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c 

Pure ALOHA protocol. Boxes indicate frames. Shaded boxes indicate frames which have collided.

The first version of the protocol (now called "Pure ALOHA", and the one implemented in ALOHAnet) was
quite simple:

a If you have data to send, send the data


a If the message collides with another transmission, try resending "later"

Note that the first step implies that Pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is busy before
transmitting. The critical aspect is the "later" concept: the quality of the backoff scheme chosen
significantly influences the efficiency of the protocol, the ultimate channel capacity, and the predictability
of its behavior.

To assess Pure ALOHA, we need to predict its throughput, the rate of (successful) transmission of
[9]
frames. (This discussion of Pure ALOHA's performance follows Tanenbaum .) First, let's make a few
simplifying assumptions:

a All frames have the same length.


a Stations cannot generate a frame while transmitting or trying to transmit. (That is, if a station keeps
trying to send a frame, it cannot be allowed to generate more frames to send.)
a The population of stations attempts to transmit (both new frames and old frames that collided)
according to a Poisson distribution.

Let "O" refer to the time needed to transmit one frame on the channel, and let's define "frame-time" as a
unit of time equal to O. Let " " refer to the mean used in the Poisson distribution over transmission-
attempt amounts: that is, on average, there are transmission-attempts per frame-time.
Overlapping frames in the pure ALOHA protocol. Frame-time is equal to 1 for all frames.

Consider what needs to happen for a frame to be transmitted successfully. Let "›" refer to the time at
which we want to send a frame. We want to use the channel for one frame-time beginning at ›, and so we
need all other stations to refrain from transmitting during this time. Moreover, we need the other stations
to refrain from transmitting between › O and › as well, because a frame sent during this interval would
overlap with our frame.

For any frame-time, the probability of there being  transmission-attempts during that frame-time is:

Comparison of Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha shown on Throughput vs. Traffic Load plot.

The average amount of transmission-attempts for 2 consecutive frame-times is 2 . Hence, for any pair of
consecutive frame-times, the probability of there being  transmission-attempts during those two frame-
times is:
Therefore, the probability (c  ) of there being zero transmission-attempts between › O and ›O (and
thus of a successful transmission for us) is:

c     

The throughput can be calculated as the rate of transmission-attempts multiplied by the probability of
success, and so we can conclude that the throughput (R ) is:

R    

The maximum throughput is 0.5/e frames per frame-time (reached when = 0.5), which is approximately
0.184 frames per frame-time. This means that, in Pure ALOHA, only about 18.4% of the time is used for
successful transmissions.
[edit]R 

Slotted ALOHA protocol. Boxes indicate frames. Shaded boxes indicate frames which are in the same slots.

An improvement to the original ALOHA protocol was "Slotted ALOHA", which introduced discrete
timeslots and increased the maximum throughput[10]. A station can send only at the beginning of a
timeslot, and thus collisions are reduced. In this case, we only need to worry about the transmission-
attempts within 1 frame-time and not 2 consecutive frame-times, since collisions can only occur during
each timeslot. Thus, the probability of there being zero transmission-attempts in a single timeslot is:

c  
  

the probability of k packets is:

c  
        

The throughput is:

R 
  
The maximum throughput is ]/e frames per frame-time (reached when = 1), which is approximately
0.368 frames per frame-time, or 36.8%.

Slotted ALOHA is used in low-data-rate tactical satellite communications networks by military forces, in
subscriber-based satellite communications networks, mobile telephony call setup, and in the
contactless RFID technologies.
[edit]c 
The use of a random access channel in ALOHAnet also led to the development of CSMA - Carrier Sense
Multiple Access, a 'listen before send' random access protocol which can be used when all nodes send
and receive on the same channel. The first implementation of CSMA was Ethernet, and CSMA was
extensively modeled in[11].

It should be noted that ALOHA and the other random-access protocols have an inherent variability in their
throughput and delay performance characteristics. For this reason, applications which need highly
deterministic load behavior often use polling or token-passing schemes (such as token ring) instead
of contention systems. For instance ARCNET is popular in embedded data applications.


R
     (R
) is a channel access method based on creating parallel spatial
pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial multiplexing and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer
superior performance in radio multiple access communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular
network systems, the base station has no information on the position of the mobile units within the cell
and radiates the signal in all directions within the cell in order to provide radio coverage. This results in
wasting power on transmissions when there are no mobile units to reach, in addition to
causing interference for adjacent cells using the same frequency, so called co-channel cells. Likewise, in
reception, the antennareceives signals coming from all directions including noise and interference signals.
By using smart antenna technology and differing spatial locations of mobile units within the cell, space-
division multiple access techniques offer attractive performance enhancements. The radiation pattern of
the base station, both in transmission and reception, is adapted to each user to obtain highest gain in the
direction of that user. This is often done using phased array techniques.

In GSM cellular networks, the base station is aware of the mobile phone's position by use of a technique
called "timing advance" (TA). The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) can determine how distant the Mobile
Station (MS) is by interpreting the reported TA. This information, along with other parameters, can then
be used to power down the BTS or MS, if a power control feature is implemented in the network. The
power control in either BTS or MS is implemented in most modern networks, especially on the MS, as this
ensures a better battery life for the MS and thus a better user experience (in that the need to charge the
battery becomes less frequent). This is why it may actually be safer to have a BTS close to you as your
MS will be powered down as much as possible. For example, there is more power being transmitted from
the MS than what you would receive from the BTS even if you are 6 m away from a mast. However, this
estimation might not consider all the MS's that a particular BTS is supporting with EM radiation at any
given time.

SDMA (Space-Division Multiple Access or Spatial Division Multiple Access) is a MIMO (Mutiple-Input
and Multiple-Output, a multiple antenna schematic architecture)-based wireless communication
network architecture, primarily suitable for mobile ad-hoc networks, which enables access to a
communication channel by identifying the user location and etablishing a one-to-one mapping
between the network bandwidth division and the identified spatial location.

SDMA architecture can be configured and deployed for most of the well-known mobile communication
architectures such as CDMA (Code division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
This figure shows a satellite system that uses spatial division multiple access (SDMA) technology. In
this example, a single satellite contains several directional antennas. Some of these antennas use the
same frequency. This allows a single satellite to simultaneously communicate to two different satellite
receivers that operate on the same frequency. Usually beams that are separated by more than two or
three half-power beamwidths can use the same frequencies, as shown in the figure.

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