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Article history: Instances of groundwater pollution from use of nitrogenous fertilizer are at increase in
Accepted 10 December 2006 recent years. With increase in area under cultivation and regular use of fertilizer in irrigated
Published on line 5 February 2007 agriculture, groundwater pollution from agricultural activities is becoming a major concern
in India. This requires appropriate water and nutrient management to minimize ground-
Keywords: water pollution and, maximize the nutrient use efficiency and production. Drip fertigation is
Drip fertigation an alternative, which improves water and nutrient use efficiency with higher production
Fertigation strategies and minimum effect on groundwater quality. Appropriate design of drip fertigation system
Nitrogen leaching requires detailed knowledge of water and nutrient distribution pattern and nutrient avail-
Modelling ability in root zone and, nutrient leaching below root zone in different types of soils under
varying emitter discharge rates and fertigation strategies. Design and operation of drip
fertigation system requires more understanding of nutrient leaching behaviour in case of
shallow rooted crops like onion, which cannot extract nutrient from lower soil profile
leaving more scope for nitrogen leaching. Present study was undertaken to asses the
nitrogen leaching from onion field under drip fertigation system. The study involved field
experimentation for 2 years on onion crop under drip fertigation. Field data were collected
on spatial and temporal distribution of water and available nitrogen in the growing season
to calibrate and validate the solute transport model. A two-dimensional solute transport
model HYDRUS-2D was applied to simulate the nitrogen leaching from various soils for
varying emitter discharge rates and fertigation strategies. It was found that more permeable
soils like sandy loam is prone to nitrogen leaching compared to less permeable soils.
Nitrogen leaching from loam and sandy loam soils was negligible. Effect of soil type on
nitrogen leaching was more than the emitter discharge rates. Fertigation strategies did not
affect the nitrogen leaching as commonly perceived. Increased emitter discharge rates did
not affect the nitrogen leaching except in coarse textured soils like sandy loam. Outward
spreading of nitrogen was more in fine textured silt clay loam and silt soils. In all the
scenarios, adequate nitrogen availability was maintained in the root zone. Based on the
results, it is reported that with selection of appropriate emitter discharge, irrigation duration
and irrigation interval, and nitrogen leaching even from fields under shallow rooted crops
can be minimized.
# 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction (Hanson et al., 1996), there are no clear guidelines for design
and managing drip irrigation systems that account for
Nitrogen (N) is an essential plant nutrient, which is taken up by differences in soil hydraulic properties (Cote et al., 2003).
the crops throughout the growing season. Most common Conducting field experiments in large number of soils with
forms of nitrogen found in the soils are organic N, ammonium varying emitter discharge rates to investigate water and
(NH4+), nitrate (NO32), and gaseous nitrogen (NH3, N2). nutrient distribution for evolving appropriate design and
Mineralization and nitrification processes convert the organic management option is a costly and time consuming affair. A
N and NH4+ into NH4+ and NO32, respectively which are properly calibrated and validated flow and solute transport
absorbed and utilized by crops and termed as available model can reduce time and cost required for studying the
nitrogen. Nitrate is highly mobile and leachable. It has been water and nutrient dynamics under drip irrigation system.
established that excessive application of nitrogen leads to Models provide an understanding of the relationship amongst
nitrate pollution of groundwater and surface water (Hayens, the amount and timing of water and nutrient application, the
1985; Waskom, 1994). Studies conducted in India, suggest that crop root uptake, yield and soil hazard and groundwater
groundwater pollution due to nitrate leaching is becoming a pollution (Antonopoulos, 2001). However, selection of an
serious problem particularly in agriculturally developed states appropriate model is very important. Several models have
such as Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, been developed to simulate water flow, nutrient transport,
where fertilizer applications are high (Singh et al., 1994; heat flux, crop water and nutrient uptake and biological
Agrawal et al., 1999). Nitrate leaching potential depends on soil transformation of nutrients in the soil (Bergstrom et al., 1991;
properties, crops and crop rotation, irrigation methods, Huston and Wagenet, 1991; Jarvis, 1995; Gabriella and Kenjeni,
management practices and climatic parameters. This neces- 1996; Breve et al., 1997; Lafolie et al., 1997). Most of these
sitates the development of appropriate water and fertilizer models describe the early stage of infiltration and provide an
application strategies so as to maximize their application estimate of water content behind the wetting front (Clothier
efficiency and minimize fertilizer losses through leaching. and Scotter, 1982). Although they are easy to implement, they
Fertigation is the process of application of soluble fertilizer deal mainly with design considerations of the drip source
along with irrigation. When fertilizer is applied through drip (Cote et al., 2003). Analytical solutions of transient axi-
irrigation system, it is referred to as drip fertigation. Applica- symmetrical infiltration (Warrick, 1974; Revol et al., 1997)
tion of water and fertilizer through drip irrigation improves can simulate the dynamic condition associated with the drip
water and nutrient use efficiency and aims at maximizing irrigation but their application was limited in simulation of
farmer’s income and minimizing pollution. Drip fertigation water and nutrient movement under drip fertigation system
offers various advantages such as: easy application of amount under simple boundary conditions. An appropriate fertigation
and concentration of nutrients suited to the crop according to guideline can be developed using modeling approaches. There
its stage of development and climatic conditions; reduces the are few soil and crop specific guidelines for designing and
salinization and groundwater pollution; decreases fluctuation managing irrigation/fertigation systems that minimize nitrate
in nutrient concentration in soil during the crop growing leaching, considering typical non-uniform distributions of soil
season; permits easy use of soluble solid as well as balanced solution nitrate and crop uptake but few have investigated the
liquid fertilizer and micronutrients (Bar-Yosef, 1999). It effect of fertigation management/irrigation management on
prevents wetting of crop foliage thus controls the attack of the spatial distribution and crop availability of supplied
pathogens (Yarwood, 1978). nitrogen (Gardenas et al., 2005).
Wetting pattern in the soil and the spatial distribution of Cote et al. (2003) used a two-dimensional solute transport
soil water, matric potentials, and nitrate concentrations model HYDRUS-2D to analyze the soil wetting and solute
depend on soil hydraulic properties, emitter discharge rates, transport in subsurface trickle irrigation under various
spacing, and their placement, irrigation amount and fre- irrigation and fertigation strategies. They demonstrated that
quency, crop water uptake rates and root distribution patterns fertigation at the beginning of the irrigation cycle might reduce
(Gardenas et al., 2005). A better understanding of the nitrate leaching under specific conditions. However, in their
interactions of irrigation method, soil type, crop root distribu- study, they did not consider the nutrient uptake by plant.
tion, and uptake patterns and rates of water and nutrients Gardenas et al. (2005) investigated nitrate leaching from
provides improved means for proper and efficient micro- citrus, grape, tomato and strawberry fields for various fertiga-
irrigation water management practices (Hopmans and Bris- tion scenarios under micro-irrigation including surface drip
tow, 2002). A properly designed drip fertigation systems fertigation using HYDRUS-2D. In case of drip fertigation,
delivers water and nutrients at a rate, duration and frequency, simulation was done for grape crop with the root depth of
so as to maximize crop water and nutrient uptake, while 2.0 m. Irrigation time and interval were 1.5 and 3.5 days,
minimizing leaching of nutrients and chemicals from the root respectively. They reported that seasonal leaching was the
zone of agricultural fields (Gardenas et al., 2005). highest for coarse-textured soils and that fertigation at the
Appropriate design of drip fertigation system requires beginning of the irrigation cycle increased seasonal nitrate
detailed knowledge of water and nutrient distribution pattern leaching in contrast to fertigation at the end of the irrigation
in the root zone, nutrient availability in the vicinity of roots cycle, which reduced the potential for nitrate leaching in all
and nutrient leaching below the root zone which is the types of soils except surface drip and tape system in clayey soils.
function of discharge of emitter and soil hydraulic and The present study was conducted to model the nitrogen
physical properties. Though, some guidelines are available leaching from onion field under surface drip fertigation. Onion
to install, maintain and operate drip irrigation systems (Allium cepa L.) is an important crop in India. Area under onion
agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28 17
2003
January 5.7 16.3 82.0 41.6 1.6
February 9.7 21.7 95.0 28.4 2.7
March 13.8 28.1 58.0 24.6 4.8
April 20.2 37.2 42.0 0.0 7.8
May 24.0 39.4 40.0 7.4 9.8
2004
January 7.3 17.4 79.0 14.1 1.7
February 9.3 24.0 64.0 0.0 7.3
March 15.6 32.5 52.0 0.0 5.9
April 21.4 37.5 47.0 19.6 9.1
May 25.7 39.1 47.0 24.8 8.9
increasing or decreasing the duration of irrigation. Irrigation (before fertigation, 2, 4, 24, 48, 52 and 72 h after fertigation) using
interval was 48 h. Duration of irrigation during each irrigation tube auger from the experimental area to determine spatial and
varied from 0.33 to 2.5 h. Total amount of water applied in the temporal distribution of water and, available nitrogen in the
entire growing period was 4630 m3/ha. Nitrogen fertilizer in growing season. These were analyzed to determine the
the form of urea was applied on weekly basis at the rate of gravimetric moisture content and, ammonium and nitrate
96 kg/ha through drip fertigation in a split doses in the first 12 forms of the available nitrogen. Kjeldahl method (Page et al.,
weeks during growing period. During each fertigation, 1982) was used to estimate the ammonium and nitrate forms of
fertilizer was applied in the beginning of irrigation for the available nitrogen. In this method, distillation procedures
0.166 h. The amount of nitrogen fertilizer applied per week for determination of NH4+ and NO3 involve steam distillation
varied from 10 to 26 kg/ha depending on the growth stages and with MgO and Devarda alloy. Soil sample was shaken with 2 M
requirement. Along with it, recommended doses of P (50 kg/ KCl (10 mg/g of soil) for 1 h, and the extract from this was
ha) and K (70 kg/ha) were given 10 times and 7 times, analyzed by steam distillation. NH3 form of nitrogen liberated
respectively on weekly basis. However, analysis was done by steam distillation was collected in H3BO3 indicator solution
only for N. Irrigation and fertigation schedule adopted in this and determined by titration with standard (0.005N) H2SO4.
study were typical representative of the farmers practices for
cultivation of onion in India under drip fertigation. 2.2. Water and nutrient transport modeling
2.1.3. Observations and analysis The modelling of nitrogen leaching from the onion field under
Soil samples were collected from different depths (0–0.15, 0.15– drip fertigation was carried out using the computer simulation
0.30, 0.30–0.45, 0.45–0.60 m) and vertical planes located at model, HYDRUS-2D (Simunek et al., 1999). It simulates
emitter and at 15 and 22.5 cm away from emitter periodically three-dimensional axially symmetric water flow; solute
where u is the volumetric water content [L3L3], h the soil water In present study, mineralization gains and denitrification
pressure head [L], t the time [T], r the radial coordinate [L], z the losses were neglected.
vertical coordinate taken positive upwards [L], K the unsatu-
rated hydraulic conductivity function [LT1] and WU(h,r,z) 2.2.1. Calibration and validation
defines root water uptake [T1]. The axi-symmetrical form Model was calibrated for hydraulic conductivity and disper-
of Eq. (1) is used in this study to simulate water flow under sivity values for the soil of experimental area with the values
surface drip emitter system. This equation was solved with of water and nitrogen at various points, observed in the root
the HYDRUS-2D model using Galerkin finite element method. zone with respect to the emitter, at 4, 24, 48, 52 and 72 h after
The hydraulic relationships defined by van Genuchten (1980) fertigation. Model was run by giving the required input
were used in this study. parameters. The various parameters namely saturated water
The root water uptake WU in Eq. (1) was computed from content, residual water content, empirical factors and
saturated hydraulic conductivity, for loam, silty clay loam
WUðh; r; zÞ ¼ gðhÞRDFðr; zÞWTpot (2) and silt soils were taken from the HYDRUS-2D soil catalogue.
For sandy clay loam and sandy loam soils, Neural Network
where g(h) is the soil water stress function (dimensionless) of prediction model available in HYDRUS-2D was used to
Feddes et al. (1978). RDF is the normalized root water uptake estimate these parameters except saturated hydraulic con-
distribution [T1], Tpot the potential transpiration rate [LT1], ductivity by giving the exact values of clay, silt and sand
and W is the radius of the soil surface [L], associated with the percentage. Saturated hydraulic conductivity of these soils
transpiration process. For the present study, the root distribu- was obtained from the field experiment.
tion was assumed as uniform in time. Model predicted values were compared with observed values
Solute transport in soil under surface drip fertigation and the values of the calibrated parameters were selected from
system is controlled by physical transport. Solute flow is the run when predicted and observed values were close enough.
considered to be influenced mainly by soil properties and drip After calibration, model was validated with the seasonal data to
emitter discharge rates. In this study, chemical and biological examine its predictability. To validate the model, simulation
interactions were not considered. The governing equation for was done for whole crop growing period of 125 days to predict
the simulation of the transport of a single non-reactive ion in water and nitrogen distribution and leaching.
homogeneous medium in three dimensional axi-symmetrical
with polar coordinate system, in advection-dispersion form as 2.2.2. System geometry
given by Bear (1972) and modified by (Simunek et al., 1999) by Due to the symmetry of the emitter layout, and assuming that
adding nutrient uptake parameter, is as follows: each emitter discharges water at the same flow rate, entire
@uC @ @C @C 1 @C @C @ @C @C @qr C qr C @qz C
¼ uDrr þ uDrz þ uDrr þ uDrz þ uDzz þ uDrz þ þ NUðC; r; z; tÞ (3)
@t @r @r @z r @r @z @z @z @r @r r @z
where C [ML3] is solute concentration in the soil water, qr and field was subdivided into identical volume elements with a
qz [LT1] are the components of the volumetric flux density, emitter placed at the surface on the plane of symmetry. Water
Drr, Dzz and Drz [L2T1] are the components of the dispersion and nitrogen patterns in the entire field can be described by
tensor. These components are given by Bear (1972). First term analyzing the flow in this single volume element irrigated by
on the right side is solute flux due to dispersion, the second single emitter. Because of the axial symmetry around the
term is solute flux due to convection with flowing water and vertical axis, the infiltration process can be viewed as an axi-
third term is nutrient uptake by root: symmetrical flow with the radius r [L] and the depth z [L] as key
q2r q2 variables. In the present study, radius r was taken as 30 cm
uDrr ¼ eL þ eT z þ utD0 (4) (half of the lateral to lateral spacing) and depth z as 60 cm. This
jqj jqj
was done because onion is a shallow rooted crop and nutrient
q2z q2 leaching below 60 cm depth will not be available to the plant.
uDzz ¼ eL þ eT r þ utD0 (5)
jqj jqj The flux radius was taken equal to the wetted radius
20 agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28
Table 4 – Soil hydraulic parameters for sand clay loam soil of experimental site
Soil layer Qr (ur) (cm3/cm3) Qs (us) (cm3/cm3) Alpha (a) (cm1) n Ks (cm/h)
tion were isotropic. Values of longitudinal and transverse same in all the scenarios except the soil hydraulic parameters,
dispersivity were taken as 0.3 and 0.03 cm, respectively. This emitter discharge rates and fertigation strategies. Saturated
was confirmed through calibration process. Molecular diffu- water content (us), residual water content (ur), empirical factors
sion was neglected. The l value was set to 0.5. Values of the (a, n) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), for loam, silty
hydraulic parameters of the sandy clay loam soil is presented clay loam and silt soils were taken from the HYDRUS-2D soil
in Table 4. During calibration runs, simulation period was kept catalogue. For sandy clay loam and sandy loam soils, Neural
to 168 h, which included one fertigation (for 0.166 h in the Network prediction model available in HYDRUS-2D was used
beginning of irrigation) and two irrigation events (for 0.33 h at to assign these parameters (except Saturated hydraulic
the interval of 48 h). Water flux during each irrigation event conductivity Ks) by giving the values of clay, silt and sand
was equal to 1.27 cm/h and duration of irrigation varied (from percentage. Saturated hydraulic conductivity of these soils
0.33 to 2.5 h) to meet crop water requirement. During was obtained from field experiment. Various scenarios
fertigation events, duration of nitrogen application was kept considered in the study are given below:
equal to 0.166 h however, concentration of solute flux varied
0.253–1.35 mg/mL depending on the nitrogen applied at 1. Emitter discharge rates (L/h): 1, 2.5 and 4
various crop growth stages. In validation, simulation period 2. Soil type:
was kept to 3000 h equal to growing period of onion. Other sandy clay loam
input parameters were selected in the same way as in case of sandy loam
calibration. van Genuchten (1980) analytical model without loam
hysteresis was used for the soil hydraulic properties. Galerkin silty clay loam
finite element method was adopted to solve the water flow silt
equation. Feddes’ root water uptake model with no solute 3. Fertigation strategies:
stress was adopted and parameters were selected from (i) ADI-WF: alternate day irrigation, weekly fertigation,
Feddes’ Parameters (1978) available in the HYDRUS crop fertigation for 10 min after beginning of irrigation.
database. In this study, initial nitrogen concentration in the (ii) ADI-WF: alternate day irrigation, weekly fertigation,
soil was given as the total available nitrogen, which was fertigation for 10 min before irrigation cutoff.
considered as sum of NH4+ and NO3 forms of nitrogen. This (iii) DI-WF: daily irrigation, weekly fertigation, fertigation
was done with the expectation that most of the applied for 10 min before irrigation cutoff.
ammonium would be transformed to nitrate within 2–3 weeks
at soil temperature of 25–30 8C (Rolston et al., 1979). Though As mentioned earlier, duration of fertilizer application and rate
the process of nitrification is reduced in saturated zone of water application were constant (amount of fertilizer applied
immediately below the emitter but nitrification occurs in the during each fertigation and duration of water application during
unsaturated zone around the emitter (Laher and Avnimelech, each irrigation were varied to match the requirement).
1980). Urea was applied as the source of nitrogen which is However, total amount of water and fertilizer applied in all
relatively mobile and is not strongly adsorbed by soil colloids. the scenarios were same. Scenarios considered in the simula-
In soil, urea is hydrolyzed to the ammonium ion and tion were seen as irrigation and fertigation strategies alter-
subsequently undergoes to nitrification. Leaching of nitrogen natives available to the onion cultivators in India.
occurs mostly in the nitrate form, which is predicted by model.
Therefore, in this paper, predicted nitrogen distribution within 2.4. Results and discussion
the root zone and cumulative nitrogen going below root zone
are reported as available nitrogen and amount of nitrogen 2.4.1. Calibration and validation
leached. Results of the calibration for water and N distribution at the
end of first month after planting are presented through Figs. 4
2.3. Simulation of nitrogen leaching and distribution and 5. Figures were plotted using the output files obtained
under different scenarios from the model. Model gives spatial and temporal distribution
of water content and N concentration in simulated layers at
After calibration and validation, model was used to predict the pre-decided time steps. Since, field observations for water
nitrogen distribution and leaching below the root zone. A total content and N concentration in the soil were taken at 4, 24, 48,
of 45 scenarios which included different emitter discharge 52 (4 h after next irrigation) and 72 h (24 h after next irrigation)
rates and fertigation strategies were considered for simulation after fertigation, simulated values of water and N concentra-
to evaluate the nitrogen distribution and nitrogen leaching tion at 4, 24, 48, 52 and 72 h after fertigation were used to
from five soils namely, sandy clay loam, sandy loam, loam, compare with observed values. However, due to limitation of
silty clay loam and silt. The basic simulation parameters were space the results are presented for 4, 48 and 52 h only.
22 agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28
Figures show that simulated and observed water contents These figures reveal that simulated and observed N distribu-
follow a similar trend without much difference. Values of tions also follow similar trends and N concentration decreases
simulated and observed water content at the end of 4 h varied with increasing depth. These figures also reveal that con-
from 26 to 30% and 23 to 29%, respectively (Fig. 4(a)). At the end of centration of N at various points decreases with elapsed time
48 h (completion of one irrigation cycle), these values were in after fertigation. For example, simulated and observed N
the range of 22–28% and 21–26% (Fig. 4(b)). In both cases, even concentrations below the emitter 4 h after fertigation were
the lowest moisture content is near the field capacity of soil. Fig 0.42 and 0.44 mg/mL in the first layer and the same was 0.28
4(c) shows water content at the end of 52 h, i.e. 4 h after the next and 0.32 mg/mL after 48 h. Similar trends were observed in all
irrigation. Due to application of irrigation, water content in the layers. Simulated and observed N concentrations in the soil
soil has increased which is reflected by observed and simulated layers in one irrigation cycle show decrease in N concentration
values shown at 52 h. This indicated that model is able to with increase in horizontal distance. For example, average N
simulate time varying boundary flux as there is not much concentration at emitter, at 15 cm from emitter and at 22.5 cm
difference between observed and simulated values. Correlation from emitter in the first layer was 0.43, 42 and 0.41 mg/mL,
coefficient between observed and simulated water contents respectively.
varied from 0.93 to 0.99. Root mean square error (RMSE) between Correlation coefficient between observed and simulated N
simulated and observed values was also estimated to examine concentration were also determined to find out the closeness
the predictability of the model. RMSE values varied from 0.015 to between them. Higher values of R2 (varying from 0.95 to 0.99)
0.017. This indicates that HYDRUS-2D can be used to simulate indicated that simulated and observed values are highly
the water distribution with very good accuracy. correlated. RMSE values for N concentration at 4 h after
Fig. 5(a)–(c) shows the simulated and observed N concen- fertigation varied from 0.018 to 0.04 h indicating the high
tration at various depths at 4, 48 and 52 h after fertigation. accuracy of selected model for simulating the N concentration.
agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28 23
others (Fig. 8(e)). Concentrations of N at the depth of 20 and Table 5 – Free drainage below 60 cm in different soils for
60 cm for 1 and 4 L/h discharge rates are about 0.25 and various emitter discharges
0.15 mg/mL, respectively. However, at 2.5 L/h, N concentra- Soil type Free drainage (cm3)
tions at the corresponding depths were 0.22 and 0.14 mg/mL, Emitter discharge
respectively. Also, the concentration in outward direction in
1.0 2.5 4.0
the upper first and second layers was more than in the bottom
layers. This was more pronounced in 1 and 4 L/h. This may be Sandy clay loam 440 (0.23) 441 (0.23) 459 (0.24)
due to the fact that in case of 1 L/h, duration of irrigation was Sandy loam 1520 (0.79) 1528 (0.80) 1597 (0.84)
more than that for the 2.5 L/h. However, volume of water Loam 357 (0.19) 359 (0.19) 377 (0.19)
Silt 5 5 5
applied was the same in all cases. This means that the flux
Silty clay loam Neg. Neg. Neg.
created with 1 L/h discharge would have been nearly same to
the intake rate of the soil and with increased duration of Note: values in parentheses represent free drainage as a percentage
irrigation, more water and N moved outward and downward. of applied water.
Fig. 7 – Simulated nitrogen concentration (mg/mL) contours in different type of soil with the emitter discharge of 2.5 L/h
(x-axis represents distance from emitter and y-axis represents depth in cm).
agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28 25
Fig. 8 – Simulated nitrogen concentration (mg/mL) contours after 125 days, i.e. at the time of harvesting (a) in sandy clay
loam soil, (b) in sandy loam soil, (c) in loam soil, (d) in silty clay loam soil and (e) in silt soil (x-axis represents distance from
emitter and y-axis represents depth in cm).
26 agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28
Fig. 8. (Continued).
leaching was estimated from the solute going below 60 cm For the same soil with 2.5 L/h emitter discharge, the N leaching
depth as this would not be available to onion crop and leach was highest in case of alternate day irrigation-weekly
down during rainy season, which starts about 3 weeks after fertigation (ADI-WF) given 10 min before irrigation cut off
harvesting of the crop. Table 6 reveals that N leaching was (strategy ii). However, at 4 L/h, N leaching was highest in case
highest from sandy loam soil and negligible from silty clay of alternate day irrigation-weekly fertigation (ADI-WF) given
loam soil. Lower intake rate of fine textured soil facilitates 0.166 h after beginning of the irrigation (strategy i). This
more lateral movement of N and minimizes the leaching implies that in case of permeable soils like sandy loam,
losses. In silt soil, a very small percentage of N leached below fertigation strategies play role in N leaching. From foregoing
the root zone depth. In loam and sandy clay loam soils, N discussions, it is clear that the effects of soils on N leaching is
leaching percentage was higher than in the loam and lower higher than the fertigation strategy. N leaching is more in
than in the sandy loam soil. There was no effect of fertigation coarse textured soils. For all other soils, leaching potential was
strategies and emitter discharge rates on N leaching in silt and very small. Except for sandy loam soils, fertigation strategy did
silt clay loam soils. N leaching increased with increase in not affect N leaching. Even in sandy loam soil, effect of
discharge rate under sandy loam soil. In sandy clay loam and fertigation strategies on N leaching was very small. Qualita-
loam soils, effect of emitter discharge rate was visible at 4 L/h. tively, these results are in agreement with Gardenas et al.
For sandy loam soil, highest N leaching was observed for ADI- (2005) who gave similar conclusions. However, percentage of N
WF with 4 L/h emitter discharge and fertigation for 0.166 h in leaching reported by them was higher than this study. This
the beginning of irrigation. In sandy loam soil, for 1 L/h may be due to large irrigation and fertigation duration in their
discharge, N leaching was highest in Fertigation strategy (ii). case (1.5 day and 2 h). In this study, duration of irrigation
agricultural water management 89 (2007) 15–28 27
Table 6 – Percentage of applied nitrogen leached below the 60 cm depth in the growing period of onion in treatment
Soil types Fertigation strategies Amount of N leached below the root zone
Emitter discharge (L/h)
1 2.5 4
mg % mg % mg %
varied from 0.33 to 2.5 h and duration of fertigation was irrigation-weekly fertigation with 4 L/h emitter discharge rate
constant to 10 min in accordance to the requirement of water and fertigation for 0.166 h in the beginning of irrigation. In
and fertilizer by onion. sandy loam soils, nitrogen leaching varied from 5.27 to 5.54%.
The results presented here may slightly differ if miner-
alization gains and denitrification losses are considered.
However, result presented in this paper give reasonably good Acknowledgement
information about nitrogen distribution and leaching under
various irrigation and fertigation strategies for different types We acknowledge the Indian Council of Cultural Relation,
of soils which can be useful for design and operation of drip Government of India for providing the scholarship to first
fertigation systems for shallow rooted crops such as onion. author during the study period. On several occasions during
the study period, we interacted with Prof. J. Simunek of
University of California Riverside on the issues related to
3. Conclusions simulation with HYDRUS-2D through email. We are thankful
to him for his valuable suggestions.
Results presented in this paper describe the effect of drip
fertigation strategies, nitrogen distribution and leaching from references
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