axis, and the
slaked ness feared, cement. extreme there cement, voids. increase cretc. 1ime passing be attained. of hydration except that Even fineness the may throug graduated crefore screens, so that that this it cannot pass a given section of the cylinder until the required leaves nothing
fineto be
It is
and the life
evident
thorough
process
pulverization
f the lime is less than seems unwarranted, the fact between well action is not
that of the although and in the
this doubt
in view of the that, the lime and \or filling both
of the P rticles, and ch rnical esis

0
be a slight latter merely
hypot it
established,
lime is employed
account as shown
of its capacity great merit, strength concrete,
In this respect of water-tightness
nd in greater
of lean conin which the concrete.
It is, of course, cvid nt that hydrated

t is in a lean
'C
lime is of distinctly and porous
less value in a rich and ca dully graded voids are "Yell filled, than as to density and cornpressi voids by its use tempt the tion of aggregate,
In the latter it becomes, un uestionably,

strength,
an agent for good, both unless the ease of filling in gradaof in the proportion
lock-maker to carelessness
to an u wise economy
18
CONCRETE-BL
CK MANUFACTURE.
cement,
and to the use of a Ordinarily the
unreasonably lime.
large proportion
of
slaked lime.
mount of cement by weight should in the earlier stages of the industry he natural 'arious action and qualities of chemicals. It ma-y be set violates fundacements have is
be at least four times that of hydrated It has been too customary for block-makers cement mental position mulas, prepared to modify of by the addition principles
down as a general rule that of standard after the most brands
II such adulteration of American
of good pr cticc, for the reason that the cornPortland
determined
by the most car ful chemical analysis) and the forexhai stive experimentation, been with the object of reducing
t
cement which shall meet Society Matelearning and Society for Testing of block-machines gain in strength,
the requirements of Civil Engineers rials. Gradually
of those test
and the
specified by the American mcrican
arc the op rators
that no adulteration change durable addition

mOil,
can secu c an ultimate time a
that the gain in ease of rna ipulation in the normal building tion for jeopardizing Of the various the pe manent benefits perha
which may result from a compensastrength been of an otherwise claimed for the
setting is no adequate
material, vhich have s water-tightness is the most comof unknown of
of chemicals,
both as to known chernic Is and as to compounds that they prefer the additional an impermeable block of sccu ing similar
ingredients. operators, to produce
It may be said, to the credit of a large number by natural methods,
labor and care necessary rather
than the easier way manipulated mixture.
results, but short-lived

and carelessly has
blocks, by chemical admixtur The addition been considered, or concrete of various by nearly constru
to a poorly graded aterials
for coloring purposes upon concrete
very writer
blocks
building
tion in any other form,
a matter
THER INGREDIENTS,
of sufficient importanc stances
to justify
a tabulated
statement
50
of submarked
and quantities
suitable for producing

for practical
different colors.
Superficial study of sue that their worthlessness It is evident that any s ticular aggregate, tate noticeable deteriorating than strength and t
0
tables 'will show a discrepancy
an entire readju
that each
materials as harmless,
influence, artificial colors causes I
purposes becomes apparent. ch table can only be applicable to a parat a change in local materials will necessitment of quantities. It is particularly e advocates one or more of the coloring while another author is equally sure of The fact is that everyone of these
5S
of strength,
To be sure, other things
require c nsideration, and a customer in strength
may in rare
and dura-
cases be willing to waive sligh t reduction bility to attain certain ar istic color-effects.
If it becomes necessary to employ artificial col rs, it is a wise course to procure thcrn from a reputable cone rn whose energies are, entirely devoted to the production of m ncral colors for concrete under the most
favorable conditions. <~yery effort should be used to obtain
for the aggregatc cn.:sh .d rock of the required color, as in this manner it is possible t produce blocks of any color which a reasonable customer ay demand, and the purity, strength, and durability of the c ncrete is in no wise impaired, while the blocks arc saved from at artificial and plaster-like appearance which too often obtains in colored work. Most operators have not yet learned that the sensible place to regulate color is in the
selection of aggrcga teo
CHAPTER
VI.
PROPORTI().:\ I.:\G.
By the usual work,

I : 2 :...J1 :...J-
mctl od of expressing
0
proportions sand
in cement or screen-
represents
e part
cement
to four parts sand; while stone. to make the be-t conbeen tl.c own it by
rcprcscn h onc jnart cemcn t , two parts

g 'a \"('1 or broken
ings_. and four part:; Th c relative strcngth,
proport on- requisite to secure the greatcst density, be same in various

materials.
10
and impcrm« a bilit y-i n short, in loca ll - available based
crete blor k" --a rc not the di\cr"it\standard teste.; and custom of mo-t manuf. of proportiori-,
(':'\j
loco. Iitics been usc of It has adopt an arbitrary of their ha vc been
cturcrs of machines upon

; and, while
the results
x-rirncnts
these proportions
substa ntia llv correct no mea ns foll«

\\"S
f( r a particular
class of materials,
th at 11 axe correct cy
for oth cr cia sscs a vailu blc salesman, and has pro}l as
ill dilTcrcll1 Ioc.ilitics.
1 h as often been tl: c case th at an operu tor, ei th LT under for the and all mate-
closely fol1()\\-ing the ac vice of his machinery d urcd

\Try
ball bloc k- from H'ry good material, or lcarn«.

(L'ITI'_l
Jailed uucrlv The
by experience (led a beal

II "-c I'C'
that the conditions

Y.
which he worked
rcmed he
importuncc
of a-ccrtaining i
en 11110t
correct
proportions
of the
'1')1('
pri rticula r ma tcri.ilblock-run ker;; sh ould
ovcrcs tirna ted,

proportions
11
the correct
rials they purpose using determined
b:; expert tests.
expensc
20
of such tc"tc.; i" really ; n ('conomy, as the n-sult
i~ such careful
PROPOR TlONING.
21
gradation
of the aggregate
that
maximum As man proportio the usc

0
uality is secured
will not, however,
5
with a minimum quantity elementary methods
of cement.
be able or willing to avail themselves of determining Proportioning sible quantity in the particular involves primarily type of machine
of such expert tests, some may be helpful. the greatest posof a
of as large aggregate
as can read ly be manipulated in use, and the addition
series of smaller sizes of aggregate the spaces between aggregate. cement-paste, filling
in quantit es sufficient to fill

size of m st be coated with it is evident that with mount q antity, of cement. the larger or a promay be
the pieces of each succc sivc larger
As each piece of the aggregate between pieces of
or with sand and cement marta,
the spaces
large-si e aggregate
fmc sand involves the use of an unnecessary its intended aggregate continued portions unless matter purpose, or used in too great
It is equally clear that, if the smaller aggrega e be too large for is forced apart. results. indefinitely, In either case a 10 s of strength It is clear that thi and that be screened any attempt until each of gradation to determine sample
waste of cement
of a mixed aggregate the aggregate
can give no d finite information is within The the niform size, In practice,
such range of screen as to be of practically is then resolved into determination of securing an absolutely addition and
IO%
aids in the larger of mateamount
size which may be filled by the smaller size. impossibility rials has led to the customary amount of sand or screenings, of cement. Specific gravity the percentage required a particular affords an accurate As obtaining requires the technical
ideal mixture to the etcrmincd
of 5% to the determined
meth d of determining a ount of material pecific gravity at par usually of found the
of voids, and the consequent substance apparatus
to fill them.
in a concrete-block
factory,
of this. test may
22
CONCR£TE·8LOCK MANUFAC
VRE.
be dispensed
with by assuming the weight of weights,
solid and unbroken
cubic foot of sandstone
to be 150 lbs., of tr p-rock 180 lbs., and wbile 5 nd and gravel may be dried to a constant which
other stone of intermediate
be safely estimated
desired expected to determine to attain
at 165 lbs.
to that
The aggr gate of which it is

of com actncss block.
the voids should degree in the finished
weight, and shaken
it is
the from
By subtracting
in this condition
weight of a cubic foot of the aggregate ing the remainder Another method
the weight of a solid cubic foot, as above e timated,
and divid-
by the weight of a solid

of voids. commonly employed, of wate existing of water.
ubic foot, the result ut less accurate, is
will be the percentage

that of pouring and determining of aggregate the aggregate sian. but
a measured quantity
into the aggregate, t is evident percentage that if
the percentage
b tween the measure

of the
and the measure
be dry it will absorb -a certai
water, and if it be wet the particles should always be considered
arc sep rated by water tenination is necessary, ate, and subject to approxi
It is a speedy method where hasty deter by more accurate of proportioning, aggregate weights methods. and is of
verification tical method
Determination
by relative volume is dou tless the most pracspecial value when pro· test, A known weight
used as a check upon the last-mentioned of dry-mixed portions marked. deposited mixture applicable compelled maximum and cement of slightly is placed Equal attaining in a vessel, shaken
in sup roscdly correct differen mixtures
to ref isal, and the height arc then that the density. is It is evident
in the vessel in like manner. that
the smallest volume posse ses greatest ingredients, as
It must not be forgotten to fine and coarse
all of th se tests arc equally nd the operator

0
to rely on his own judgment size used in his aggregate.
v..... shall be the hat of great
This is a matter

I
PROPORTIONING.
importance, augmented it is not har mixture
as tests show conclusively
that
strength
is greatly
y admixture of coarse gravel or broken stone, while

to see the rapid increase in density and the marked into a fine by volume difference in amount of coarser aggregate. proportions is a marked
saying in cc cnt which result from the introduction of a considerable The cust mary manner is inaccurate the volume weight loose of moisture, than and misleading. of specifying There
f a given 'weight of cement packed The volume of sand increases owing to water tension between The relative weight
and the same
with the addition the grains, and the more rapidly of gravel
volume of fi e sand increases under such conditions does carse. and broken Proportions tone vary greatly, hould, therefore,
and volume
being lighter when the particles when thcv are correct lv graded. be stated by weight in all cases
arc of uniio m size and heavier where accur cv is desired . •
CH' PTER VII.

1HXING.
THE
incorporation are
of mass, unifor
he
various ingredients
and
of concrete
into a homogeneous its constituents
the manipulation
of the mass until
that extent of turning and stirring necess ry to secure an even percentage of moisture throughout the v'hole, constitu tc essential factors of
success or failure in cone ete-block manufacture. Indeed, in all concrete work) mixing i a feature so essential that its neglect
y distributed,
entails failure,
averts
while a rec gnition of its importance that mig t be anticipated

!;
oftentimes
in is
the failure
from negligence This importance the duty
other branches of the proce accentuated rial therein, in other in concrete-block requires of the blocks, in proportio forms of concrete
of concreting. work) because
required 'which is, overcome quali-
to the bearing work,
area of solid mateand density, extent afforded
a un form strength ' nd the support
to a certain
by the volume of material, cent mass of material. ties of impermeability) tion, are demanded
by the adja-
Fu .ther than this, those peculiar extent
unif rmity of color and beauty of dccora in blo k work to a far greater
than
required in the classes of c nstruction to which monolithic work is especially adapted. It is only by most thorough manipulation
that these qualities may e developed in satisfactory degree. to mixing
24
Indeed,
in relation
to stren th, and to a certain
extent in rela-
tion to the other qualities m ntioned, a careful attention
MIXiNG,
may serve to greatly in the nizant advising application of the
vercome faults of those
arising from ignorance While
of
other scientific princip es of block-making, principles. encouraging the use
or from carelessness by no means cogessenand while 'while thoroughly
f lean mixtures,
dherence to other
import' nee of correct in ot cr chapters,
proportioning,
the strictest
well-determined
tials as outlined as established mixed tioned
the facts must be recognized mixed mixing, ill-propora rich The rea-
by those tests which have proven that a thoroughly

nd even a thoroughly more concrete of indifferent t has already tl c thorough cement-paste, coating aflor s results satisfactory than
lean concrete, concrete,
and well-proportioned son is easily found. of concrete involves of the aggregate with
been said that the theory of every fine particle of every mortar and the coating
coarse pa.rticle of the aggregate
with sand and cement
It is evident that this

by most thorough of proportioning Sizes.
an be accomplished
in no other "vay than of aggregate mixing that the larger this sizes of the
mixi g.
It has also been said that the theory
invol -es such gradation

t at nothing but
finer particles will tend to fill the voids of the succeeding It is evident result, can attain desirable aggregate, whole. The order of ineo orating ingredients as fa lty mixing will leave the various of be oming distributed
as well as t c aggregate
and the cement, each gathered evenly throughout
to itself, instead
has been considered mentioned of order the practice
a matter of so great i portance in all sta.ndard and dump nately. ment most cement-block
that it is particularly although
conere e specifications,
rna ers is to disregard g under railroad,
any particular together municipal,
cement, sa d, gravel, and water redetermined are measured
indiscrimior governvarious or
In hand-rnixi
specifications,
quantities
of the
sizes of aggregate
in boxes having
no bottom
CONCRETE-
LOCK MANUFACTURE_
top, so that when the box s filled it may be lifted from the measured materiaL The required The sack is the unit of cement amount of s d is first spread measurement. on the mixing-platon the sand, and shovels, are turned or prelatter mea-
form, which should be wat r-tight and, if possible, non-absorbent. The cement is then spread to an even thickness the two, by means of hoes or square-pointed together two or three time, water poured viously method surement centage The tinued is either (but thrown sprayed a not dashed) bette The the mixture into the center
or until of an even color, when the from a hose-nozzle of the material The accurate
into the f rm of a ring or crater. practice, as affording ixture is thcn turned st nc, previously on the mortar thro ghout
is considered of .... vatcr. of water
twice, the per wet mortar. further conthat for
being 5 ch as to form a rather
gravel
or broken
wet to avoid
absorption, such careful hand-mixing. to mix formity obviated
is then spread methods
and the turning
until uniform
the whole.
It
is evident possible
seeu e the maximum afterward
quality
an
It has, how ver, been the practice of block-makers
materials
dry an
apply the water, the latter uniare partially before wetting, and it is to this and lack of uni-
usually bcing unmeasured, results. While
and then mix until approximate the evils of this method color
by dry-mixing
to secure uniform cannot
it is obvious that the vance of standard cause formity that weakness,
deg cc of homogeneity obtain; por sity, permeability,
possible by obser-
specifications
in color arc often traceable. is at best a method which should be employed the installation There of are localities a plant, of' the plant warrants
t
Hand-mixing
only until the business a good power-mixer, which several reasons
or u on special work in isolated e full plant The reduction equipment.
may not justify
which sho ld induce one, in equipping
to include a power-mixer.
in labor is a cost item
MIXING.
of great consequence, is the large expense results. superior periods Actual strength There tu-day cheapest There for block makeshifts, amount The to hand-work of time, tests upon
as one reason for labor
for defective
hand-mixing vastly
necessary
to secure really goo is not only be run for equal uniformity. outlay. The show a gain in
work done by power-mixing possesses handthe virtue
in quality, but, if batches and machine-mixing
of absolute the initial
for the latter
which fully justifies may err greatly
are so many different
kinds of mixers on the market in selection. on account by hand shovels. too much of inefficiency, arc but poor for the same Of the powerto block work. depends upon into continuous in layers, operfor deposit as
that the block-maker
may prove most expensive work. which The
arc two classes of mixers which cannot mixers operated scarcely
be recommended
give as good results
of labor as do square-pointed In the first place, the materials
mixers, the continuous for two reasons.
type is not well adapted are introduced must
the order in which the materials mixers, and therefore ations of hand-mixing; in much the same manner
be spread material
as described and shovelfuls
in the preliminary
of
in the mixer must cut perpendicularly so that the shovel will contain desired in the mixed material. of mixing is mechanically
through
the several layers, the time
the same relative proportions In the second place, and the manipulation
determined,
cannot be increased The electric degree batch
even though the advantages operated
of longer mixing engine, or
may be clearly apparent.

batch-mixers, motor,
by steam, gasoline
adapted
are especially
to concrete-block
work, the is
because the mixing may be continued of uniformity is run. consideration is dependent upon Consequent
at will, and thus any desired only upon the time that this advantage is that other
important
that the order in which the material
I
CONCRETE-BLOCK MANUFACTURE.
ischarged is entirely independent of the order in which it enters C mixer, Batch-mixers mix thoroughly, while the more com-
FIG. I.-Rotary Mixer.
FIG. 2.-Cul)c
Mixer.
on forms of continuous misers are modified conveyors, callatcd to effect greater or less stirring of the material as it is
MIXING.
29
conveyed from entry to discharge. in which deflecting as the mixer revolves. Fig.
2
Fig.
shows a rotary rruxer cube-mixer
blades throw the rna rial from end to end

shows a revolving
m which the shape of the mixing-box is plish the same result without interior d types shown have given excellent satisfa
accomm actual usc.
CONCR£7 E-BLOCK MANUFACTURE.
While, in using a mi. cr of a type similar to those all materials better results tion given to the order it is well mixed afterward Whether running before
n which
illustrated, yet much
for a batch may be put in at one time and no attenthey arc introduced, the batch water
will be 01 rained by running

introducing
y hand t
dry until
and that
into the mixer, it is essential
the 1 atch wet a3, long as may be necessary. or machine, the size
mixing be
the initial set of the cen ent be avoided by so regulating of batch in proportion the capacity
of the block-machine that
no cement will be wet
ver thirty minutes.
CHAPTER VIII.
SHAPE OF BLOCKS.
the many shapes of blocks now used f r formng hollow walls, the question naturally asked is, Why 5 much talk of hollow walls, and what are their advantages? " n reply
IN considering
H
it may be said that the chief advantages solid walls are four The fact that a wall exposed of discussion. ing are more
of hollow Insulation between
wa Is over
in number,
viz.:
agai st heat the face of t admit build-
and cold, saving of material, to the weather
water-tightness, air-space and the interior
and ventil tion. face larg ly pre-
a considerable
cludes the passage of heat has been too well established The result is, of course, that the rooms of comfortable in summer on account of
of the exterior surface not being transmitted in winter the conditions not lose its artificial It is a fact purchased recently that heat through
to the interi r, 'while to the A
are reversed and the interior surf cc docs transmission
approximately
25% of heating-bills
the past sum of this rooms house is a but th
31
saved by properly constructed a concrete-block remarked; "The who was not informed ably good one; comfortable." of the noticeable
hollow concrete walls. house during furnace
as to the real merits in that
it is surprising Doubtless warmth
how small a fire makes th
it was a good furnace,
from a small fire was, that t
I
32
remained
In
CONCRETE-BLOCK
A NUFA C TURE,
the house instead
of
and disseminating
itself througho
a solid wall surrounding country,
"~/',
FrG. 4.-Three-web
Hollow :Bloc s and Wall.
The saving in material is an mportant item to the blockmaker and to his customer. In the hole in the wall lies the
0 Forgotten Books
SHAPE OF BLOCKS.
33
maker s profit were have
and
the consumer's from

20%
saving.
Originally and that
blocks bonding
esigned with
0
to 33% air-space, curing,
but modem blocks in
metho s of proportioning,
greatly increased to the actual serve factor
compacting,
the efficiency of concrete of solid material
amount
walls are
tly laid with from 50% to 55% of air-space, and still preof safety which insures conservative is not absolutely
50,
construction. and as one of
fact that concrete comm nly made
waterproof, was doubtless
is not approximately
the pr ncipal reasons for the original introduction
of an air-space
in the wall, the separation of the' outer and inner face being design d to prevent 'water penetrating beyond the intermediate
air-ch mber. Ve tilation usuall use of ventilators in the sense here intended is a consideration that, by the overlooked. It is, of course, well known between
similar to the usual hot-air register, any desired the outer atmosair-chambers now in the vertical
circul tion of air may be established pherc and the air of a room through in the hollow "vall. mind, damp room. wall but rather canst nt, absorption, This is, however, through the gradual,
not the thought
unrecognizable, the pores
but nevertheless in every occupied virtue.
in the concrete, of the
ess and injurious hat gives to block
gases accumulating construction
I t is the suction of the gases and vapor by the air in the its great sanitary of sweating on the interior is a notice-
and h nee the elimination
able f -ature of block construction.
In Fig. 3 is shown one of the earliest forms of hollow blocks

introd a vcr ced in the United large number States, a form which has been used in a form which has been, with of machines, features stands for the hollowthat the form is of buildings,
slight changes, adopted by very many manufacturers and a form which in its essential block construction of to-day. It will be noted
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MA
UFACTURE.
very
simple,
having
a transverse
w b at either
end
and
two
transverse change ner-block types regular
webs midway of the block, so that a half block, which is made without coru~e Special attention blocks eliminate is called to the L-shape th s feature orncrs, and merely
is an essential feature in all block co struction,

of cores. of hollow used in connection blocks extending illustrated with thi
form, as some of the later
th rough at
in Fig. 4
with the end 'Ncb

different being in
flush with the front and back of the bI ck to form a corner return. The block s not essentially variance from that shown in Fig. 3, the only material the usc of one intermediate the number common machines
web inst ad of two. producing are

t
of machines
now advertised
by t, this is by far the most

Measured least twenty moulds for making machines. of the and urnals blocks
type of block.
There
in trade-j and
'with the three
cross-sections to upright block,
by usi g two interior ace-down
cores, and
the type is common
The single air-space ment, and hence
invol ing the elimination than the form , inasmuch ase of heavy
middle web and the use of but one int rior core, is a later developless common last mentioned. as any reducreduces rains. the liaThis block possesses tion in the number bility to penetration and between some advantag of moisture around in
and size of eros, -partitions
It is
grade
also more easy to tamp of labor employed, block will result. of tearing
one core than to tamp around and uniformly facilitated, compacted while
two or more,
and hen c, with the average
a more thoroughl The releasing is als
and the danger lessened,
blocks in removing
cores i somewhat
there is a slight saving in material. of purchasing inspected, completion, any of the standard in which
his is a vcry simple form of wood instead The author recently were of this
for those who prefer to make their a n molds mac ines, in the State of Washington all walls abov
a $5,000 residence, nearing ground-line

I
SHAPE OF BLOCKS.
35
type of block, made in wooden molds manufactured. The work "vas most creditable, but, in justice to who may desire to go and do likewise, it should be said that company building the house mentioned had in its employ most expert modelmaker and a cement-worker of equal ability, Fig. 5 represents an attempt to combi c the one-piece and the two-piece form by the use of slabs d by metal rods or
FIG. S.-Blocks
consisting
of Two Slabs
by Metal Ties.
tics, the ends of which are imbedded slabs. The object is to secure a contin air-space of uniform has been scrisize throughout the wall. This form of t, and it has been ously criticised from an engineering the expense of carstated that the object sought is attained rect construction. By its advocates the is cited that metal rods are extensively and satisfactorily played in reinforced
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
concrete concrete, blocks therefore the wall.
worx ; while its opponents the iron or steel is protected illust ated, the tic-rods
answer
that, in reinforced
from rust and corrosion
by the cone cte in which it is imbedded,

are without from su ject to deterioration t from the moisture
while, in the type of

such protection, action, and as atmospheric
well as to r
penetrating
the outer shell of
owever this may be, the fact remains that at least one house w s built over twenty years ago from concrete slabs
tied by meta present day. vary slightly rods, and Is in a good state of preservation While the form and method from th at illustrated of fastening at the
the rods
in Fig. 5, substantially the same princip cs arc embodied in the blocks used in the house, which has tv 0 decades to its credit. It may be merely a coincidcncc, or i may be a fact worthy of note, that this house has been repeat ly struck by lightning. By some it is claimed
that this is ever, of grea made. In Fig. 6 arc shown blocks of the standard while Fig. 7 illustrates two-piece the type, of ue to the attraction
CT
of the metal rods.
It is, howdamage
importance
to observe that the resultant
has in each c se been so slight that repairs were easily and quickly
marc plainly the method of laying in the

horizontal air-space, and method walls were brought out some four years blocks, of
wall, the co tinuous

bonding. facture enabling standards struction, secured T vo-piccc atten th
ago with a view of overcoming operator
some of the difficulties of manuof the one-piece more closely the the builder practice insulation recognized to adhere than that in wall-con-
ant upon the making to follow
of good concreting, an by
of enabling
to the princi
lcs of the best engineering of affording a more thorough ne-piece blocks. attendant air-space,
Care was also taken to a void all upon efforts to construct and this could only be
of the object onable features two walls wi h an intervening
SHAPE OF BLOCKS.
37
accomplished by blocks of such shape that those forming the outer face shall bond with those forming the inner surface
-:
~.,~~:.:
:
.. I
.... ~.::--:-
FIG. 6.-Two-piece
Blocks and Wall.
of projections in alternate courses. The ntinucd success of the two-piece system, and any structures of such size and importance
that it was scare proves that the
hoped that concrete blocks would be: adopted, t architects and engineers were guick to recog
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MAN rACTURE.
of block shown in Fig, 6 is probably the earliest form of t ieee block to come into extensive commercial usc) as the buil ng shown in Fig, 8 is the earliest structure worthy of mention in which two- piece walls were used. It is a noticeable fact th J though the earliest, this type still maintains its supremacy, an is to-day regarded as the
nize its points of superiority. The
FIG. 8.-Angdus
Hotel,
:cr
acme of perfection, from the engineer's noted that, distinct advantage
because the lines of the block and the architect's in the short rein point of view. of t e Tvshape, its various
t breaks
arc correct It 'will be
while a modification
it possesses a parts in praand not joi n ts Ia terall y
ing arms at either end

n to withstand,
of the face-section.
It has strength
portion to stresses which it is called only breaks joints between courses,

I
SHAPE OF BLOCKS
39
through of stablishcd alternate methods
in every course, thus leaving no vertical the wall. and giving the same result bonding that in brick and stone work advantages of long and short arms. one of its great one face, interior
jo nts extending as
by th lies.
overlapping of this block possible with-
It is in the m nufacture
s each block has but a d it becomes permits ecessary taneous pressure
cores are eliminated, This practice
to make the blocks under direct and insta out the usc of a tamper. large a percentage requirements
or quaking
the usc of as to fulfill the for a medium not only is a initial set and airpracbond strength of this
of water
as may be
of standard mixture, thorough with
engineering
specificaticns Thus
and at the same ti as may be desire crystallization a dry mixture, than can be not
e it allows the use of
as large size aggregate much than more is possible mixture.
sec red in the b t far greater ole advantages
and density cement
are obtained
ossiblc in a sand
One of the mast throughout
block lies in the facility with which a co tinuous horizontal space is produced leaving ticable without in the wall vention the wall, joints, open the interior vertical This is entirely
s shown in Fig. 7, by
loss of strength, 111is horizontal
owing to the indestructible air-space is valuable rly because

y capillary
in relation of its preattraction to multhat an may
to every phase of insulation, of the penetration insurance and the consequent tiple air-space interlocking be utilized designed houses, ciple to include
but particul of moisture
of a dry in erior in damp weather. of tw -piece blocks by so arrang ng the blocks of members
r
Fig. 9 shows the adaptability

construction is secured, a number bond
The extcn ion of the 'same prinrcatcr than three Such walls plants, ice-
to build a wall of any desired thickness, for any heavy constru requirements requiring unus to meet the of c ld-storage
are very serviceable
tion, and arc especially al insulation.
or any buildings

I
40 Fig.
10
CONCRETE-BLOCK MA UFACTURE.
shows a one-piece block described. and that
a pattern
radically different
from those heretofore by an air-chamber) will extend side, the object
Tl e idea of this block is to so no P rtion of the solid concrete of rnois-
dispose the webs and hollow spaces t at each 'web will be backed
directly from the outer f ce of the wall La the inner •

sough t being resista ce to penetration
FIG. 9.-Intcrlocking Thre -member Wall.
turc by rendering
it impossible pathway.
for
apillary
attraction
to draw the
water to the interior of a building

as to be an impossible past two years, demand purpose out the Mississippi for which been extensively
ex ept by a route so circuitous.

These int blocks have, during especially duced, humidity through. the
Valley, 'where th they are designe
is great and the manner,
for dry walls imperative.
hey have accomplished in an admirable

I
SHAPE OF BLOCKS.
where due attention ing mixing press type; and mpacting, y employed nuiacturc in molds nvolvcd was f their the p
was given to proportionA blocks of this
have gi\'en general satisfaction. in .manufacturing
but as they must be made in an upright 'was discarded,
position, the form
prohibiting machine, made
in either a face-up or a face-down and they are now' generally style. in detail It that it describes of the (( roll-over"
by tamp
It is not clai
all of the points is manifestly asid
ed for this chapter
in any particular
shape of block.
from the scope of this work to give the minute
ro.-Block
with Staggered Air-space.
y variations types general mentioned. types ill some of the mOT more decidedly the market. patent trated,
in the shape of nearly been the purpose and disadvantages
all of the to present of the
It has rather
advantages
which may be said to fairly cover the of the many styles of blocks on cannot and
vel features
To one who
fail to come that various shapes
ows the subject concrete blocks.
closely, the thought From
much inventive genius is devoted to devising week to week,
h, the designs of different-shaped blocks from month to have increased in number until they are as the sands of the sea-
42
CONCRETE-BLOCK MANUFACT
RE,
shorc,-no
man can number
them.
If any
ood could possibly it would be Ycry
come to mankind
from this waste of geniu., task. There
far from the purpose of this work to criticise th sc who are devoting their time to the fruitless tiplicity of designs is, hr wever, in this mulno added usefulness
d .veloped, no novel
w ill aid the advanceblock]f
Iea t u res d ispla yed, and no step taken which
ment of the industry. designers childish be well. that their appears variations
The sole idea of the present-clay
to be the a voidance, which are made
by t 1C sligh test ch angc

the
III
possible, of the rights of those who have pre cdcd them. were
-ritorious,
0
it would
to say of
:-:'0
In general, alterations that

ill
it docs the changers arc detrimental. for commercial
injustice
Incl .cd, \Try many usc, while others arc

ind
them arc never intended impracticable

onlv n-ult
:1 h"ol
any effort
to use them in actual practice

'Vh a t the ("(ncrctc- block
can
U~-
u 1C fa ilu rc.
try nL'l'ds is lx:tlcr workmen "'
rather
than
111
rc
,~
gCnill~L~.

I
CHAPTER
PHUCF:-;SFS.
IX.
Ix considering th e procc:;.se" of conc rete- bin: k man ufa cturc, il is ncccssa ry to consider only the methods usc 1 in rompacting
the ma-s, because the
proCl'oC,S
the operations identical.
before
and af cr this part of wat

T
()f
arc, except as to tl« amount
used and the
d'sirablc to note that, while the subject-matter of this chapter ha: been the UlUSC of un Iimi ted con ten tion, it is not more C:'-:'-Cl1 till to sllcccs:,-ful work 1han th c prclirnina ry proportioning and mixing. or the final curing. While tJ1(' nature of general con .retc work and
It is, however, the necessities place namely, in connection of but
1\\0
size of aggregate,
with
dcpo:-iting
t 1C concrete
in
admitted
ramming
methods
of comIla ·ting the mass,

condi ions in a con-
or pouring,
the altered
factory have introduced the addi ional factor of prcsc.;ing, and each of these three methods has aga n been divided,
crete-hlock
so
that
lIT 1. 2.
11<l\"C
six different tamping.
procc~~e:;:
Hand-tamping.
Pneumatic
3. Pouring
4. Casting
in iron molds. in sand. pressurc, pressure,

43
5. Mechanical
6. Hydraulic
both hand and po vcr,

I
44
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
In hand-tamping the best possible results are obtained by light and frequent ramming of a dry mixture of sand or screenings and cement. The usc of a dry mixture is necessary to cause the mass to compact under the blows of the tamper instead of squashing, or being thrown outside the area of contact, which is necessary tamped by the force of adhesion pordislodgment adjacent
the blow.
of particles
It is only in a dry mixture

obtains,
that the quick to prevent
of those portions
already
by blows upon
FIG,
n.-Pneumatic
Tamper in Operation.
tions of the mass. gate is impracticable. Successful industry
For similar reasons, the use of a coarse aggre-
block-making
by hand-tamping
To reduce tampers Their
is a matter
of
and endurance, in Fig.

II
the labor and secure unisimilar to that shown number is, of course, rapid to secure to over-
formity in the product, in operation of factories and uniform, greater strength
pneumatic
are now used in a considerable action lighter. of water
with good results,
and the work much
The process of pouring
in iron moulds was designed
by using a. large percentage
PROCESSES.
45
to place
come the lack of crystallization ture. As the mass is reduced
in the initial set of a- dry mixto a fluid state, it settle'
in the molds by its own weight and results in a very h rd block
To this process there are three valid objections. Th top and bottom of a block, considered according to its positl n in the mold) arc not uniform, as the heavier particles gravita e toward
the bottom. may attain support hours number Owing sufficient to the time required rigidity to prevent for a very wet mixdeformation a for a fac when the 'ery large ne work by aux·ays. By tu tc to absorb, or throw off, eno ugh of th e wa ter th at the block is removed from its side, the mold is in servi e several manufactured, and therefore to produce surface the a tput of a concre e into an
for each block factory.
of molds must be provided
moderate-size
No satisfactory
can be obtained iliary treatment.
by the simple act of pouring to produce This is accomplished
iron mold, and it becomes necessary one method the mold is arranged
in various
so that the face of the block and, while ve:r:y' et, coated text re to the by hand of pitch-face are chipped
will be uppermost surface. stone-work making method Havana,
and it is smoothed, method
with screened marble-dust, By another is secured. while in a semi-plastic
giving a fine granular the blocks
state, and thus an imitation
Casting in sand is not in veTY general use for ordi in this country, of manufacturing. owing to the expense It has, however, incide been of
0
t to this
xtensivcly
amental e general ccuratcly
used for the making work in the United
of blocks for all portions States.
of b ildings in
Cuba, and is largely used in the making
The process is on the sa but that
lines of casting as followed by iron-molders, that are not only very hard and very durable, follow the detail of the pattern appearance.
and results in blocks
and present a beautiful y finished
CONCRETE·BLOCK MANUFACTURE.
The
p ssibilities
attendant
upon
thc
condensation
of con-
crete bloc s by mechanical pressure are of recent discovery. It is 'within thc last three years that both hand- and power-presses
have been devised for successfully producing high-grade blocks cost with a savi g of labor which has brought the manufacturing
below that of older processes. The principle upon which this devclopmc t is based is that, by confining in a mold, properly
vented for escape
W
of air, a medium-wet diameter, sufficient and
mixture
of coarse con-
crete, of
every part pressure
rich the larger-size aggregate may measure from

greatest simultaneously condense applying
i"
to
f the exposed area of the concrete

b power to thoroughly
an instantaneous the mass, than by and fire struc-
a marc de se and homogeneous block can be secured

any former y mentioned have withs ood the process. most severe tensile, compressive, The
The fact that blocks so made fact that blocks of its sueof means may for deter-
tests proves the correctness so pressed cess from tial that escape. mining adjusting concrete
c
of this theory.
ave been used in several of the most important practical view-point. In pressing
tures yet b ilt of blocks is sufficient recommendation \-' ids be eliminated by adequate provision
blocks it is essen-
by which t c air contained th t each block
in the mass of loose concrete is uniformly pressed. This pressure, deposited,
It is also essential that means be provided

by suitable device for measuring stop. uniformly
may be
or by and is not because,
done cithe
t e press to an arbitrary m st be uniformly
In the latter case the
mixed,
the mold fi led to a uniform height. The ap ilication of hydraulic pressure to block-making
of so recen origin as the a-pplication of mechanical
pressure;
but the for

while the recognition,
cr has not met with universal introduction,

cgrec of compactness the time required secured in the manipulation
has ever commanded of a hydraulic
47
press has been an obstacle easily 0 'ercome by use of mechanical pressure. Recently, however, lar c presses have been constructed in which a number of bloc s may be pressed at one time; and, though cumbrous, this later d vclopment offsets to a degree the objectionable feature of the 't me lost in making a single hydraulic pressure.
CHAPTER X.
PLASTICITY.
normal consistency of concrete for blockquestion manufacture has largely determined by prejudice instigated by man Iacturcrs whose machines were. adapted to but a single degre of plasticity. This is to be deplored, inasmuch as the valu of those v"ell-defined principles underlying good concrete cons ruction is greater than the value of any par· ticular machine, r any particular type of machines. These principles have gr dually been deduced from results obtained from actual work inder varying conditions during that period of years since cern nt assumed its place as an important factor in the industrial life of the nineteenth century. The best engineering talent of the gr at railways, and of our national government, has been directed toward, the ascertainment of those practices which would resul in concrete work of the greatest strength and durability; an for the almost unanimous decision reached, that a medium-wet mixture should be used whenever practicable, there must be a re son. It is to be found, in the first place, in the chemical actio produced.in the cement by the addition of a proper proportion In common parlance, this chemical activity is describe as setting, or crystallization. The exhaustive researches of Lc hatelier have not only established the fact that tricalciurn sili ate is the essential chemical element in the setting of Portland cement, but that crystallization only ensues
THE
48
PLASTICITY.
49 to decompose this trihemical the use
after sufficient water has been consumed calcium question, silicate. the mere mechanical problem
In the second place, aside from any ground for abandoning
of coating the a gregatc
and filling the voids is sufficient
of an ultra-dry mixture. What is ordinarily known as a dry mixture is of he consistency of damp earth. If a lump of dry concrete c compressed in the hand, it will not give off sufficient watc to soil th e hand, but it will instantly acquire sufficient rigidity
its shape.
It is this latter quality which has brought

with block work. could forthwith e withhold the position to which it was
crete into such favor in connection that it would instantly
by the tamper, and that the face-plates the manufacture, product that make for quality and consequently
drawn from the block, has been so great a factor in fa ilitating in reducing scientific the cost, of the principle which those well-established have been sacrificed
to speed and ch apness.
In [Ill frankness
it must be said that the dire effects of the use

to cause weak blocks, liable to disint gration to the manu acturcrs the usc
0
of a mixture so dryas of machines. They
withi,: a few years, is not wholly chargeable customarily ignorant recommend turc as wet as practicable; ators of whom too many, the business manipulate tion as a license for them with the greatest mixture
a mix-
but this passes the matter on to operof the principles which un erlying this instruc-
in which they have engaged, interpret to use the mixture case. is available.
ey can
It is, however, only in machines which make blocks b' tamp lng that the ultra-dry mechanical The medi m mixwheth r hand, an water ture is used in all machines one containing operated by pressure,
power, or hydraulic. so much moisture
By a medium mixture i' meant

that it will quake, I is not
will flush to the surface when the mass is compressed.
CONCRETE BLOCK MANUFACTURE.
possible
to specify
an u varying
a tcrials, ngg cgate
percentage In general,
of water
without
acquaintance
with local
it may he said
that a broken-stone gran:l aggregate.
will require
a larger percentage mixture

of more
of water than would be n -cdcd in concrete made from sand and By tl: usc of a medium-wet by reason a more thorough thorough coating crvstallization concrete of the aggregate i:-,secured in the initial set of the cement, is obtained and more complete as to reduce filling of voids. work, and involves to a fluid tamping
and a better
A wet mixture mix ture
is usc} only in poured requiring
the usc of so much watc nor preswre. the cement, through superfluous
the concrete neither
suita ble for po Hing, and
From a ch mical point of view, it is claimed that and, from a ncchanical water durin: induration. standpoint, This voids will result for the escape of is usually accom-
care must be exercised to a ·oielusing so much water as to" drown" evaporation unlc: s means be provided
plished in plain work by he usc of porous molds, while in ornamental work, by the proc ss of casting in sand, the water which is not consumed
by the nternal
chemical
action of the cement
readily finds its way into the sand.
CHAPTER XI.
FACING.
by molding con texture, a suitable appearance for the better gra surfaces, has led to efforts along various lines I the attainment of more pleasing surfaces. O\ ving forms ordinarily used in monolithic constructio down as soon as the concrete will retain its shap port, the practice has been well-nigh universal i
THE
difficulty
of obtaining,
rete of usual e of exposed oking
toward
to the board-
being taken
without supthat class of been found
construction immediately that adhesion
to plaster after
a rich
mixture the boards.
on the c It h
removing
by rougheni g the surface of the set concrete with a wire brush, and thor ughly v vetting
can only be secured surface before this roughened these precautions, applying the facin. in which
t
Even with e contraction
cases are frequent
of the richer mixture during the setting of its cern nt has caused cracks and resulted in separation between layers. other objection to Ibis method which draws craz ing -era cks, lies in the troweling to the surface incide and res construction d, it was not, locks, though t the there t to finishing, the cement
As it was not prudent

of buildings, feasible such dangers
to risk, in blocks for th as have been mention of concrete with a mixture developments
in the earlier stages of the manufacture to face the blocks Later body of the block.
diffe ing from
have sho vn that
51
© 2010 Forgotten Boo s
52 are whic fad " and
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
methods eliminate
of facing, after
applicable attendant
J :I I
to block-manufacture, upon The

I:
the difficulties
the method mixtures
of
troweling
manufacture.
10
com-
mon y used for facing yary from or b dy of the block varies from
3, while the backing In the case of a half-inch to that quite
:4 to 1:3 :4.
bloc s tamped in an upright position, one side of the mold must need- form the face; and the only way of applying face of the finer material this and eaves a distinct on to make whic contemplate is by the insertion sepa ate it from the main body of concrete, line of cleavage between permanency. face down. blocks There oes not insure absolute of a partition It is evident It is. Lemming arc
the two sections, now many of facing, first, and the coarser is is and line
mac ines on the market, adapted to the latter method the introduction against in the mold. under of the face-matter before its t orough tamping the face-plate
cone etc is deposited
In this ..,vay the partition pressure, pressure, the face-matter it becomes
cIrm' ated and, the line of cleavage less marked. fact re of two- piece blocks th us, upon imb I
IS
In the manu-
appI cd in the top of the mold before the block is pressed; subjection to heavy ded into the underlying has been generally influence of truth element coarse mass, and no distinct
firmly
of cl a vage remains. supposed that the color of cement had a ve y potent a of a gregate on the color of water
al' the
face.
While
there
in this belief, it is a fact that the color are factors more worthy cements of a parin cost approxifrom France block-factories,
and the purity In many
ticul r color-usually or
0
white-have countries, nearly an aggregate the
been imported
her European have obtained cements, more
when a smaller result sought.
increase For
waul land mat
giving, with the native Port-
y white facing, it is evident that white sand or stone screen-
FACING.
53
of color, however, of a hard the selecis of the greatest a d close teximmebe sere ned
mgs should importance. ture, diately and
be used.
Irrespective
tion and preparation scrupulously mixing,
of sand for face-matter clean., It should
It should be fine, sharp,
before
not only to remove accomplished. Owing
any lar e particles, to the tendency to
but to loosen it up as much as possible, be more thoroughly stick to plates, face-matter tendency
so that the mixing may
is usually mixed dryer t an the body

th .rc is a slight It is, therefore, demands color. of obt ining strong manner neces ary to again the se of screen-
of the block, and, as it is always a rich mixture, to roll up into balls. immediately stone screen the mixture ings from and durable There crushed before it is used.
For colored work the best practice the only truly correct and practicable colors without sacrificing are but few plants are several
of the desired
the strength
f the block.
ust survive: v rious 0 colors course it is oils, greases,
in which this method
ha ~ been extcn-
sively used, but it is, nevertheless, There understood have ochre,
the method which as a base.
firms, now manufacturing colors, or colors containing
for block work, using iron pigments that vegetable
or acids, cannot safely be used in concrete work. undertaken lampblack, The second, to produce to give directions facts in the iron oxide, and a great variety case show
t\VO
1\ any writers,
0
for the use of ultramarine, other colorFirst,

t ings :
ing matters. with time; adequate
that all colors produced
by such artificial means arc iable to fade in quantity to Gen-
that the usc of such "adulterant.
the desired color, with sufficie t strength time, weakens the co .retc, by use of
prevent fading for a reasonable erally speaking, in concrete of the required it is probably color.
safe to say that an u fading color n aggregate
blocks can only be produced
In facing blocks the chief end sought, aside from appearance,
54
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE_
is to ob ain a surface approximately water-tight, The fact that only fin sand is used decreases the size of voids to such an extent that, b the use of a large proportion of cement, the face (if mixed r ascnably wet and properly compacted) may be made nearly i permeable without the use of any chemical adulterant. There a CJ however, a number of compounds on the market, for usc in fcc-matter, calculated to produce a perfectly waterproof surface, In absence of information as to their ingredients, it is manifes ly impossible to express an opinion either as to their perman nee or their ultimate effect upon the cement. The form of face is a matter 'of the particular plates used in the anufacture of blocks, being, in the case of upright onepiece bI cks, one side of the mold, in the case of face-down blocks the batt m of the mold, and in the case of two-piece blocks the pressing plate. In supplying these plates, it has been the usual custom to regard pitch-face as a standard design. That it is an imp rfect imitation of the cheapest class of stone-work, that it lacks he boldness and variety of outline found in the original, and tha it robs cement-work of its own intrinsic merit, docs not dete the block-maker from using a facc which will not show the imp rfection of his work or the loose texture of his blocks, and he nflicts upon a gullible public a design suitable only for baseme t and stable construction, Equally culpable and inartistic is he who, by a repetition of designs produced from the same fcc-plates, destroys the decorative possibilities of concrete ar hitccturc by a sucession of monotonous ornamentation. The rna ufacturer of machines, the block-maker, and the architect of oncrete- block structures will alike do well to consider that th decorative features of concrete blocks lie not less in plain a d imposing walls than in contrasting ornamentation. They ay also remember that the value of ornamentation is enhance 1 by beautiful walls of blocks that are plain, or by blocks
FACING.
55
that are beveled to emphasize mortar-joints, after the manner of the rusticated exteriors of the Italian renaissance, wi h which tool-face blocks may be suitably interpolated. Such arc iitecturc will carry concrete blocks into structures where they co ld never go by the prevalent usc of a dull, plastic-like imitation of hewn stone, or a motley conglomeration of inartistic ornamen ation.
I
CHAPTER
XII.
ORNAI\IENTATIOX.
s suggested
In
in the previous buildings, evident that construction, cost which
chapter,
ornamentation decorative
should, feature.
oncrete-block therefore
be a contrasting in quantity
Jt:i
and size it constitutes, of the buildwarrants for the reason
in t uly artistic a anufacturing
but a small proportion would be beyond
ing; and it may be fairly assumed portion of the walls.
that its production is further
This statement natural
emphasized rep1acing a
by
e fact that such ornamentation quality of ha.nd-cut nd that of ornamental n considering cement-work stated
is successfully produced in Chapter of machines, the undercut,
stone, the cost of \v hich is far by any process. may be manuXI, pass those whose by which ornamentation
the methods
pro uccd we may, for reasons des' ns furnished om mental ·ig.

I2
,~ ith a number ...
fact rers have modified the egg-and-dart features
and a few other standard and who furfor the Chicago
by eliminating
iron plates
cast from such patterns. work manufactured
shows ornamental
DT~ inage-canal Power-house, near Lockport) Ill. The process usc 1 in producing this work involved the casting of plaster molds
fro patterns. hardened. The cement was poured into these molds, and, g to the undercut, the molds were broken and removed without after the cement the molds.
56
ha
Of course, where there is no undercut in sections
can be made
breakage.
ORNAMENTA
57
workers employs One very large company of 0 These must be sectional wooden molds almost e thoroughly shellacked to prevent wa ing and cracking. Glue molds have been used in the finer lines of olded glue negative may ornamental cement-work. be used about twenty times, as its permits removal from work. having a considerable
FIG. I2.-0rnamental
\Vork for Chicago
rainage-canal
Power-house.
Casting in sand seems to be the easiest and, all things considered, the most inexpensive meth of producing thoroughly
satisfactory ornamental work. As
1
requires
merely
a wooden
pattern, iron-molders' sand, and "vet concrete, it is evident that a high degree of skill is not essential to perfect work. The only item of great expense is the pattern, d this may often be secured
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
in natural stone or some other material, if of a design not dbtainable in wood, without the services of a pattern-maker. It is but fair, to that one who is about to embark in th business of manufacturing and selling concrete blocks, to stat that he should not undertake elaborate ornamental work without long experience in the more easy departments of concrete anufacture. The manufacture of ornamental work is dis inctly a separate branch of the cement industry, and one rec uiring great skill. The ease with which cement assumes any form, and the beautiful effects produced by the skillful operator, lead the novice to tread on most dangerous ground. It is one thing to make an ornament, and quite another thing t produce one that will stand the test of time. The sharp a rises, the [me lines, and the intricate designs of desirable orna entation require a degree of familiarity with the action of c ment, both in molding and in exposure to atmospheric infl enccs, which is too often gained by the loss of a customer's go d will. Above all things, the common practice of employing che icals for accelerating the set of cement, in the production of ornamental designs, is to be deprecated as irreparably harmi g the business of the future.
I
CHAPTER XIII.
CURING.
can be no reater error in block-making than to consider the process of m nufacture complete when a block is taken from the mold. It i in the application of scientific methods to the subsequent ind ration of the block that this style of construction possesses a marked advantage over monolithic concrete construction. I is in the adaptability of concrete blocks to thorough curing be ore laying that they are capable of acquiring that degree of st cngth and durability which is ultimately destined to place the in the first rank as a building material. It must not, however be supposed that the mere setting away to cure, or allowing t dry, constitutes what is rightly embraced in the comprehensive process termed curing. It rather involves a most careful applic tion, during a series of days, of scientific methods calculated to give quality to the product, and it .is to a neglect of such metho s that most failures in block-making are attributable. As is well known cement is the bonding clement of concrete, and its value in that regard lies wholly in its hydraulicity. As mentioned in a pr vious chapter, crystallization is the result of hydration, and th rough crystallization is only effected by the use of a conside able quantity of water. It must be still further considered tha crystallization is by no means an instanTHERE
S9
60
CONCRETE-BLOCK
AN UFACTURE.
taneous process; that only what i commonly termed the initial set is secured by the admixture t the cement and aggregate of the amount of 'water most comm nly used in molding blocks; and that reliance must be had upon subsequent addition of moisture to secure that later rystallization without which blocks are worthless for practical purposes. Maintenance of uniform con itions is the keynote to successful curing. It is absolutely ssential that blocks shall not, during the period of curing, be ex xised to the sun. The reason for this becomes apparent if a f cshly-made block, thoroughly saturated with water, be exposed for a few hours to the direct rays of the sun. It will be note that one side becomes very dry while the other remains moi t; and the exposed side will show a baked appearance, and, y the rapidity of contraction, develop checks and shrinkage-cr cks, while serious structural cracks are liable to result in the ntcrior of the block, owing to the variance in rate of contractio between the front and back. It may here be noted that alar e percentage of cracks, both structural and surface, arc cause by rushing green blocks into a wall. Many operators have, in their earlier experience, made the mistake of placing in a v vall locks only three or four days old; and the results, especially if t e wall be exposed to the sun, have fully justified a sweeping c ndcmnation of such practice. It will ever be a source of mortifi ation to the block-maker if he allows the insistence of a builder who is anxious for blocks on a certain day, to lead him to de ivcr partially cured blocks to be used above ground. The main clement in curing, ndcr methods now commonly in use, is water, and it should be applied at such intervals and in such manner that the conditio of moisture will at all times be uniform. This may be secu ed by sprinkling the blocks thoroughly three or four times day. The amount of water
CUR.ING.
6I
a d the frequency
with which it should be applied are dependent conditions. atmosphere, It is evident sprinkling that in may occur
a great extent upon weather
c ld weather,
t less frequent
or in a humid intervals
than would be necessary Sprinkling
in a dry climate
r in very hot weather.

t e blocks have attained ot deface evident the surface. that a larger
as soon as sufficient rigidity that a fine spray will If a dry mixture has been used, it is
of water will be consumed than or case under require
.should begin
amount
will be the case where blocks h ave been made of a medium wet mixture. In the former o ghly moist for at least twenty t n days will suffice. a y circumstances c ring of fifteen inimum t orough curing days, while in the latter
case, blocks should be kcpt thor-
A rule which should not be violated of medium The sprinkling mixture
is that blocks of dry mixture require days, and blocks of seven days.
minimum
should, be so and espedesigns, as well
that no portion of any block will turn white; should be given to any ornamental which usually dry faster uniformity of moisture,
cal attention to corners,

r
th an the main surface. burlap, or any substance wetting the surthe but otherwise
maintain
it will be found useful to By first thoroughly
p otect the blocks with hay, excelsior, \- hich will serve to retain moisture. c vering o taining r unded bocks; matter thoroughly moist
a pile of blocks, covering in this manner, may be prevented, by uniformly
and then keeping
wet, the loss of moisture air.
and the blocks be constantly as bctv ..ecn and among with one another,
A circulation
of air is desirable
and not only for this reason, but also to prevent discolornot come in contact so that a slight air-space
a ion, blocks should a d layers should b uniform curing.
ti rs should be arranged
'will intervene,
In this color is a
be separated The
by laths laid between. of curing upon
c nnection it may be noted that uniform color can only be obtained influence
62
CONCRETE-BLOCK
MANUfACTURE-
matter which has not been given so serious consid
'"
}I ". '
."k,
'
·d(::!.
.. ~-
,",
~I'
_",
• ,.
t.i~
'.
~;~~~,~.~
FIG. 13.-Full Set of Mold" and Accessories forming a Simple Equ Roll-over Type. t of the
" :::".1
:~
deserves, for it is a most essential factor in sccurl forrnity of appearance so much desired.
urn-
CURING.
Steam- uring of blocks is a matter in which considerable interest is manifested at this time. It is of course well understood that placing blocks in live steam will efT an apparently cet thorough ure in an incredibly short time; but the experiment's along this line have been so few, and the statements of actual results ob erved during any eonsid~rable period of time arc so limited, th t the expression of decided views on the subject is not yet ju tified, It is, however, interesting to note that, in the constructi n of a vcry large public building in the State of New York, the local company which is manufacturing the blocks is also the 0 vncr of a sand-lime brick-plant, and has, in the steamcylinder a the latter plant, cured bloch. so effectively that when forty-cigh hours old they have been placed in the wall beside blocks cu ed for the customary time by usual methods. It is the presen belief that the best results in steam-curing are obtained by exposi g the blocks in thoroughly moist air for twenty-four hours bcf rc subjecting them to steam! thus following standard practice f [ accelerated tests of cement briquettes. Curin in freezing weather is difficult, but not impossible. The bloc s must be kept from freezing for the first four or five days to a ... id expansion-cracks caused by swelling from freezing. a At the e d of that time sufficient firmness should have been attained 0 withstand the tendency to expansion; and in that case no d mage will result, as freezing only suspends crystallization! and a subsequent rise in temperature causes a resumption of the ch mical process.
CHAPTER
XIV.
1L\CH1!\'ES.
IN can idering of concrete

1.
machines
and
molds
for
the
manufacture
blocks it will be "well to divide them into three groups
and consid -r them in the following order:
:1 achincs
t rnping
and a dry
molds
for
manufacturing using
blocks
by fine a
mixture,
a comparatively
2.
Iachincs
for compressing mixture,
in molds, without
tamping, graded
edium-wct 3.
IS
using an aggregate
from
fine to coarse.
.!._
Lolds for forming be understood
blocks by pouring by the reader
a wet mixture.
It mus where
that this classification also be understood is not submitted per~ but it has certain
to a cer ain extent the various The
arbitrary,
and that there arc certain points It must or described
classes overlap, illustrated limitations
that the li- t of machines as comple c.
of this work by no means on the market, as exemplify
mit of a c escript ion of each machine been the i tcntion princirlcs )[ manufacture;
to select such machines
and the same principles arc in many changes, in a large numof any particufrom
6..J.
cases cmb xlicd, with slight mechanical ber of var ous makes. sets forth lar style. manuiacti Neither
is it claimed that the description to the operation are readily ascertainable
11 particulars
These rcrs' catalogues,
relative
particulars
and it is very far from the lnlrpo~e
to make this ture, peculiarities more patent
rk .in any sense a compilation the various
of catalogue
litera-
cr the purpose to present some of the more marked types, and to mention some of their
ints of relative merit and demerit .
. 14.-Upright Machine with Drop Cores.
The objc
1.
of a concrete-block mold or machine for enclosing red shape for properly the mass during and quickly and size. compacting
are six:
into
Me
d
formation
the mass.
66
CO CRETE-BLOCK
MANUFACTURE.
3. Means for giving desired variation
to exposed surfaces. from the
4. Means f r making
bod y 6. Means entit1ed machines or another comprising
0
a face of texture differing

of the product.
th c block. injury every to the block while green.
S. Means fo rapid dischargc f r preventing actors in
All of the six

show th of then.
mentioned
may fairly
machine, directed
be said the
to be various to one
to consid ration
and
result of attention
especially
In Fig. 13 is s own a full set of cores, plates, a medi m-pricc outfit of the roll-over or working-table the sides The ating this outfit plates comprising
anel the like, type. In operis set the to and until in height;
t11 plate to which the cores arc attached

of convenient
on a level surface the particular are clamped mixture the what
and ends are selected according

for the surface mold is then and above tamping of the block repeated The partly being
design desired
in pI ce. his filling d slightly
filled and the mixture
tamped,
the mold is heap larger than
the sides.
mold is then I veled with a straight-edge, he block put

50
and a board someThe whole. apparatus
on top.
is then turned
that thc mold rests on the board. The iron plate is now lifted straight up, 'withdrawing the cores with it; the sides of th mold arc undamped and removed, and the
block is set away a cure on the board, machine upon a metal stand, of block Simulas of is the dropping In Fig. 14 is s own an upright machines. taneously shown The e pedal with th feature
over
being the latest m del of one of the first manufacturers of this machine of the cores out a the block after it has been tamped. dropping
of cores the sides are opened, on an iron pallet
in Fig. IS, and the block removed to the c res and hollow spaces.
the shape and size of the block itself, and having openings sponding
corre-
This type of machine
MACHINES.
has been very closely imitated by many manufacturer entered the field in later years, The variations which made from the original have been calculated to sec facility of operation, or to attain greater efficiency in
who have they have rc greater some one
FIG. Is.-Upright
Machine Releasing-block,
of the essential points mentioned in opening this appears, however, that the recent improvements this machine arc well calculated to enable it to main tion of supremacy among the upright machines. efforts of its imitators to belittle its efficiency, it must
apter. It odied m nits posicspite the acknowl-
I
G8
edged worthy that
i1S
CONCRETE·BLOCK MANUFACT
RE.
product stand
is uniformly to its credit.
cxcelle 1, and
that many
buildings
FIG. r6.-1Ioving
the 110ld rather than t
Block.
In the mold illustrated

block from deformation
in Fig. 16 the poi t of preserving ... "bile green has n emphasized
the
by
© 2010 Forgotten
I
ooks
MACHINES.
leaving handling
the block on the ground

IS
where made and removing hard.
the
mold from the block, until it has
relieving
the block from any jar in
me somewhat
Fig. 17 shows a
in which the characteristic feature
:,
.:Q-
•
•
'.0
is facility
factured illustration.
of facing.
embodying They are
ere are many machines

the same general principle mrnonly termed face-down
now manushown in the machines,
and usc the plate fa
g thc outer surface of the block as the
CONCRETE-8
OCK MANUFACTURE.
bottom of the mold, on wbi h the fine facing matter, varying from
I: I
to
I:
3 mixture
of cern nt and fine sand, granite and thoroughly

I
screenings after which
or marble dust, is deposite the leaner mixture comprise and tamped in the usual
tamped,
in the body of the block is deposited anncr, except that the cores, which it arc not inserted to place. that, until In most when thc pallet or
will be noted enter and wit draw laterally, machines position
the lower half of the block has been tamped block is ready for delivery, and the block on an iron bottom-plate with the upright upright without ment petition the plate
of this type the mold is so arranged re ea-sed either i the manner achine
o
he mold may be turned described
to an upright in connection of the
on a wooden
machines. which was originally later arranged of depositing brought anufacturcrs to admit
In Fig. 18 is shown a type, on which the for tilting to an angle of 4 of the tilting device, which The
a device
face-matter comof
the use of a partiti on, and 'which, by 5tH! later improvehas been into direct with face-down m chines by the latest model, as shown till preserves echanical is he raising all the advantages of this feature machine
in the illustration,
uprigh t t ype_ claims upon stationary which
attention
and lowering
of the bedfor refill-
cores, and the engaging drop into position.
of side and end
plates by a frame which th ows the mold into position ing as the bed-plate two-piece aggregate In Fig. 19 is shown is employed. a mechanical
press for manufacturing mixture in which a coarse of this machine use which is in every respect
blocks from a m dium-wet
A. it is the perfection ethod of operation the process
which has brought at variance blocks.
two-pic e blocks into the extensive es already described, tl at the pressure
they now enjoy, and as the from the machi esting to consider
it may be interpressed by means
in some detail
of making is applied
It will be noted
MACHINES.
71
of upright hand-levers, which, by lowering either to or to the left, bring into action an arrangement of co pound toggles "which exert upon the movable bed of the press a ressurc
t. ,I
'.~
..
"
FIG. rR.-Combination
Upright and Face-down
l\Iachine.
of
pounds. The molds are fined at their respc of the track, the medium-wet mixture of one part ce of sand, and four of gravel 01' broken stone being sh the mold and raked off level If it is desired that th
60,000
face be
I
CONCRETE-BLOCK MA NliFACTURE.
of fine texture, a gauge is used at this stage of the
recess, raking
of the coarse
from the top of the mold a quarter or half

mixture, and a half-shovelful of fine
ter, previously
screened to avoid lumps, is applied. The """~1~n>-tJ.u~ of the .... particular design required is then put in place avjng grooved mold, and the mold, which is hung on trolleys wheels fitting the track, is then run into the pre and the pres-
FIG. 19.-1fcchanical
Press making Two-piece
sure made.
ation.
From three to four seconds is requi As the pressure is relieved, the mold is
thrown over the pressing-plate to
two hooks
while the mold is inverted and run to the end of releasing-stand, which is shown
and it in place, e track. The\\·11
below the mold

the
the illustraooks loosened,
tion, is then raised to engage the pressing-plate, and the block lowered
(face down), resting on the

process is very rapid,
it
was
pressed.
The
e by which men pro-

I
MACHINES.
73
and faced blocks eturns arc in and other special blocks and the bevel noted two-
d ueing thirty. requires tilting pressure
unlaced
blocks
in twenty time.
seconds Comer
The making
somewhat
of corner, more
jamb,
faced by
the mold to admit the face-matter on the return the mass endwise. is peculiarly that two-piece as it exerts also
thc return, be especially manufacturing peculiarly
is given by an in enious interior It shoul adapted blocks

as they
which crowds piece blocks, the block; for manufacture
that this machine
fo ar
the pressure
dir ctly on the face of
adapted
h ve no interior cores, and can therefore be released from the mold ace down. It should
in this machine, be stated that the molds are provided which behind permit the escape admit air while releasing, the block. termed extending commonly for making in width thus obviating with umerous vent-holes, and of a vacuum of air when pr of differen and size sure is applied castings
r cores,
the creation
A number
which are
are provided
cores, but are not interi shapes from the thinnest
many different
of blocks, the range
par ition to a seventeen-
inch wall, all being made in the same mol and fillers. The poured materials and that system admits of the use becomes compact
0
by adjustable
a variety
cores
of differcnt settlement
in the molds. the block
The fact that com ression is eliminated, by the mere and ecausc
of the fluid mixture, any severe strain. adapted described
makes it unnecessary For this reason, moisture chapter,
f r the molds to resist

of its ability
to take up the superfluous for such molds; in a previous providing
in the mixture, sand is well
and the process has give kind of
f casting in sand, as
rather better Wooden years results molds
than has the use of any other may be used, to prevent of sheet-iron warping. Some
the wood be tho oughly two or three
waterproofed ago a system blocks
molds was placed on the mar et for making

I
74 by the poured
CONCRETE-BLOCK MANUFACTU
E.
proce'Os.
The molds arc well a 1apte<1 to the purin a considcrab e number of Iuc-
[lose, and han> been installed
torics ; but the fact tha t th c na turn 1 gra vi iati: n of h ea vier portions of the mass to the bottom ca uses lack of u .iformity throughout the block.v-nd 11 H' a
SCT\Td
the difiiculry
of producing'
satisfactory
face,
as obstacles, large number
while the long time which blocks can be removed, of molds
the molds and the any
arc retained consequent
in service before of product,
required
or producing
consi.lcra blc output
have greatly hindered the popu·
lariza tion of these molds.

I
CHAPTER XV.
PLANT ARRA:-\GEl-1ENT.
IN the location,
requisite to market. is ample The
uesigning, plant should
and equipping which he within
a plant the first be located close hauling
ground-space,
should
a reasonable
distance of that section in which it is anticipated of buildings of block construction to feel that the mistake from which long haul the essential of locating entailed will be located. a thing in choosing
that the majority One is inclined ocation is to get and hence make ,or near a stream , overlooking nlike the most conproduct. of blocks breakage opera total and
near the sources of supply of the raw materials a plant at a gravel-ban sand and gravel
may be procure
product. to haul
on the finished than
tract work, it will be found much cheaper rials for block-manufacture Great care must be exercised in the
to h ul the raw matethe finished tation
transpo
from the factory to the building-site
in order to prevent
and defacement.
It must be remembered
th t the tiniest chip

business,
from the corner of a block often means to a c nscientious ator, and not less to one who cares for future loss of the -block. Hence a long haul a short haul on blocks is preferable and a long haul on the latter. a great advantage, to a short cemen on r, w materials
aut on the former and such special

75
If possible to se ure trackage it is
both as to receiving
CONCRETE.BLOCK MANUFACTuRE.
chara of aggregate as may occasionally be necessary, and as to ship ng blocks to outside points in contiguous territory. In caring for freshly-made blocks it is necessary, except under processes leaving the blocks on the ground, that they should be racked. In small plants, racks for this purpose may tly arranged by making for the ends and center of k a frame of 2" X6" lumber and placing thereon 2" X4"
FIG. 20.-l..,ar ounauic for Concrete Blocks.
stri The latter should not be nailed, but should be put in place s required, 50 that the off-bearers may have ample room for se ting blocks on the stringers, and, as each tier of blocks lace) the stringers for the next higher tier arc put on the For large fact.ories, however, it is much better to provide for the product. In Fig. 20 a convenient type is shown. These may be obtained in various sizes suited to the particular type blocks manufactured, or trucks may be purchased and
PLANT
ARRANGEMENT.
77
the cars built up of rough lumber, according to individu merits. Tracks may be constructed of hard wood or T-rail, and should run from the machine to the curingis a frequent practice to have considerable trackage in adjoining the manufacturing-room, and to keep the ocks on the cars for several days before exposing them in the ope
,.".
FIG, 2J.-Sy~tem
of Cars and Tracks.
yard. In that case it becomes necessary to have a car for switching the regular cars from one track to consisting merely of a wheeled truck on a sunken track at a righ t angle to the surface tracks. In Fig. 2 I such a track is shown in the foreground. The cars shown in tration consist of wood frames built upon iron trucks. system of tracks, second-hand street-car rails were utiliz
ransferther, running ansfcris illusIn this
The-
oks.org
CONCRETE·BLOCK MANUFACTUR.E.
cars should sit very close to the machine while blocks arc bei manufactured, as an enormous amount of time is usually co sumed in off-bearing owing to lack of proper convenience. f cars or racks. Doubtless the most convenient and economical arrangemc t for handling materials is, where circumstances permit, to have overhead sand- and gravel-bins discharging into the mixer, wi .b the mixer elevated so that it will discharge on a platform of su h height that the concrete may be readily raked. into the moll. If, however, the contour of the ground renders such an arrang ment impracticable, the same result may be obtained by t c
use of inclined belt-conveyors, which will be found the most sr tisfactory means for elevating and transporting concreLe. Of course either one of the elaborate arrangements me tioned in the last paragraph 'will not be installed in the srn: 11 plant, but it is not of less importance for the smallest opcrat r to carefully arrange his plant with a view of securing the gre test compactness and convenience. The bins should be close 0 the mixing-platform, and the mixing-platform close to one sir c of the machine, with racks readily accessible on the other si There are now few places where sufficient water-prcssu e to use a hose is not obtainable, and the application of water fro a hose-nozzle is far preferable and more uniform than a.ny oth r method. In the large yards it is customary to save labor
running a water-pipe around the curing-yard, having automat c
lawn-sprinklers at intervals for wetting stacks of blocks. The curing-yard is an important consideration, and mu t be comparatively la.rge. It should be protected by a roof und T which the blocks may remain until curing is nearly, if not quit , completed. In winter it will become necessary to enclose the side , and this may be cheaply done with blocks. If desired, the c blocks may be laid in lime-mortar, and taken down in the spri g
I
PLANT
ARRANGEMENT.
79 vinter one rail+ m, heating the -stove in either cks stacked at
for usc in other construction. During the past road company successfully operated on this pl temporary building by means of a large canno end and placing the machine midway, with bl the ends.
CHAPTER XVI.
PLANT E1.IPLOYEES.
One of the most important factors in the su cess of a concrete-block plant is a foreman of intelligence, xperiencc, and character. The oft-repeated statement of m nufacturers of block machines, that the commonest kind of co mon labor can produce the best concrete blocks, is, to use the ildest language possible, misleading. It is to belief in this st tcmcnt that a considerable number of block-makers might jus ly charge their failure to introduce blocks into their commun ty, as well as their pecuniary loss. It is to the result of (his c ronco us advice that manufacturers may charge the failure of their salesmen to place machines in many towns adjacent to thos where failures have occurred. The foreman of a concrete-bloc factory must possess, in a marked degree, those qualities of st rling character which make one a handler of men: he must ha e the capacity to systematize their duties and to accomplish esults, and in addi tion to this a bility he must know the nature, u es, and limitations of cement; and he must be especially verse in the theory and practice of mixtures, proportioning, aggreg tes, voids, and general concreting. He must so thoroughly ndcrstand the particular machine in use and the materials I cally available that he will obtain the maximum of quality in his product under all conditions. He must know something of bui ding construeT
80

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Truth may seem, ntit

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of this book is to present principles to the manufacture

in a simple which p actice blo ks for of concrete

well-established hollow walls,

has shown applicable building The theoretical result

tion with the industry to the operator

in actual work, but of a

of the successes throughout subject it will of the many which appear

magazines. this book is unduly grows

will pass away, and it is hoped th t this

to the wea ancsses their may universally

can alone sccur blocks in loculi tics whcr

by really a ble hands.

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:. rona lit hi c constructi

History Puzzolan ;';atural

' s one - .....•................................ ' ,

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Pu ri ty. (~uantity, Water in curing In winter work ' , ,

Ad van tages of hollow space .. ' Descri ption of representative ly pes

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. '.' ...............•........ '.' . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ' CIIAPTER

'......... " .... . ..

Met hods of prod ucing

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Cb;;_~incation of machine» Objects of lllachines., .. , Dcscri ption of re prcscn tati ve

"............... " '.......

.\[old-llukcr \ludekr Cornmou l.t 1)(1 r _\ OilS, ....•••• las

. " ".. ,................. , . . .. . XVTlT.

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[·'ire"resic;tann' Sound-proof \. erm in-proof Vem ilation Durability

1'hi Iade I ph i a speci II cal ions f(l r corn pi ell' tests _.

for all classes

er rors of the machin« manufacturers, tai 1u rc chargeable to the oper;l tors ..

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'\G CO'\"STl{ tTCTIO"-f.

1.-\\"1' r.\ CIT RE () i"·\CCESSO]{IES, '

Accessory rr.olds.. . . . . ,,,.... }.[ethod of nuking ;1 HI using molds..

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F ron tis piece, Fig.

Office Bu tTi ngton

Pl.m t l11ino is Stce

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10,) III III I 12 113 115 J2..j.

4°, 'fecil wall-plug- , . , .. , _. , . , . ,

44. Orn.imen tal accessories 45. Porch column and balustrade.

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CONCRETE-BLOCK M NUFACTURE, PROCESSES AND ACHINES.

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aggregates a sand, gravel, \ ork, hibiting o this limitation

have usually is carried than

been limited still further, Portland