Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1.1 GENERAL
power system the near future. Distributed generation by definition that which is of limited size
include photo voltaic cell wind turbine, fuel cell, small and micro size turbine packages,. These
programs are aggressively growing with plans to have nearly one millions rooftops equipped
Distributed Generation (DG) is a feasible alternative for new capacity especially in the
competitive electricity market environment and has immense benefit. Before installing
distributed generation, its effects on voltage profile, line losses, short circuit current, amounts of
injected harmonic and reliability must be evaluated separately. The planning of the electric
system with the presence of DG required the definition of several factors, such as : the best
technology to be used, the number and the capacity of the units the best location, the type of
The impact of DG in system operating characteristics, such as electric losses, voltage profile,
stability and reliability needs to be appropriately evaluated. The problem of DG allocation and
sizing is of great importance. The installation of DG units of non-optimal places can result in an
increase in system losses, increase in costs and, therefore, having an effect opposite to the
Page19
desired. For that reason, the use of an optimization method capable of indicating the best solution
for a given distribution network can be very useful for the system planning engineer.
The selection of the best places of installation and the preferable size of the DG units in
reliability, stability and protection. This has created system that have been centrally planned and
operated, with energy transported from large scale sources of generation through transmission
and distribution system to individual consumers. With the impending deregulated environment
faced by the electric utility industry and restructuring privatization of state controlled industry,
and the right constraints over the construction of new transmission lines for long distance power
Distributed generation (DG) is by definition that which is of limited size and interconnected at
A general definition was then suggested in which are now widely accepted as follows:
not define the technologies, as the technologies that can be used vary widely. However, a
categorization of different technology groups of DG seems possible such as. Non renewable DG
In addition to meeting future energy needs, it is expected that distributed generation (DG)
developing the installation. This is particularly important for sensitive and critical
competitive with grid supplied electric energy. Power companies can therefore add
generation at critical points in the power grid, in particular near loads. This can result
expansions.
cheaper rate, thus saving on the utility bill. Excess energy can be posted on the spot
4. With decreasing costs, independent power producers (IPP) can install generation and
5. It has the potential of providing some of the ancillary services that have been
energy, beyond the conventional sources such as hydro-electric, coal, oil, and nuclear. Because
of its limited power, It can most easily be connected to the ac grid at the distribution level,
typically 11 kv.
Page19
1. Wind energy system: the resources are abundant and these systems are gaining
3. Micro turbines: a number of these systems derive from systems developed for the
4. Fuel cells: although the principle has been known for many years, these systems have
recently received a large amount of attention as a less polluting replacement for crude
5. Solar dishes: since these generate heat, they may be combined with non solar fuels,
such as natural gas, resulting in hybrid systems that can be cost effective and supply
continuous power.
6. Other types include gas turbines, diesel engines and gas fired internal combustion
engines.
• Loss reduction
rules. Schools of fishes and swarms of birds can be modeled with such simple models. Namely,
even if the behavior rules of each individual (agent) are simple, the behavior of the swarm can be
complicated. Reynolds utilized the following three vectors as simple rules in the researches.
The behavior of each agent inside the swarm can be modeled with simple vectors. The research
results are one of the basic backgrounds of PSO. Boyd and Richerson examined the decision
process of humans and developed the concept of individual learning and cultural transmission.
According to their examination, people utilize two important kinds of information in decision
process. The first one is their own experience; that is, they have tried the choices and know
which state has been better so far, and they know how good it was. The second one is other
people’s experiences; that is, they have knowledge of how the other agents around them have
performed. Namely, they know which choices their neighbors have found most positive so far
and how positive the best pattern of choices was. Each agent decides its decision using its own
experiences and the experiences of others. The research results are also one of the basic
LITERATURE SURVEY
Page19
This thesis proposes framework for solving the DG capacity planning in
composite power system by Loss sensitivity approach [1] implementing DG and voltage
sensitivity approach. The proposed methodology employs soft computing techniques i.e. random
search, for achieve optimal capacity and location of DG in view of optimal performance like loss
reduction, reliability improvement and voltage profile improvement Also the effect of
system [2]. This methodology aims to minimize DG’s investment and operating costs, total
payments toward compensating for system losses along the planning period, as well as
purchasing power from an existing grid to meet the load demand growth according the present
worth analysis to introduce DG as a key element in solving the power system problems.
A method of distributed generation planning (location and size) in different utility scenarios as
an optimization problem has been discussed by El-Khattam et al. [3].Wang et al. [4] proposed an
analytical method in both radial and networked system to determine the best location of
The proposed approach was non-iterative unlike power flow programs. Therefore, there
is no convergence problem involved, and results could be obtained quickly. However, authors
have indicated that other constraints such as voltage and line limits may affect the DG
placement. Ochoa et al. [5] proposed various indices to evaluate the impact of distributed
The indices to measure the impacts of DG introduction on loss reduction, voltage profile,
current carrying capacity of conductors, and short circuit currents for three-phase and single-
Page19
phase ground faults are proposed. Finally, a multi-objective function is derived for such planning
studies. Chiradeja and Ramakumar [6] derived indices to measure the technical benefits in terms
of voltage profile improvement indices (VPII), line loss reduction indices (LLRI), and emission
improvement. Finally the authors devised a composite index by combining the various
indices. Rau and Wan [7] discussed the power flow algorithm to find the optimal size of DG at
each load bus in a networked system assuming that every load bus can have a DG source. The
proposed method is tested by a series of simulations on IEEE-6 bus system. Another method for
placing DG is to apply rule 2/3 presented by Wills [8] that are often used in sitting shunt
A solution algorithm based on Tabu Search was proposed by Golshan and Arefifar [9] to
solve a more comprehensive planning problem that determines installation locations, size and
multiobjective Evolutionary algorithm based planning tool for sizing and siting of distributed
generation has been developed by Gianni Celli et al [10]. A three step procedure, based on
Genetic Algorithm and Decision theory, is applied to establish the best distributed generation
siting and sizing by G. Carpinelli et al. [11]. Arya and Titare [12] used a multilayer feed forward
network for obtaining reliability of a composite distribution system. Chronological load curve
Optimal value of the DG capacity to be connected to the existing system for line loss
reduction and voltage profile improvement using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) has been
discussed by Vimal Raj et al. [13] also benefits of employing DG are analysed using Voltage
Profile Improvement Index (VPII) and Line Loss Reduction Index (LLRI). The line voltage
Page19
from an investment point of view. Short circuit constraints are not considered, and the focus of
the objective function is on optimal investment rather than maximizing renewable energy. It uses
a cost benefit analysis to evaluate various placements of DG. A new methodology has been
proposed by Keane and Malley [15] for the allocation of DG on distribution networks. It has
been implemented using linear programming and tested on a sample section of the Irish
distribution network.
A three step procedure, based on Genetic algorithm and decision theory, is applied by
Carpinelli et al. [16] to establish the best distributed generation sitting and sizing on MV
distribution network, considering technical constraints like feeder capacity limits, feeder voltage
profile and three phase short circuit currents in the network nodes.
A new algorithm based on Genetic algorithm (GA) and optimal power flow (OPF)
calculations has been discussed by Mardaneh and Gharehpetian [17]. Using this algorithm it is
possible to establish the optimal DG allocation and to minimize active and reactive power
generation costs. An heuristic optimization algorithm has been developed by Celli and Pilo [18]
for the optimal network planning, considered all technical constraints, like feeder capacity limit,
feeder voltage profile and three phase short circuit current in the network nodes and on the
An algorithm has been presented by Rios & Rubio [19] that sequentially optimize the
location and sizing of two set of DG units connected to a medium voltage distribution network,
taking into account both the incentive for reducing energy losses given by the Chilean regulator
Page19
management of distribution networks and application of other novel concepts has been discussed
by Lopes et. al. [20]. Amaral et. al. [21] presented an efficient method for composite system
well-being evaluation based on non-sequential Monte Carlo simulation. It is assumed that the
system is coherent, and the frequency and duration indices are calculated by the conditional
probability method. Gozel et. al. [22] employed a loss sensitivity factor, based on the equivalent
current injection, for the determination of the optimum size and location of distributed generation
so as to minimize total power losses by an analytical method. Acharya et. al.[23] proposed an
analytical expression to calculate the optimal size and an effective methodology to identify the
corresponding optimum location for DG placement for minimizing the total power losses in
primary distribution systems. Siahkali et. al. [24] presented a new approach for solving the
generation scheduling (GS) problem, considering the reserve requirement, load balance and wind
power availability constraints. The particle swarm optimization (PSO) method is suggested to
Costa et. al. [25] identified the situations where the existence of a micro grid may reduce the
interruption rate and duration and thus improve the reliability indices of the distribution network.
The relevant expressions necessary to quantify the reliability are presented. Khatir et. al. [26]
developed a novel pool-based market-clearing algorithm for spinning reserve (SR) procurement
and the cost allocation associated with provision of spinning reserve among customers (DisCos).
Gautam et. al. [27] presented new methodology for optimal placement of distributed generation
(DG) in an optimal power flow (OPF) based wholesale electricity market .The candidate
Page19
locations for DG placement are identified on the basis of locational marginal price (LMP). Zoka
et. al. [28] proposed a method for the economic evaluation of an autonomous independent
network of distributed energy resources. Rajesh Karki [29] proposed a probabilistic method to
evaluate the impact of renewable energy credit and wind penetration level on the cost and
adequacy of power generating systems. The technique incorporates reliability and economic
analyses and is applied to a published test system to illustrate the results and their influence on
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY:-
The Distributed Generation (DG) have created a challenge and an opportunity for
Page19
developing various novel technologies in power generation. The proposed work discusses the
primary factors that have lead to an increasing interest in DG. DG reduces line losses, increases
system voltage profile and hence improves power quality. The proposed work finds out the
optimal value of the DG capacity to be connected to the existing system using Particle Swarm
technique thereby maximizing the power quality. a tool for identifying the best location and
sizing of DG to be installed for Benefits of employing DG are analysed using Voltage Profile
improvement and Line Loss Reduction. The line loss reduction and voltage profile improvement
method is tested on a standard IEEE-6 bus system and the results of the simulation carried out
using MATLAB 7.0 are found to be encouraging. The method has a potential to be improving
PROBLEM FORMULATION:-
4.1 GENERAL
Page19
Voltage sensitivity approach and power loss sensitivity approach is used for finding
optimal location of DG in system. The necessity for flexible electric systems, changing
regulatory and economic scenarios, energy savings and environmental impact have paved the
way for the development of DG, which is predicted to play an increasing role in power systems
of the future . In this thesis, the main focus is on reduction of the power loss and the voltage
The solution of load flow problems is one of the most essential issues in power system
operation and planning. Newton Raphson method is selected to carry the load flow. Normally,
two to five iterations are required for practical accuracies. The generalized equations in matrix
Page19
∆ P H N ∆ δ
= (4.2.1)
∆ Q J L∆V
For type 1 DG the modified equations will be
Page19
∆ P H N ∆ δ
= (4.2.2)
0 J L∆V
Page19
∆δ S 21 ∆P
= (4.2.3)
∆ V S 43 0
∆V
= S3 (4.2.4)
∆P
∆V = S 3 ∆P
The apparent power at ith bus, Si injected into the bus, can be represented as generated
power, minus the bus load. By adding all n bus powers, the total generated power, minus the
total load.
Page19
n n
∑ Si = ∑Vi ⋅ I i *
PL + jQL = (4.3.1)
i =i i =i
Where
n
PL = ∑ rj k(I p ⋅j I p k+ Iq ⋅j I q )k
i= 1
(4.3.2)
k= 1
n
PL = ∑ [α
j=1
jk ( Pj ⋅ Pk + Q j ⋅ Qk ) + β jk (Q j ⋅ Pk − Pj ⋅ Qk ) ]
(4.3.5)
k=1
Once the DG location is selected, the optimal capacity of the DG unit is to be calculated.
The size of the DG unit is such that the loss at the ith bus must be minimized. Hence, the
following equations are used in DG sizing, to get minimum losses at ith bus.
∂PL
( ITL ) i = =0
Page19
(4.4.1)
∂Pgi
n
( ITL ) i = 2∑ ( Pkαik − Qk βik ) = 0 (4.4.2)
k =1
It follows that :
n
Pi = (1/ α i i) β i Qi i + 2∑ (α i k Pk − β i kQk )
k= 1
k≠ 1
n
PD G= PiD + i (1/ α i i) β i Qi i + 2∑ (α ik Pk − β i kQk ) (4.4.5)
k= 1
k≠ 1
In the above expression, PDGi gives the optimal capacity of DG unit to be placed in
different buses to find optimal location for voltage profile improvement. Samples for DG
capacities are generated using random search method explained in details in proposed
methodology section.
Kennedy and Eberhart. A population of particles exists in the n-dimensional search space. Each
Page19
particle has a certain amount of knowledge, and will move about the search space based on this
knowledge. The particle has some inertia attributed to it and so it will continue to have a
component of motion in the direction it is moving. It knows where in the search space, it will
encounter with the best solution. The particle will then modify its direction such that it has
additional components towards its own best position, pbest and towards the overall best position,
gbest. The particle updates its velocity and position with the following equations.
V[ ] is the particle velocity, present[ ] is the current particle position, pbest[ ] and gbest[ ] are the
best position the particle has currently found and the best position found by any particle
respectively. C1, C2 are acceleration constants and rand[ ] is a random number between (0,1).
Usually C1=C2=2. The acceleration coefficients C1 and C2 control how far a particle moves in a
single iteration. The inertia weight, w is used to control the convergence behavior of PSO.
Suitable selection of the inertia weight provides a balance between global and local exploration
W= 3.2
Page19
where, Wmax and Wmin are maximum and minimum values of weight. Kmax is maximum
number of iteration specified and K, the current iteration. Thus as iteration increases, inertia
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY:-
The theoretical analysis for placing DG in network system has been analyzed for this IEEE -6
bus system has been considered. According to this firstly The buses are recognized where DG
can be placed in view of loss reduction & voltage profile improvement by adding the DG
capacity at suitable buses according to loss sensitivity approach & voltage sensitivity approach.
After obtaining the optimal of DG the random search method is used for optimization of real
power losses as give in following steps:-
1. Run the load flow for the base case & find load flow solution.
2. Sample for DG capacity all generated use relation.
(
Pi = Pi +Ui Pi − Pi )
First we take a load flow program get the loss of the system without DG.
Now we have to find the most sensitive buses, so we apply some constant amount of DG at all
the buses one by one and we will see the real power loss after every application of DG.
After that we get the most sensitive buses of that system. Now we have to apply DG at most
sensitive buses. We can apply DG at more than one most sensitive buses. And initialize the DG
between 0 & 30 % of power demand on that bus for application of pso. And for initialization of
After application of DG the power flow at all the buses should not be greater than 1.3 times of
Where fdg = power flow through the bus after application of DG.
And fbase = power flow through the bus without application of DG.
By applying these constrants in pso we get the optimal DG value and for loss reduction.
REFERENCES
1. S. Nagendra and A. Laxmi Devi, ‘Power loss reduction and voltage improvement in
transmission systems using distributed generator units: A case study’ IJEEE, Pt-El,
distributed generation systems using monte carlo simulation,” IEEE Trans. on Power
generation optimization model for distribution system planning,” IEEE Trans. on Power
generation sources in power systems,” IEEE Trans. on Power System, Vol. 19, No. 4,
Page19
impacts with a multiobjective index,” IEEE Trans. on Power Deliver, Vol. 21, No. 3, Jul.
distributed generation,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. Vol. 19, No. 4, Dec. 2004, pp.
764–773.
interaction,” in Proc. 2000 IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, vol. 3,
Proceedings: Generation Transmission and Distribution, Vol. 153, No. 2, March 2006,
pp. 127-136.
10. Gianni Celli, Emilio Chiani, Susanna Mocci, and Fabrizio Pilo, ‘A multi objective
evolutionary algorithm for the sizing and siting of distributed generation’ IEEE Trans. On
generation sizing and siting by using a double trade-off method’ IEE Proceedings:
Generation Transmission and Distribution, vol. 152, No. 4, July 2005, pp. 503-513.
Page19
12. L. D. Arya, L. S. Titare, ‘Adequacy assessment of distribution systems using artificial
‘Optimization of distributed generation capacity for line loss reduction and voltage
profile improvement using PSO’ Elektrika Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol. 10, No.
15. Andrew Keane and Mark O’Malley, ‘Optimal allocation of embedded generation on
distribution networks’, IEEE Trans. On Power Systems, Vol. 20, No. 3, Aug. 2005, pp.
1640-1646.
16. G. Carpinelli, G. Celli, S. Mocci, F. Pilo and A. Russo, ‘Distributed generation siting and
sizing under uncertainty’, Power Tech. Proceedings, 2001 IEEE Porto Power tech
17. M. Mardaneh and G. B. Gharehptian, ‘Siting and sizing of DG units using GA and OPF
based technique’, 2004 IEEE TENCON Region 10 Conference, vol. 3, Nov. 2004, pp.
21-24.
18. G. Celli, F. Pilo, ‘MV network planning under uncertainties on distributed generation
generation (DG) in medium voltage (MV) distribution networks’, 2007 IEEE Lausanne
distributed generation into electric power systems: A review of drivers, challenges and
opportunities,’ Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 77, No. 9, 2007, pp. 1189-1203.
21. Tiago S. Amaral, Carmen L.T. Borges, Andrea M. Rei, ‘Composite system well-being
22. Tuba Gozel, M. Hakan Hocaoglu, ‘An analytical method for the sizing and siting of
distributed generators in radial systems’, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 79, No.
23. Naresh Acharya, Pukar Mahat, N. Mithulananthan, ‘An analytical approach for DG
24. H. Siahkali, M. Vakilian, ‘Electricity generation scheduling with large-scale wind farms
using particle swarm optimization’, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 79, No. 5,
25. Paulo Moises Costa, Manuel A. Matos, ‘Assessing the contribution of microgrids to the
reliability of distribution networks’, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 79, No. 2,
spinning reserve procurement and cost allocation using well-being analysis’ Electric
Power Systems Research, Vol. 79, No. 10, 2009, pp. 1431-1440.
electricity market’, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 77, No. 12, 2007, pp. 1627-
1636.
29. Rajesh Karki, ‘Renewable energy credit driven wind power growth for system
reliability’, Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 77. No. 7, 2007, pp. 797-803.
Page19