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INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Distributed Generation (DG) is predicated to play an increasing role in the electricity

power system the near future. Distributed generation by definition that which is of limited size

and interconnected at substation, distribution feeder or customer load levels. DG technology

include photo voltaic cell wind turbine, fuel cell, small and micro size turbine packages,. These

technologies are appeared to enter of rapid expansion and commercialization. Photovoltaic

programs are aggressively growing with plans to have nearly one millions rooftops equipped

with PV within a decade.

Distributed Generation (DG) is a feasible alternative for new capacity especially in the

competitive electricity market environment and has immense benefit. Before installing

distributed generation, its effects on voltage profile, line losses, short circuit current, amounts of

injected harmonic and reliability must be evaluated separately. The planning of the electric

system with the presence of DG required the definition of several factors, such as : the best

technology to be used, the number and the capacity of the units the best location, the type of

network connection, etc.

The impact of DG in system operating characteristics, such as electric losses, voltage profile,

stability and reliability needs to be appropriately evaluated. The problem of DG allocation and

sizing is of great importance. The installation of DG units of non-optimal places can result in an

increase in system losses, increase in costs and, therefore, having an effect opposite to the
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desired. For that reason, the use of an optimization method capable of indicating the best solution

for a given distribution network can be very useful for the system planning engineer.
The selection of the best places of installation and the preferable size of the DG units in

large distribution systems is a complex combinatorial optimization problem In the areas of

reliability, stability and protection. This has created system that have been centrally planned and

operated, with energy transported from large scale sources of generation through transmission

and distribution system to individual consumers. With the impending deregulated environment

faced by the electric utility industry and restructuring privatization of state controlled industry,

and the right constraints over the construction of new transmission lines for long distance power

transmission have created interest in distributed power generation.

1.2 Distributed Generation

Distributed generation (DG) is by definition that which is of limited size and interconnected at

the substation, distribution feeder or customer load levels.

A general definition was then suggested in which are now widely accepted as follows:

“Distributed Generation is an electric power source connected directly to the distribution

network usually synchronized at 11 KV bus of a distribution system”. The definitions of DG do

not define the technologies, as the technologies that can be used vary widely. However, a

categorization of different technology groups of DG seems possible such as. Non renewable DG

and renewable DG.

1.2.1 Role of Distributed Generation

In addition to meeting future energy needs, it is expected that distributed generation (DG)

will have increasing importance in a deregulated environment for number of reasons:


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1. It can provide independence and flexibility to the consumer in planning and

developing the installation. This is particularly important for sensitive and critical

loads in environments subjected to interruptions and curtailments.

2. The cost of energy produced by DG is decreasing to the point where is becomes

competitive with grid supplied electric energy. Power companies can therefore add

generation at critical points in the power grid, in particular near loads. This can result

in significant savings in the electric distribution infrastructure, particularly

expansions.

3. It allows for independent production of electric energy by a consumer, possibly at a

cheaper rate, thus saving on the utility bill. Excess energy can be posted on the spot

market and made to generate a profit.

4. With decreasing costs, independent power producers (IPP) can install generation and

connect to the power gird, to sell energy at a profit.

5. It has the potential of providing some of the ancillary services that have been

identified as a result of deregulation. The IPP as well as consumers having

independent generation could provide these services.

1.2.2 Types of Distributed Generation

Distributed generation includes mostly electric energy provided by alternate sources of

energy, beyond the conventional sources such as hydro-electric, coal, oil, and nuclear. Because

of its limited power, It can most easily be connected to the ac grid at the distribution level,

typically 11 kv.
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1. Wind energy system: the resources are abundant and these systems are gaining

popularity. Power ratings are steadily increasing. ( 100 kW- 2 MW)


2. Photovoltaic cells: although less power than wind energy systems they offer more

flexibility and are passive. ( 5 kW- 100 kW)

3. Micro turbines: a number of these systems derive from systems developed for the

military. ( 25 kW- 1 MW)

4. Fuel cells: although the principle has been known for many years, these systems have

recently received a large amount of attention as a less polluting replacement for crude

oil derived generating systems. ( 100 kW- 2 MW)

5. Solar dishes: since these generate heat, they may be combined with non solar fuels,

such as natural gas, resulting in hybrid systems that can be cost effective and supply

continuous power.

6. Other types include gas turbines, diesel engines and gas fired internal combustion

engines.

1.2.3 Benefits of Distribution Generation

• Voltage supports and improved power quality

• Loss reduction

• Transmission and distribution capacity release

• Deferral of new or upgraded T & D infrastructure

• Improved utility system reliability

1.3Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO):-


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Swarm behavior can be modeled with a few simple

rules. Schools of fishes and swarms of birds can be modeled with such simple models. Namely,

even if the behavior rules of each individual (agent) are simple, the behavior of the swarm can be

complicated. Reynolds utilized the following three vectors as simple rules in the researches.

1. Step away from the nearest agent

2. Go toward the destination

3. Go to the center of the swarm

The behavior of each agent inside the swarm can be modeled with simple vectors. The research

results are one of the basic backgrounds of PSO. Boyd and Richerson examined the decision

process of humans and developed the concept of individual learning and cultural transmission.

According to their examination, people utilize two important kinds of information in decision

process. The first one is their own experience; that is, they have tried the choices and know

which state has been better so far, and they know how good it was. The second one is other

people’s experiences; that is, they have knowledge of how the other agents around them have

performed. Namely, they know which choices their neighbors have found most positive so far

and how positive the best pattern of choices was. Each agent decides its decision using its own

experiences and the experiences of others. The research results are also one of the basic

background elements of PSO.

LITERATURE SURVEY
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This thesis proposes framework for solving the DG capacity planning in

composite power system by Loss sensitivity approach [1] implementing DG and voltage

sensitivity approach. The proposed methodology employs soft computing techniques i.e. random

search, for achieve optimal capacity and location of DG in view of optimal performance like loss

reduction, reliability improvement and voltage profile improvement Also the effect of

Distributed generation capacity planning will be analyzed in adequacy assessment of Power

system [2]. This methodology aims to minimize DG’s investment and operating costs, total

payments toward compensating for system losses along the planning period, as well as

purchasing power from an existing grid to meet the load demand growth according the present

worth analysis to introduce DG as a key element in solving the power system problems.

A method of distributed generation planning (location and size) in different utility scenarios as

an optimization problem has been discussed by El-Khattam et al. [3].Wang et al. [4] proposed an

analytical method in both radial and networked system to determine the best location of

candidate DGs for minimum loss configuration.

The proposed approach was non-iterative unlike power flow programs. Therefore, there

is no convergence problem involved, and results could be obtained quickly. However, authors

have indicated that other constraints such as voltage and line limits may affect the DG

placement. Ochoa et al. [5] proposed various indices to evaluate the impact of distributed

generation on distribution networks.

The indices to measure the impacts of DG introduction on loss reduction, voltage profile,

current carrying capacity of conductors, and short circuit currents for three-phase and single-
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phase ground faults are proposed. Finally, a multi-objective function is derived for such planning
studies. Chiradeja and Ramakumar [6] derived indices to measure the technical benefits in terms

of voltage profile improvement indices (VPII), line loss reduction indices (LLRI), and emission

improvement. Finally the authors devised a composite index by combining the various

indices. Rau and Wan [7] discussed the power flow algorithm to find the optimal size of DG at

each load bus in a networked system assuming that every load bus can have a DG source. The

proposed method is tested by a series of simulations on IEEE-6 bus system. Another method for

placing DG is to apply rule 2/3 presented by Wills [8] that are often used in sitting shunt

capacitors in distribution systems.

A solution algorithm based on Tabu Search was proposed by Golshan and Arefifar [9] to

solve a more comprehensive planning problem that determines installation locations, size and

operation of DG in distribution system so as to minimize cost of power and energy losses. A

multiobjective Evolutionary algorithm based planning tool for sizing and siting of distributed

generation has been developed by Gianni Celli et al [10]. A three step procedure, based on

Genetic Algorithm and Decision theory, is applied to establish the best distributed generation

siting and sizing by G. Carpinelli et al. [11]. Arya and Titare [12] used a multilayer feed forward

network for obtaining reliability of a composite distribution system. Chronological load curve

for 24- hr of operation has been used as load model.

Optimal value of the DG capacity to be connected to the existing system for line loss

reduction and voltage profile improvement using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) has been

discussed by Vimal Raj et al. [13] also benefits of employing DG are analysed using Voltage

Profile Improvement Index (VPII) and Line Loss Reduction Index (LLRI). The line voltage
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stability index obtained by performing a conventional Newton-Raphson load flow on a standard

IEEE-30 bus system.


In [14], the authors use a heuristic approach to determine the optimal DG size and site

from an investment point of view. Short circuit constraints are not considered, and the focus of

the objective function is on optimal investment rather than maximizing renewable energy. It uses

a cost benefit analysis to evaluate various placements of DG. A new methodology has been

proposed by Keane and Malley [15] for the allocation of DG on distribution networks. It has

been implemented using linear programming and tested on a sample section of the Irish

distribution network.

A three step procedure, based on Genetic algorithm and decision theory, is applied by

Carpinelli et al. [16] to establish the best distributed generation sitting and sizing on MV

distribution network, considering technical constraints like feeder capacity limits, feeder voltage

profile and three phase short circuit currents in the network nodes.

A new algorithm based on Genetic algorithm (GA) and optimal power flow (OPF)

calculations has been discussed by Mardaneh and Gharehpetian [17]. Using this algorithm it is

possible to establish the optimal DG allocation and to minimize active and reactive power

generation costs. An heuristic optimization algorithm has been developed by Celli and Pilo [18]

for the optimal network planning, considered all technical constraints, like feeder capacity limit,

feeder voltage profile and three phase short circuit current in the network nodes and on the

application of the Decision theory.

An algorithm has been presented by Rios & Rubio [19] that sequentially optimize the

location and sizing of two set of DG units connected to a medium voltage distribution network,

taking into account both the incentive for reducing energy losses given by the Chilean regulator
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considering the technical operating restrictions of the network.


A policy of integrating DG into power system planning and operation through active

management of distribution networks and application of other novel concepts has been discussed

by Lopes et. al. [20]. Amaral et. al. [21] presented an efficient method for composite system

well-being evaluation based on non-sequential Monte Carlo simulation. It is assumed that the

system is coherent, and the frequency and duration indices are calculated by the conditional

probability method. Gozel et. al. [22] employed a loss sensitivity factor, based on the equivalent

current injection, for the determination of the optimum size and location of distributed generation

so as to minimize total power losses by an analytical method. Acharya et. al.[23] proposed an

analytical expression to calculate the optimal size and an effective methodology to identify the

corresponding optimum location for DG placement for minimizing the total power losses in

primary distribution systems. Siahkali et. al. [24] presented a new approach for solving the

generation scheduling (GS) problem, considering the reserve requirement, load balance and wind

power availability constraints. The particle swarm optimization (PSO) method is suggested to

deal with the equality and inequality constraints in the GS problem.

Costa et. al. [25] identified the situations where the existence of a micro grid may reduce the

interruption rate and duration and thus improve the reliability indices of the distribution network.

The relevant expressions necessary to quantify the reliability are presented. Khatir et. al. [26]

developed a novel pool-based market-clearing algorithm for spinning reserve (SR) procurement

and the cost allocation associated with provision of spinning reserve among customers (DisCos).

Gautam et. al. [27] presented new methodology for optimal placement of distributed generation

(DG) in an optimal power flow (OPF) based wholesale electricity market .The candidate
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locations for DG placement are identified on the basis of locational marginal price (LMP). Zoka

et. al. [28] proposed a method for the economic evaluation of an autonomous independent
network of distributed energy resources. Rajesh Karki [29] proposed a probabilistic method to

evaluate the impact of renewable energy credit and wind penetration level on the cost and

adequacy of power generating systems. The technique incorporates reliability and economic

analyses and is applied to a published test system to illustrate the results and their influence on

key system variables.

OBJECTIVE OF STUDY:-

The Distributed Generation (DG) have created a challenge and an opportunity for
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developing various novel technologies in power generation. The proposed work discusses the

primary factors that have lead to an increasing interest in DG. DG reduces line losses, increases
system voltage profile and hence improves power quality. The proposed work finds out the

optimal value of the DG capacity to be connected to the existing system using Particle Swarm

technique thereby maximizing the power quality. a tool for identifying the best location and

sizing of DG to be installed for Benefits of employing DG are analysed using Voltage Profile

improvement and Line Loss Reduction. The line loss reduction and voltage profile improvement

is obtained by performing a conventional Newton-Raphson load flow solution. The proposed

method is tested on a standard IEEE-6 bus system and the results of the simulation carried out

using MATLAB 7.0 are found to be encouraging. The method has a potential to be improving

power quality in an electrical power system.

PROBLEM FORMULATION:-

4.1 GENERAL
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Voltage sensitivity approach and power loss sensitivity approach is used for finding

optimal location of DG in system. The necessity for flexible electric systems, changing

regulatory and economic scenarios, energy savings and environmental impact have paved the

way for the development of DG, which is predicted to play an increasing role in power systems

of the future . In this thesis, the main focus is on reduction of the power loss and the voltage

improvement for a transmission system using DG units.

4.2 Load Flow Solution Using Newton Raphson method

The solution of load flow problems is one of the most essential issues in power system

operation and planning. Newton Raphson method is selected to carry the load flow. Normally,

two to five iterations are required for practical accuracies. The generalized equations in matrix

form for NR method are:

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 ∆ P  H N   ∆ δ
=    (4.2.1)

∆ Q J L∆V
For type 1 DG the modified equations will be

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 ∆ P  H N   ∆ δ
=    (4.2.2)

0  J L∆V
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∆δ  S 21 ∆P
=    (4.2.3)

∆ V S 43 0 
∆V
= S3 (4.2.4)
∆P

∆V = S 3 ∆P

4.3 Unit Placement Using Exact Loss Formula

The apparent power at ith bus, Si injected into the bus, can be represented as generated

power, minus the bus load. By adding all n bus powers, the total generated power, minus the

total load.
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n n

∑ Si = ∑Vi ⋅ I i *
PL + jQL = (4.3.1)
i =i i =i
Where

PL – Total Transmission loss.

QL - Total Reactive power loss

Si – Bus power injected ith bus.

Vi- Bus voltage at ith bus.

Ii - Bus current vector of ith bus.

n
PL = ∑ rj k(I p ⋅j I p k+ Iq ⋅j I q )k
i= 1
(4.3.2)
k= 1

where rjk – bus resistance value

for the ith bus, we have :

Pi + jQ i =Vi (Cos δi + jSin δi )( I pi − jI qi ) (4.3.4)

n
PL = ∑ [α
j=1
jk ( Pj ⋅ Pk + Q j ⋅ Qk ) + β jk (Q j ⋅ Pk − Pj ⋅ Qk ) ]
(4.3.5)
k=1

4.4 DG Unit Sizing

Once the DG location is selected, the optimal capacity of the DG unit is to be calculated.

The size of the DG unit is such that the loss at the ith bus must be minimized. Hence, the

following equations are used in DG sizing, to get minimum losses at ith bus.

∂PL
( ITL ) i = =0
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(4.4.1)
∂Pgi
n
( ITL ) i = 2∑ ( Pkαik − Qk βik ) = 0 (4.4.2)
k =1

It follows that :

αik Pi − βii Qi + k= 1 2∑ (α i k Pk − β i kQk ) = 0


(4.4.3)
k≠ 1

 n

Pi = (1/ α i i) β i Qi i + 2∑ (α i k Pk − β i kQk )
 k= 1

 k≠ 1 

Pi = PDGi − PDi (4.4.4)

 n 
PD G= PiD + i (1/ α i i) β i Qi i + 2∑ (α ik Pk − β i kQk ) (4.4.5)
 k= 1 
 k≠ 1 

In the above expression, PDGi gives the optimal capacity of DG unit to be placed in

transmission system. The voltage sensitivity with addition of DG capacity is calculated at

different buses to find optimal location for voltage profile improvement. Samples for DG

capacities are generated using random search method explained in details in proposed

methodology section.

4.5 Formulae of PSO

PSO is a population based stochastic optimization technique developed by

Kennedy and Eberhart. A population of particles exists in the n-dimensional search space. Each
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particle has a certain amount of knowledge, and will move about the search space based on this

knowledge. The particle has some inertia attributed to it and so it will continue to have a
component of motion in the direction it is moving. It knows where in the search space, it will

encounter with the best solution. The particle will then modify its direction such that it has

additional components towards its own best position, pbest and towards the overall best position,

gbest. The particle updates its velocity and position with the following equations.

V[ ] = W*V[ ] + C1* rand[ ]* (pbest[ ] – present [ ] ) + C2 * rand[ ] *


(gbest [ ] – present [ ] ) 3.1

V[ ] is the particle velocity, present[ ] is the current particle position, pbest[ ] and gbest[ ] are the

best position the particle has currently found and the best position found by any particle

respectively. C1, C2 are acceleration constants and rand[ ] is a random number between (0,1).

Usually C1=C2=2. The acceleration coefficients C1 and C2 control how far a particle moves in a

single iteration. The inertia weight, w is used to control the convergence behavior of PSO.

Suitable selection of the inertia weight provides a balance between global and local exploration

and exploitation of results in lesser number of iterations on an average to find a sufficient

optimal solution. Equation for w is given as:

W= 3.2
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where, Wmax and Wmin are maximum and minimum values of weight. Kmax is maximum

number of iteration specified and K, the current iteration. Thus as iteration increases, inertia

weight varies from some maximum value Wmax to Wmin.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY:-
The theoretical analysis for placing DG in network system has been analyzed for this IEEE -6
bus system has been considered. According to this firstly The buses are recognized where DG
can be placed in view of loss reduction & voltage profile improvement by adding the DG
capacity at suitable buses according to loss sensitivity approach & voltage sensitivity approach.
After obtaining the optimal of DG the random search method is used for optimization of real
power losses as give in following steps:-

1. Run the load flow for the base case & find load flow solution.
2. Sample for DG capacity all generated use relation.
(
Pi = Pi +Ui Pi − Pi )

Where Pi =Min limit of DG capacity at ith bus

Pi = DG capacity at ith bus


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Pi = Maximum limit of DG capacity at ith bus


3. Run the load flow program find line flows if within limits then find total Power loss
as objective function.
4. Repeat steps 2-3 till optimum solution of power loss is obtained.

First we take a load flow program get the loss of the system without DG.

Now we have to find the most sensitive buses, so we apply some constant amount of DG at all

the buses one by one and we will see the real power loss after every application of DG.

Loss sensitivity = (line loss without DG- line loss with DG )/ DG

After that we get the most sensitive buses of that system. Now we have to apply DG at most

sensitive buses. We can apply DG at more than one most sensitive buses. And initialize the DG

between 0 & 30 % of power demand on that bus for application of pso. And for initialization of

DG power we use uniform distribution technique.

And apply the constrants

0<DG<30% of power demand of that bus


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After application of DG the power flow at all the buses should not be greater than 1.3 times of

the base power flow.


To ensure this there is another constrant added which is given as

0<fdg<= 1.3* fbase.

Where fdg = power flow through the bus after application of DG.

And fbase = power flow through the bus without application of DG.

By applying these constrants in pso we get the optimal DG value and for loss reduction.

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