DMG - 20-The Heating of Large Spaces

DEFENCE ESTATES
Delivering Estate Solutions to Defence

Design & Maintenance Guide 20
The heating of large spaces
Consultant Authors: Ove Arup & Partners
DEFENCE ESTATES
LONDON: THE STATIONERY OFFICE
DMG 20
Heating of Large Spaces
© Crown Copyright 1999
Published with the permission of the Ministry of Defence on behalf of the Controller of Her
Majesty's Stationery Office.
Application for reproduction should be made in writing to the Copyright Unit, Her Majesty's
Stationery Office, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich, NR3 1BQ.
ISBN O 1 1 772922 1
DMG 20
Foreword
This Design & Maintenance Guide is one of a series prepared by Defence Estates
(DE) and covers the selection of heating systems for large spaces. It has been
designed to provide assistance to Project Sponsors, Property Managers, specifiers,
designers and operators of large buildings, primarily within the UK Ministry of
Defence (MOD) Estate.
Property Managers have a responsibility for the efficient use of MOD resources.
The National Audit Office report - Management of Utilities within the MOD,
identified the use of more efficient heating systems as an area for potential savings.
The selection of the appropriate heating system can significantly influence energy
performance, user satisfaction, capital cost, operating and maintenance cost, and
may assist MOD in achieving overall targets for reduction in energy use.
The guide is intended for use in preparing a statement of requirements for large
military buildings. It may be applied to both new buildings, and to the
refurbishment of existing buildings. It does not cover the selection of heating
systems for more onerous situations, such as arenas and places of public assembly.
It has been compiled for the use of the Crown and its contractors in execution of
contracts for the Crown. Whilst this guide has been produced by DE, for the MOD
Estate, it is acknowledged that it could be applied outside the estate.
The Crown hereby excludes all liability (other than liability for death or personal
injury) whatsoever and howsoever arising (including, but without limitation,
negligence on the part of the Crown, its servants or agents) for loss or damage
howsoever caused where the document is used for any other purpose.
CONTACT FOR QUERIES
Specialist Services
DE
Blakemore Drive
Sutton Coldfield
West Midlands
B75 7RL
iii
DMG 20
DMG20
List of Abbreviations
DMG 20
DMG 20
Contents
FOREWORD iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES ix
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THIS GUIDE 1
1.2 THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE 1
1.3 ASSOCIATED MOD PUBLICATIONS 2
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE GUIDE 2
1.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2
2 THE PRINCIPLE FORMS OF HEAT TRANSFER 4

2.1 ENERGY BALANCE FOR HUMAN COMFORT 4
2.2 TEMPERATURE AND COMFORT 5
2.3 CONVECTIVE HEATING 5
2.4 RADIANT HEATING 6
2.5 TYPES OF HEATING SYSTEMS 7
3 THE PURPOSE OF SPACE HEATING 8

3.1 HEATING FOR HEALTH AND COMFORT 8
3.2 HEATING FOR BUILDING AND CONTENTS PROTECTION 9
4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE HEATING OF LARGE SPACES 10

4.1 INSULATION 10
4.2 INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION RATES 11
4.2.1 Ventilation
4.2.2 Infiltration
4.2.3 Reducing infiltration through doors
4.2.4 Door Air Curtains
4.3 REDUCING STRATIFICATION IN TALL SPACES 14
5 SUMMARY OF HEATING EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS 16

5.1 CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS 17
5.1.1 High level unit heaters
5.1.2 Floor standing unit heaters
5.1.3 High temperature high velocity induction warm air heating systems
DMG 20
5.1.4 Ducted warm air system

5.2 RADIANT SYSTEMS 21
5.2.1 Gas fired overhead radiant tube heaters
5.2.2 Overhead radiant tubes/panels served by hot water/steam
5.2.3 Gas-fired radiant plaque heaters
5.2.4 Electric plaque heaters
5.2.5 Hot-air radiant tubes
5.3 COMBINATION SYSTEMS 26
5.3.1 Underfloor heating
5.3.2 Panel convectors
6 SELECTING THE HEAT SOURCE AND EQUIPMENT 28

6.1 SELECTING THE HEAT ENERGY SOURCE 30
6.2 CENTRALISED PLANT AND SITE DISTRIBUTION MAINS 30
6.3 DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT FUEL BURNING 30
6.4 TEMPERATURE RECOVERY 32
6.5 CONTROL STABILITY 32
6.6 LOCALISED HEATING 32
6.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY 33
6.7.1 Health
6.7.2 Fire Risk
6.7.3 Noise
6.8 AIR MOVEMENT 33
6.9 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 33
6.10 OCCUPANT INTERACTION 34
6.11 SPACE USAGE 34
6.12 SUITABILITY TO BUILDING REFURBISHMENT WORK 35
6.13 FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY 35
6.14 CAPITAL COST 36
6.15 RUNNING COSTS 37
ANNEX A - SITE SURVEYS 38

REFERENCES 42
viii
DMG 20
List of figures
1 Typical heat rejection from the human body 4

2 Convective heating 6
3 Radiant heating 6
4 Radiant proportion 7
5 Extract from CIBSE table A1.3 8
6 Extract from Approved document L (1991) - Table 5 10
7 Extract from CIBSE table A4.12 11
8 Loading bay partitioning/air lock 12
9 Rapid rise and close doors 12
10 Plastic strip curtains 13
11 Crossflow infiltration 13
12 Effect of destratification 14
13 High level unit heater 17
14 Advantages and disadvantages of high level unit heaters 17
15 Floor standing unit heater 18
16 Advantages and disadvantages of floor standing unit heaters 18
17 Induction nozzle 19
18 Advantages and disadvantages of high temperature high velocity jets 19
19 Ducted warm air system 20
20 Advantages and disadvantages of ducted warm air systems 20
21 Gas fired radiant tube 21
22 Advantages and disadvantages of gas fired radiant tubes 21
23 Radiant tubes served by hot water/steam 22
24 Advantages and disadvantages of hot water/steam radiant tubes 22
25 Gas fired radiant plaque 23
26 Advantages and disadvantages of gas fired radiant plaques 23
27 Electric plaque heater 24
28 Advantages and disadvantages of electric plaques 24
29 Hot air radiant tubes 25
30 Advantages and disadvantages of hot air radiant tubes 25
31 Underfloor heating 26
32 Advantages and disadvantages of underfloor heating 26
33 Panel convectors 27
34 Advantages and disadvantages of panel convectors 27
35 Heating system selection chart 29
36 Direct vs. indirect fuel burning 30
37 Advantages and disadvantages of fuel burning methods 31
38 Cost comparison for various heating systems utilising a central heat
source 36
39 Cost comparison for various heating systems utilising an independent
heat source 37
DMG 20
DMG 20
1 Introduction
1.1 Background to this guide
The MOD Estate contains a diverse range of buildings. They vary in terms of size,
age and the use to which they are put. Many of the existing buildings are subject
to refurbishment. This may arise due to the age of the building, a change in use,
or as a result of energy conversion programmes. It is, therefore, essential that any
changes to the heating installations are considered properly, taking all relevant
factors into consideration.
Experience within MOD Estate has demonstrated that the selection of the most
appropriate heating system will influence a buildings performance in terms of both
energy consumption and user satisfaction. Inappropriate systems result in poor
value for money, in terms of capital cost, or cost in use (including energy), and may
fail to satisfy the needs of the building user or occupier.
DE commissioned a study to look into the range of heating options available for
large buildings. As part of the study a number of sites were visited to collect
feedback on the actual performance of different heating systems. These sites are
listed in the acknowledgements section of this guide. From analysis of the
information gathered during the site visits, and by reference to other texts on
related subjects, Design and Maintenance Guide 20 The heating of large spaces
was developed. A summary of the survey findings is included at Annex A.
The term 'large spaces' covers a wide range of buildings, from unheated stores to
concert halls. This guide is not intended to cover the entire range of 'large
buildings'. The primary aim is to cover military stores, maintenance buildings
and buildings used for 'industrial' purposes. However, it may be applied with
caution to other types of building. It is not intended to cover buildings that
require air conditioning (including comfort cooling), nor buildings that are required
to meet other standards, such as places of entertainment.
MOD uses a considerable amount of energy to heat large buildings. The potential
savings represented by the selection of appropriate plant may assist MOD in
achieving overall targets for reductions in energy use.
1.2 THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE
The purpose of this guide is to set out the criteria to be considered when selecting
a heating installation for new and existing large buildings. It is not possible to be
prescriptive in the guidance it offers, due to the diverse range of considerations
that need to be taken into account when selecting a heating system. The guide
does, however, examine the principal considerations that should be taken into
account.
DMG 20 Introduction
To maximise the value of the guide, it has been written with a wide readership
in mind, with a varied knowledge of heating of large spaces. It has been
designed to provide guidance to the procurer, or user, of the building. This
should enable these individuals to compare the characteristics of any proposed
heating scheme against the operational and functional requirements of the
building.
The guide may also be used as an 'aide mémoire' by the professional heating
engineer.
The guide will assist the heating system designer, together with the building
procurer and users. This should assist in making an informed decision on what
heating scheme best suits a given building.
1.3 ASSOCIATED MOD PUBLICATIONS
Work on MOD heating systems, should be carried out in accordance with

Defence Estates Technical Publications, in particular:-
Design and Maintenance Guide (DMG) 07 - Justifying the provision of air

conditioning.
DMG 08 - Space requirements for plant access, operation and maintenance.
DMG 17 - Design Energy Targets.
Specification (Spec) 036 - Heating, hot and cold water, steam and gas
installations for buildings.
Spec 037- Air Conditioning, air cooling and mechanical ventilation for buildings.
Fire Standard F3 - Oil fired heating installations.
Defence Estates Publications are listed in Defence Estates Technical

Publications Index, available from The Stationery Office.
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE GUIDE
Section 1 Introduces the guide.
Section 2 Considers the purpose of space heating and guides the designer to
select appropriate temperatures.
Section 3 Outlines basic heat transfer theory.
Section 4 Describes the factors which affect the heating of large spaces, and
considers the basic design principals that need to be considered
when selecting a heating system for a building.
Section 5 Summarises the advantages and disadvantages of specific heating

equipment.
Section 6 Outlines the specific selection of the heat energy source and
equipment.
Annex A Site Survey Results
1.5 Acknowledgements
This guide has been compiled by consulting engineers Ove Arup and Partners.
DMG 20 Introduction
The authors would like to record their gratitude to the staff at the following six
existing sites within the MOD Estate for their time and co-operation in assisting
with the research undertaken in preparing the guide:
Eaglescliffe
Portsmouth
Donnington
Shawbury
St Athan
Old Dalby
DMG 20 2. The Principle Forms of heat transfer
2 The principle forms of heat transfer
Before assessing the benefits of different heating systems, it is important to

understand how the human body copes with variations in temperature and other
factors that make up the environment.
2.1 ENERGY BALANCE FOR HUMAN COMFORT
In engineering terms, the human body may be likened to a heat engine,

converting fuel (food) into work and heat. The harder we exercise, the more heat
we produce. This heat must be rejected if our body temperature is to remain in
balance. If our bodies reject too much heat we feel cold, too little and we feel hot.
Our bodies reject heat through:
breathing
evaporation (of perspiration)
conduction (through contact with colder surfaces)
radiation (to surrounding cooler objects)
convection (to air passing over the skin).
Figure 1 Typical heat rejection 20% evaporative

from the human body
45% radiant 35% convective
Rather than heat our bodies, a heating system regulates the way in which our
bodies lose heat due to radiation, convection and evaporation. The type of heating
system installed can, therefore, affect the way our bodies reject heat and the
effect this may have on occupant comfort.
DMG 20 2. The Principle Forms of heat transfer
2.2 TEMPERATURE AND COMFORT
To feel comfortable, we must maintain our inner-body temperature at about 37oC,

and our skin temperature at about 33oC. Under these conditions, we lose heat at a
rate commensurate with comfort conditions.
The rate at which we lose heat will vary due to the temperature of our
surroundings. This temperature is made up of two components, the air
temperature and the radiant temperature. Whilst the term air temperature is
commonly understood, radiant temperature may need further explanation. This is
best achieved by considering an everyday situation.
Outside, on a cold winter's day when the air temperature is low, an instant feeling
of warmth is felt when the sun emerges. Clearly, the air temperature could not
have risen in that instant, but the energy radiating from the sun has increased the
radiant temperature and thus increased the comfort level.
The combination of both the air temperature and radiant temperature gives rise to
a parameter termed the dry resultant temperature (tres). It is the dry resultant
temperature that provides the best measure of comfort conditions. In its simplest
form dry resultant temperature is the average of the addition of air temperature
and mean radiant temperature (MRT), as expressed by the formula:
The MRT in turn, is related to the surface temperature of all walls, windows,
ceilings etc. It quantifies the potential radiant heat loss from the occupant to the
surfaces, due to the position of the person within the room.
There are other factors that affect comfort, such as wind speed, humidity,
clothing and the level of physical activity. Controlling the humidity level is
outside the scope of this report, but the effect that extremes in humidity levels
have on comfort should not be ignored. The designer of heating systems is
unlikely to have any control over the clothing level of the occupants, but again
this factor should not be ignored. In external conditions wind speed can have a
significant effect on comfort. For example, in winter months, weather forecasts
often warn of cold windy conditions in terms of the 'Windchill factor'. 'Windchill
factor' is not a term commonly referred to when describing internal conditions,
but internal air movement can affect comfort conditions. If the heating, or
ventilation systems installed in a building produce a high air velocity, (typically
above 0.25m/s) this could lead to complaints of draughts. For 'still' indoor air
speeds (below 0.1 m/s), the space may feel stale.
2.3 CONVECTIVE HEATING
Convective heating systems work by heating the air directly. As the heated air
circulates within the space, it warms the surrounding walls, floor, ceiling and other
surfaces. Although these surfaces are warmed by the air, they generally remain at a
lower temperature than the air except in hot summer conditions. Therefore, the
MRT and the dry resultant temperature, in the room are usually lower than the air
temperature. The extent to which this may affect comfort depends upon the
building construction.
DMG20 2. The Principle Forms of heat transfer
In winter, inside poorly insulated buildings, the surface temperature of the walls
and windows will be significantly lower than that of the inside air. Therefore, to
achieve a comfortable dry resultant temperature, the air temperature must be
maintained at a higher level.
Figure 2 Convective Heating
Air temperature 26 °C
Mean radiant temperature 18°C
Dry resultant temperature 22 °C
2.4 RADIANT HEATING
Radiant heating systems heat the air indirectly. The heat is transmitted from
the heat source in the form of electromagnetic rays (mainly infra-red), to
surrounding cooler objects such as walls, floors and people. As the
electromagnetic rays pass through the surrounding air almost no heat is
absorbed. Instead, the air is heated by contact with the surrounding surfaces,
which have been heated by the radiant source. The MRT in the room, and hence
the dry resultant temperature, are, therefore, higher than the air temperature.
Figure 3 Radiant Heating
Air temperature 18°C
Mean radiant temperature 26°C
Dry resultant temperature 22°C
As radiant heating operates at a lower air temperature than convective systems,

less heat is lost when air escapes from the building (eg. through an open door).
In such circumstances, where the infiltration rate is high, radiant heating
systems may use less energy than convective systems. Radiant heating also has
the advantage of being directional. For example, a floor can be heated by an
overhead radiant system, directed at the floor. Compared with a convective
system, the temperature at roof level will be lower, thereby reducing the heat
loss through the roof. The ability to direct the heat also allows 'spot heating'
within a building, where a small area may be heated in isolation.
Radiant heat transfer also takes place from people to colder objects. This will
often give rise to complaints from occupants sitting close to a large window. This
DMG20 2. The Principle Forms of heat transfer
2.5 TYPES OF HEATING SYSTEMS
Few heat emitters can be categorised as wholly radiant, or wholly convective.

Most systems offer a combination of both forms of heating. Figure 4 illustrates
the relative 'radiant-proportion' for the equipment.
Figure 4 Radiant proportion
Figure 4 shows that the majority of the heat from a unit heater is in the form of
convective heat, whereas a high temperature plaque heater emits heat by
radiation. The traditional radiator, despite what the name implies, actually
produces most of its output in the form of convective heat transfer.
Each type of heat emitter is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.

DMG 20 3. The purpose of Space Heating
3 The purpose of Space Heating
There are three basic reasons why space heating may be required in a building:
• for the health and comfort of the occupants
• to protect the building fabric
• to protect the contents.
3.1 HEATING FOR HEALTH AND COMFORT
Most buildings usually require heating in order to provide a comfortable, healthy

environment for occupants in winter.
In terms of statutory requirements, the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)

Regulations require that during working hours the temperature inside buildings, in
a workplace, shall be reasonable. The Approved Code of Practice to the Workplace
(Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations recommends that the temperature in
workrooms should normally be at least 16°C, unless much of the work involves
severe physical effort in which case the temperature should be at least 13 °C.
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) provides more

detailed guidance and recommendations for thermal comfort standards in different
circumstances. The following table, extracted from the CIBSE design guide,
illustrates the recommended temperatures for various buildings and activities.
The CIBSE guide recommends that the dry resultant temperature can be 3 to 5°C
below that normally recommended, when hard physical work takes place.
Figure 5 Extract from CIBSE table A1.3
Type of Building Dry Resultant Temperature oC

Factories:
Sedentary work 19
Light work 16
Heavy work 13
Offices:
General 20
Warehouses:
Working and packaging spaces 16
Storage spaces 13
DMG 20 3. The purpose of Space Heating
Somewhat contradictory to this requirement, the Fuel and Electricity (Heating)

(Control) (Amendment) Order 1980, prohibits the use of fuel or electricity to heat
premises above 19°C. Although not specified, it is generally accepted that this
refers to air temperature rather than dry resultant temperature.
Guidance on space heating scales for the provision of accommodation for the
Regular British Armed Forces is provided in Joint Services Publication (JSP) 315
Services Accommodation Code.
In some applications, it is difficult to satisfy the requirements of both the

Heating Control Order and the recommendations of CIBSE. Firstly, CIBSE
recommend dry resultant temperatures in excess of 19°C for offices. Secondly,
when convective heating systems are used, air temperatures in excess of 19°C
may be necessary to achieve the desired dry resultant temperature. To comply
with the Order in this case, it must be assumed that the temperature referred to
is a dry resultant temperature.
3.2 HEATING FOR BUILDING AND CONTENTS PROTECTION
Cold buildings carry with them a risk of condensation and high humidity levels,
leading to accelerated decay and degradation of the building or its contents. In
particular, unheated long-term storage buildings, such as military warehouses,
may carry a risk of damage to the stored items.
A heating system can protect both the building and its contents against decay
and degradation due to:
freezing of water services, with the associated danger of bursting pipes

and flooding
the regular occurrence of moisture condensation onto surfaces, leading to

water damage
high humidity levels, accelerating mould growth and corrosion of metals.
A heating system will reduce the relative humidity of a space, and reduce the
likelihood of condensation. When heating only to protect the building and its
contents, the temperature level is usually lower than that required to provide
comfort for occupants. The temperature need only be raised to a level, which is
sufficient to adequately reduce the relative humidity.
To protect normal UK buildings, the Building Services Research and Information

Association (BSRIA) recommend heating to 8°C. This level may not, however, be
appropriate for all buildings. To determine the most appropriate temperature
level for a specific building, the designer must consider ventilation and
infiltration rates, humidity levels, and the sensitivity of the building materials to
moisture. It may be more appropriate in some instances to control the humidity
level, rather than the temperature within the building. This may be achieved by
heating, or by other means.
The Design and Maintenance guide for 'Controlled Humidity Environments',

DMG19, should be referred to for more detailed explanations of these options.
DMG 20 4. Factors affecting the heating of large spaces
4 Factors affecting the heating of

large spaces
The design and selection of a heating system is influenced by the building

construction. Clearly, heated buildings should be designed to limit their heat loss,
by providing insulation and sealing against infiltration.
4.1 INSULATION
When a building is heated, it loses heat through the building walls, roof, floor and
windows. The rate of heat loss is determined by the insulation level of the building
fabric and the temperature difference between inside and outside. The overall
thermal transmittance value (U-value) quantifies the insulation's resistance to
heat flow. An element with a high U-value has a low resistance to heat flow, while
an element with a low U-value has a high resistance to heat flow.
The composition of an element determines its U-value. A well insulated structure

could have a U-value of 0.4 or less. By comparison uninsulated asbestos
sheet aircraft hangers typically have a U-value of 6.5 while the U-value
for block and brick construction would typically be 1.5
Poorly insulated buildings suffer from high energy consumption and low surface
temperatures. Low surface temperatures reduce the MRT within the space and,
therefore, have an adverse effect on comfort. To overcome this effect, the air
temperature must be increased further, thereby consuming more energy.
The Building Regulations Approved Document LI specifies the minimum U-value

for various fabric elements for buildings, in order to minimise the energy
consumption of buildings. The following table is an extract from the document,
which illustrates the standard U-values for buildings other than dwellings:
Figure 6 Extract from Approved document L1 (1991) - Table 5
The above table is one of the solutions referred to in the Approved Document LI.
Other options are based upon comparing the results with this method to ensure
the overall U-value is achieved.
10
4.2 INFILTRATION AND VENTILATION RATES
4.2.1 Ventilation
Most buildings require a supply of ventilation air. The purpose of this may be to
replace contaminated air or simply to provide fresh air to occupants. Recommended
minimum ventilation rates for occupants are set down in the CIBSE guides and the
Building Regulations Approved Document F.
Buildings subject to high heat gains may also require mechanical ventilation to
limit overheating during summer. Where high ventilation rates are required, it may
be economical to provide a heating system which is capable of ventilating as well as
heating the space.
4.2.2 Infiltration
Infiltration rate is the term used to describe the amount of outdoor air which leaks
into a building. To maintain the space air temperature in winter, infiltration air
must be heated. Clearly, excessive infiltration can have a significant effect on the
building's performance and energy efficiency.
The infiltration rate is expressed in terms of the number of air changes per hour
(ac/h). This relates the quantity of outside air entering a space per hour relative to
the volume of the space. For example, one air change per hour means that the
quantity of outdoor air which enters a space in one hour is equivalent to the total
volume of that space.
In practice a fully airtight building is difficult to achieve, as outdoor air enters most
buildings through openings and cracks. Infiltration is influenced by the standard of
construction, temperature, building volume, site exposure and wind speeds. It is
notoriously difficult to predict with any degree of accuracy and, therefore, for heat
loss calculations, the empirical values in the following table are often used.
Figure 7 Extract from CIBSE Table A4.12
Building Type/Construction Infiltration Rate (ac/h)
Multi-storey, brick or concrete construction:

Lower and intermediate floors 1.0
Top floor with sheeted roof, lined 1.25
Top floor with sheeted roof, unlined 1.5
Sheet construction, unlined

300 to 3000m3 1.5
3000 to 10000m3 1.0
Over 10000m3 0.75
Warehouses:
Working and packaging spaces 0.5
Storage space 0.25
Offices 1.0
In older buildings the infiltration rate could be significantly higher. If there is

any concern over the magnitude of the infiltration rate the building should be
tested for air leakage. Considerable energy savings may be made by sealing
leaky buildings. Similarly, consideration should be given to installing controls
that turn off the heating system if doors are left open.
11
DMG20 4. Factors affecting the heating of large spaces
4.2.3 Reducing infiltration through doors
In addition to infiltration which occurs through cracks in the construction of a

typical building, a further source of air infiltration is through door openings.
This can be very significant when doors are installed in two opposing sides of a
building. In many buildings, doors are in constant use (eg. stores and
workshops) and it may be necessary to implement measures which reduce the
infiltration rate. Failure to do so can result in occupant complaints, due to low
temperatures and draughts and high energy consumption. A number of
mechanisms may be used to reduce infiltration through busy loading bay doors.
A number of solutions are listed below:
*It should be noted that it is a requirement of the 1995 Edition of Approved

Document LI, that vehicle access doors should have a U-value no greater than
Figure 8 Loading bay partitioning/air lock
The creation of a separate loading bay area outside the main

building is the most effective way of reducing infiltration.
The idea is to create an air lock between the space and the
outside. It is important to ensure the depth and area of the
air lock is sufficient to allow loading/ unloading without the
need to have both doors open simultaneously.
Figure 9 Rapid rise and close doors
These doors are used as access doors for through traffic.

They are designed to rise and close rapidly on detection of
traffic to reduce the time that the doors are open to a
minimum. They can be very effective, when used for low
traffic flows. Careful consideration of vehicle detection
devices is required. In most instances a suitably
positioned switch may be more effective than automatic
detection devices.
12
Figure 10 Plastic strip curtains
These curtains are permanently fixed over access doorways,

and are designed to reduce the area of the opening required
to a minimum, The curtains may, however, be displaced with
high windspeeds.
Although strip curtains are generally effective at reducing

infiltration of outdoor air, they can lead to inefficent practices.
A DE study observed that in some cases occupants relied
heavily on thge strip curtains, such that the permanent
access doors were rarely closed. Such inefficent operation
may have caused an increase in energy consumption.
Consideration must be given to safety implications due to the

reduced visibility from wear, and injury from flapping strips
during excessively windy conditions. Plastic strip curtains in
themselves will not meet the requirements of the 1995
Edition of approved Document L1 (see * para 4.2.3)
4.2.4 Door air curtains
Air curtains jet a stream of heated air across

a door opening. Relatively little is known
regarding their effectiveness as a barrier
against infiltration, but they can be effective
in heating the air which passes into the
building through the doorway.
Air curtains are widely used, as they are

very effective at heating the infiltration air
immediately, thereby reducing cold draughts
within the building. However, complaints of
warm draughts and noise are commonplace
and often lead to the units being isolated.
Door air curtain in themselves will not meet

the requirements of the 1995 Edition of
Approved Document LI (see * para 4.2.3).
Air curtains can consume large amounts of energy, especially if there are leeward
openings in the building. Door air curtains have limited effect in reducing
infiltration into a building where there are a number of openings, or the building is
excessively leaky. The section below illustrates the infiltration of outdoor air due to
wind pressure.
Figure 11 Crossflow infiltration
Section through a building,

which contains access doors
in opposing walls, during a
prevailing wind with the operation
of door air curtains
13
4.3 REDUCING STRATIFICATION IN TALL SPACES
Warm air rises due to its relative buoyancy. In a tall space, significant
temperature differences may arise between the air at lower and upper levels.
This is referred to as stratification.
Stratification has the following negative effects:
• high heat losses may be experienced through the roof due to the elevated air
temperature at this level
• the temperature at floor level will be lower than the average temperature of
the space. To maintain comfortable conditions at floor level, the average
temperature of the space must be raised, consuming additional energy
• increased infiltration due to thermal buoyancy causing internal air movement.
It is possible to minimise such effects with the installation of destratification

equipment but considerable care is required in their selection and operation.
These force warm stratified air from high-level down to the occupied zone at low
level. Successful destratification systems typically improve comfort conditions at
floor level and return energy savings of up to 10%.
However, many destratification systems meet with only limited success, due to
the increased air movement which they produce being perceived as draughts, or
because they draw contaminated air from high level down to the occupied level.
Stratification may be more pronounced in convective systems than in radiant

systems which are aimed at heating the floor. However, some convective
systems may be used to destratify the air. For example, air-turnover systems
draw air from low level, heat it and introduce it at high level. The warm high-
level air moves down to replace the cold air which has been removed, thereby
destratifying the air.
The diagram below illustrates the effect of stratification with, and without, the
operation of destratification equipment:
Figure 12 Effect of
destratification
14
15
DMG 20 5. Summary of heating equipment characteristics
5 Summary of heating equipment

characteristics
The following section describes several types of heating systems which could be
considered for the heating of large spaces. It is sub-divided into convective,
radiant and combined systems.
The main function of the section is to provide a means by which the building
procurer, or user, may compare the characteristics of any given heating system
against the operational needs of the building. This comparison might then be
used to stimulate further discussion, between the heating system designer and
the procurer, on the validity of the proposed system.
The guidance given in this section is not intended to provide the background for
a technical review of a proposed heating design. It may, however, prompt a
discussion that leads to a better understanding, by the heating system designer,
of the intended use of the building.
16
DMG20 5. Summary of heating equipment characteristics
5.1 CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS
5.1.1 High level unit heaters
These units discharge warm recirculated/fresh air from high level into the space.
A fan in the heater forces the warm air to low level. The units may be provided
with electric, gas or oil fired heaters or with heater batteries served by hot
water/steam. The units are generally suspended from the roof structure but
they can also be wall mounted.
Figure 13 High level unit heater
Warm air
Figure 14 Advantages and Advantages Disadvantages

disadvantages of high
level unit heaters Suitable for intermittent operation due to fast Large vertical air temperature gradients may be
response time. expected. Thus increasing the heat loss through the
roof and hence higher energy costs.
Good control achievable as units can be controlled Air velocity throughout the space can be uneven and
individually or in groups to suit internal layout and may give rise to complaint of draughts in areas
local heat gains. adjacent to the units.
Units are available in a wide range of outputs The circulation of room air and the associated air
therefore a number of smaller units can be selected movement can mix dust/smoke particles within the
so as to evenly distribute the heat. space.
Heat output can be controlled to match the required Each unit has maintenance requirements, such as filter
load, particularly with the modulating burner type. replacement and burner servicing, access to the units
due to their mounting height may be inconvenient.
The units can be used to introduce ventilation air. The units are generally not suitable for summer
ventilation.
Units can be mounted at heights up to 5 metres. These units can create noise problems.
Risk of mechanical damage is limited due to Direct fired units may not be appropriate in spaces
mounting height. which have a high fire risk.
Units do not occupy floor space. Access for maintenance may be inconvenient and
lengthy due to mounting height and number of
serviceable units.
17
5.1.2 Floor standing unit heaters
These units are similar to high level unit heaters. The heated air is generally
discharged horizontally into the space or via a ductwork system to outlet
terminals where required. The units are free standing and are often positioned
in high heat loss areas eg. adjacent to external doors. They are generally larger
than the high level type and provide greater heat outputs, hence fewer units are
required.
Figure 15 Floor standing unit

heater

disadvantages of floor
standing heaters Suitable for intermittent operation due to fast Large vertical air temperature gradients may be
response time. expected. Thus increasing the heat loss through the
roof and hence energy costs.
Large heat outputs are available requiring fewer The circulation of room air and the associated air
units. movement can mix dust/smoke particles within the
space.
Heat output can be controlled to match the required
load, particularly with the modulating burner type.
The units can be used to introduce ventilation air. High levels of air movement adjacent to the unit
may be required to distribute the heated air. This
may cause local discomfort due to draughts and
local overheating.
Capable of inputting large quantities of heat into an
area thus achieving a warm air curtain effect,
adjacent to access doors etc.
Direct fired units may not be appropriate in spaces
which have a high fire risk.
Can be used to create air movement during the Risk of mechanical damage due to location.
summer and may be able to provide summer
ventilation.
Access for maintenance is convenient due to the Units occupy floor space.
location of heaters.
These units can create noise problems
18
5.1.3 High temperature high velocity induction warm air heating system
These systems comprise an air handling plant and a network of well insulated
distribution ductwork. The air handling plant incorporates all of the moving
components for the system.
These units may be supplied with electric, gas or oil fired heaters or with heater
batteries served by hot water/steam. Air is discharged downwards from the
distribution ductwork through special air jet nozzles. The high velocity of the
discharge air induces and mixes with the surrounding air. The system is
capable of delivering varying proportions of fresh air from 0 to 100% and is
suitable for use in buildings up to 25 metres in height.
The distribution ductwork is generally located within the roof depth and may be
suspended from the roof structure or from the walls.
Figure 17 Induction nozzle

shown with and
without additional
mixing box
Figure 18 Advantages and

disadvantages of high
temperature high
velocity jets
19
5.1.4 Ducted warm air system
These systems are similar to the high temperature high velocity systems. The
system comprises an air handling plant and distribution ductwork. Air is supplied
to the space at a low temeperature and velocity by outlet terminals.
Figure 19 Ducted warm air

system
Figure 20 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
disadvantages of
ducted warm air Suitable for intermittent operation due to fast The circulation of room air and the associated air
systems response time. movement can mix dust/smoke particles within the
space.
Good control is achievable, with the flexibility to A plant room may be required for the air handling
accommodate future changes in building use/layout. unit.
Heat output is generally fully modulating enabling The space required for the ductwork is high due to
the required load to be met efficiently. the low air velocity.
The system can be used to introduce ventilation air. Large vertical air temperature gradients may be
experienced in tall spaces, thus increasing the heat
loss through the roof and hence energy costs.
The system can be used for summer ventilation and Fire dampers may be required if the ductwork
can be adapted to provide mechanical cooling. passes through fire compartmentation lines.
The fire risk is reduced to a minimum as the

combustion components may be located external to
the served space.
Access for maintenance is limited to the air handling

plant only. Access to the space served need not
necessarily be required.
The risk of physical damage to the distribution side

of the system is low.
Low noise levels can be achieved within the space.
The system does not occupy floor space, except for

the air handling unit.
No provision for the supply of combustion air to the

space is required.
20
5.2 RADIANT SYSTEMS
5.2.1 Gas fired overhead radiant tube heaters
These heaters are intended for mounting heights above three metres and are
suspended from the roof structure or wall. Gas is burnt directly inside the
tubes. The tubes then emit radiant heat which is directed downwards by a
reflector into the space. The radiant intensity of this type of heater is generally
quite high, thus making them appropriate for direct local heating of occupants.
Figure 21 Gas fired radiant tube

disadvantages of gas
fired radiant tubes Short preheat times are required for comfort High level working may be hindered due to the close
heating applications. proximity to the high intensity radiant heat source.
May be used to provide local occupant heating Access for maintenance may be inconvenient due to
without heating the whole space. mounting height and number of serviceable units.
Vertical air temperature gradients within the Access for maintenance may be inconvenient due to
space are minimised due to the lower air mounting height and number of serviceable units.
temperatures required for comfort.
Suitable for use in buildings with high Asymmetric conditions may be experienced by occupants
infiltration rates. dependent upon the direction of the radiation, ie one side
of the body may feel warm whilst the other remains cool.
Offers rapid recovery of comfort conditions The system is not capable of providing ventilation air.
after the opening of a door.
Suitable for use in poorly insulated buildings. These units may not be appropriate in spaces which have
a high fire risk..
Virtually no air movement is created within the Modulation of heat output is limited to either on/off or
space, ie. no mixing of dust/smoke. 50%. This may result in overheating during part load
conditions and hence increased energy consumption.
Risk of mechanical damage limited due to High intensity radiant heat can cause discolouration of
mounting height. materials.
Access for maintenance may be inconvenient and lengthy,

due to mounting height and number of serviceable units.
21
5.2.2 Overhead radiant tubes/panels served by hot water/steam
These heaters may be suspended from the roof structure or be wall mounted.
Hot water/steam is passed through the tubes resulting in the emission of
medium/low intensity radiant heat. The overall efficiency of the system is
dependant upon the heat generating plant from which the heaters are served.
Figure 23 Radiant tubes served

by hot water/steam

disadvantages of hot Advantages Disadvantages
water/steam radiant
tubes An even distribution of heat output can be achieved High level working may be hindered due to the close
providing good comfort levels throughout the proximity to the high intensity radiant heat source.
space.
Heat output can be modulated giving good control Relatively large preheat periods are required due to
of space temperature. response time of distribution system.
Vertical air temperature gradients within the space A statutory inspection of the installation is required for
are minimised due to the low air temperatures high/medium temperature hot water and steam
required for comfort. systems.
Can offer rapid recovery of comfort conditions The lower radiant intensity output makes the system
following the opening of a door. less appropriate for local occupant heating.
Particularly well suited for well insulated buildings. The distribution system will incur heat losses,
reducing the overall efficiency of the system.
Shading of radiation by objects is less significant The system is not capable of providing ventilation air.
as radiant heat is evenly distributed within space.
Quiet in operation.
Minimal service requirements within the space.
Virtually no air movement is created within the

space, ie. No mixing of dust/smoke.
Risk of mechanical damage limited due to mounting

height.
22
5.2.3 Gas-fired radiant plaque heaters
These units comprise an array of ceramic plaques which are mounted in polished
reflectors. An air/gas mixture is supplied and burnt adjacent to the plaques
heating them to around 1000-C. The radiant heat produced is directed downwards
by the reflectors. The products of combustion are discharged directly into the
space. The irradiance levels emitted from these units are very intense. Therefore,
they are particularly suitable for high bay operation.
Figure 25 Gas fired radiant

plaque

disadvantages of gas Advantages Disadvantages
fired radiant plaques
Heat output is almost instantaneous therefore High level working may be hindered due to the close
short preheat times are required for comfort proximity to the high intensity radiant heat source.
heating applications.
Can provide local occupant heating without An uneven distribution of heat can occur resulting in
heating the whole space. local hot and cold spots.
Units are physically smaller than the tube type Asymmetric conditions may be experienced by
heaters of the same output and can therefore occupants dependent upon the direction of the
be positioned in smaller areas above crane radiation, ie. one side of the body may feel warm whilst
gantries etc. the other remains cool.
Vertical air temperature gradients within the Modulation of heat output is limited to either on/off or
space are minimised due to the low air 50%. This may result in overheating during part load
temperatures required for comfort. conditions and hence reduced efficiency.
Suitable for use in poorly insulated buildings. Objects could shade occupants from emitter leading to
loss of comfort in local heating applications when the
surrounding air temperatures are low.
Suitable for use in buildings with high infiltration These units may not be appropriate in spaces which
rates. have a high fire risk.
Virtually no air movement is created within the High intensity radiant heat can cause discolouration of
space, ie. no mixing of dust/smoke. materials.
Offers rapid recovery after door openings. Only direct fired type available, therefore not suitable for
well sealed buildings.
Risk of mechanical damage limited due to The system is not capable of providing ventilation air.
mounting height.
Access for maintenance may be inconvenient and

lengthy due to mounting height and number of
serviceable units.
Mechanical protection is required to avoid damage to

the plaque or reduce fire risk.
23
5.2.4 Electric plaque heaters
These heaters comprise an array of quartz lamps which are surrounded by a

reflector. The lamps emit high intensity radiant heat, and their output is
instantaneous. The heaters are normally compact and are wall mounted.
Figure 27 Electric plaque

heater

disadvantages of gas Advantages Disadvantages
fired radiant plaques
Heat output is almost instantaneous therefore short High level working may be hindered due to the close
preheat times are required for comfort heating proximity to the high intensity radiant heat source.
applications.
Can provide local occupant heating without heating An uneven distribution of heat can occur resulting in
the whole space. local hot and cold spots.
Units are physically smaller than the tube type Asymmetric conditions may be experienced by
heaters of the same output and can therefore be occupants dependent upon the direction of the
positioned in smaller areas above crane gantries etc. radiation, ie one side of the body may feel warm whilst
the other remains cool.
Vertical air temperature gradients within the space Objects could shade occupants from emitter leading to
are minimised due to the low air temperatures loss of comfort in local heating applications when the
required for comfort. surrounding air temperatures are low.
Suitable for use in poorly insulated buildings. These units may not be appropriate in spaces which
have a high fire risk.
Suitable for use in buildings with high infiltration High intensity radiant heat can cause discolouration of
rates. materials.
Virtually no air movement is created within the The system is not capable of providing ventilation air.
space, ie. no mixing of dust/smoke.
Offers rapid recovery after door openings. Expensive to operate in comparison with gas fired unit.
Risk of mechanical damage limited due to mounting Access for maintenance may be inconvenient and
height. lengthy due to mounting height and number of
serviceable units.
Mechanical protection is required to avoid damage to

the plaque or reduce fire risk.
24
5.2.5 Hot-air radiant tubes
Hot-air radiant tubes have been used for many years to heat large aircraft hangers.
The system comprises a duct network mounted at high level and a remote air
handling unit which contains the fan and burner assembly. Air is heated in the
burner section and then re-circulated by a fan through the high level ductwork at a
mean temperature of around 150°C. The heated air does not enter the space, but is
contained within the ductwork. The heated duct surfaces radiate heat into the
space. The plant is usually housed outside the space it serves.
Figure 29 Hot air radiant tubes

disadvantages of hot Disadvantages
air radiant tubes
Advantages
An even distribution of heat output can be achieved Relatively long preheat periods are required
providing good comfort levels throughout the space. due to response time of distribution system.
Heat output can be modulated giving good control of space

temperature.
Vertical air temperature gradients within the space are The lower radiant intensity output makes the
minimised due to the lower air temperatures required for system less appropriate for local occupant
comfort. heating.
Offers rapid recovery after door openings. The system is not capable of providing
ventilation air
Fire risk is virtually eliminated as the combustion

components may be located external to the space served.
Access for maintenance is limited to the air handling plant Control of the system is usually in relatively
only, access to the space served is rarely required. large areas, therefore local heat gains cannot
be so easily accommodated.
Virtually no air movement is created within the space, ie. no Difficult to install if the ductwork passes
mixing of dust/smoke. through different fire compartments.
Can be fitted with dual fuel burners offering fuel source

flexibility.
Shading of radiation by objects is less significant as radiant

heat is evenly distributed within space.
Suitable for use in poorly insulated buildings.
The supply of combustion air to the space is not required,

reducing ventilation heat load.
Risk of mechanical damage is limited due to mounting height.
25
5.3 COMBINATION SYSTEMS
5.3.1 Underfloor heating
This system uses a large part of the floor area as a heat emitter. The floor is
heated by an array of low pressure hot water pipework circuits, (or electrical
heaters) which are embedded in the floor structure. An even split of convective
and radiant heat is delivered to the space creating a comfortable environment.
The output from the system can be modulated to suit the load by controlling the
water temperature in accordance with ambient and or internal conditions.
Figure 31 Underfloor heating

disadvantages of Advantages Disadvantages
underfloor heating
An even distribution of heat output can be achieved Relatively large preheat periods are required due
providing good comfort levels throughout the space. to response time of the system.
The heat output from the system can be modulated. Risk of damage if floor skin is penetrated.
Fire risk is virtually eliminated as the combustion Local heat gains cannot easily be accommodated
components are located external to the served space. and over heating may occur due to slow response
time of system.
Access for maintenance is limited to the main Logistics for the installation are complex due to
distribution system. the co-ordination implications etc.
Virtually no air movement is created within the space, The system cannot provide ventilation.
ie. no mixing of dust/smoke.
The supply of combustion air to the space is not Deep floor construction is required.
required, reducing ventilation heat load.
Does not occupy floor space. Not suited to areas where heating is required for
short periods.
26
5.3.2 Panel convectors
These emitters are traditionally referred to as radiators, although their output is

mainly convective. Single and double panel radiators are available in varying
lengths and heights to suit the heat output required. They are generally heated
by hot water which is distributed via a pipe network system, although electric
panel radiators are available.
Figure 33 Panel convectors

disadvantages of panel Advantages Disadvantages
convectors
It is a system that most people are familiar with and Slow response times, therefore large pre-heat
understand. periods are required.
Standard maintenance requirements. Slow response time imposes a recovery period

before comfort conditions are regained after the
opening of a door.
No fire risk within the served space. Units occupy wall space.
Good control, unlimited zoning achievable therefore Risk of mechanical damage due to location in
can accommodate local heat gains. industrial situations.
May readily accommodate future change of building Distribution system losses.

use/layout.
May provide useful radiant output to offset low

temperature surfaces such as windows.
27
DMG 20
6. Selecting the heat source and equipment
6 Selecting the heat source and

equipment
There are many factors that need to be considered in determining the optimum
solution to heating any building. It is, therefore, not possible to produce a
process capable of analysing all the relevant factors culminating in the selection
of a given system.
Sound engineering decisions have to be based upon a thorough analysis of all

relevant factors, and many of these factors need prioritisation by the ultimate
user. It is, therefore, essential that the end user takes a full part in the selection
of a heating system.
One of the primary aims of this guide is to provide sufficient information to the
'non heating engineer' such that they may evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of any proposed heating solution against their own priorities. The
following selection chart is intended to aid this process. It is not intended as a
selection tool for the professional heating engineer, but may serve as a useful
aide mémoire.
28
DMG20 6. Selecting the heat source and equipment
Figure 35 Heating system selection chart
This above chart should be used with CAUTION. It is intended as a simplified guide and is not intended always to produce a definitive result.
Other factors are discusses at the relevant sections in this Guide. It is also probable a number of systems would provide the optimum solution.
* Process Ventilation ie. Ventilation provided as local extraction ventilation.
29
6.1 SELECTING THE HEAT ENERGY SOURCE

Electricity is widely available, but usually costs more than fossil fuels, for each
unit of energy. Fossil fuels on the other hand, including coal, oil and gas, usually
require more expensive equipment than electric heating equipment.
6.2 CENTRALISED PLANT AND SITE DISTRIBUTION MAINS
The majority of the facilities visited during a recent survey of MOD sites were
served from a central boiler plant via a network of distribution mains. The general
perception of such systems, which are now around 30 years old, is that the
distribution systems are inefficient in delivering heat around the site. This results in
poor response times for the heating systems, particularly for poorly insulated
buildings or those at the end of the distribution line. In some cases it was reported
that buildings could take a day, or longer, to reach the desired conditions from start
up. Inefficient balancing and high distribution losses were thought to be contributory
factors. A recent survey of MOD district heating systems revealed losses in the
distribution mains of up to 50% of the heat generated throughout the year.
6.3 DIRECT VERSUS INDIRECT FUEL BURNING
Two types of fuel burning equipment, direct fired and indirect fired are available,
the advantages and disadvantages of which are listed in the table on the following
page. Generally, direct-fired equipment discharges its combustion products into the
space, and is only appropriate for relatively clean burning fuels such as natural
gas. Indirect fired equipment results in the products of combustion being
discharged to outside via a flue arrangement.
Figure 36 Direct vs. indirect fuel

burning
30
DMG 20 6. Selecting the heat source and equipment
Figure 37 Advantages and disadvantages of fuel burning methods
Fuel Burning Advantages Disadvantages

Method
Direct fired Efficiencies in excess of 90% can be achieved A minimum quantity of ventilation air
must be provided to dilute the products
of combustion, thus increasing the
heating load.
As there are no flues from the burners, the There is a fire risk due to the presence
provision for fabric penetrations is reduced. of naked flames
The provision of ventilation air for combustion Higher levels of corrosion in the burner
purposes may liminate the need for additional section can be experienced in certain
ventilation for other purposes. environments
The units can be repositioned relatively easily as Moisture from the products of
there is no flue to accommodate combustion may give rise to
condensation problems within the
space
The units are generally cheaper than an indirect In some applications recirculation of
fired equivalent the air within the space is not
permitted. Therefore the space has to
be heated with outdoor air only. This
could result in higher energy cost than
an indirectly fired system
The concentration levels of combustion

gases within the space will be higher
than those for an indirectly fired system
Indirectly fired Minimal fire risk The efficiency of the burners is less
than direct fired. Typically 75-90%
All combustion products are discharged to The number of roof penetrations are
outside, therefore ventilation requirements are increased to accommodate the number
reduced of flues
The concentration of combustion gases is lower The units cannot be so easily

than for a direct fired system repositioned because of the flue
implications
The burner section is subjected to less corrosion The units are generally more expensive
than direct fired burners than a direct fired equivalent
Can be used in well sealed buildings
31
6.4 TEMPERATURE RECOVERY
The recent survey of MOD buildings found that radiant heating systems
generally recover the space comfort conditions more quickly than convective
systems after a temporary opening of access doors. The main reason for this is
that the MRT is more robust against infiltration. Although the temporary ingress
of outside air reduces the air temperature within the space, the MRT is virtually
unaffected.
The occupancy pattern of the space should be taken into account when
determining the type, size and the mode of operation of a heating system. Spaces
which are continuously occupied will generally require less plant capacity than
those which are intermittently occupied. This is due to the additional output
required from the system to achieve acceptable pre-heat periods in intermittently
occupied spaces.
6.5 CONTROL STABILITY
Radiant systems may be prone to over-heating during mild weather conditions, if

the control system is not carefully specified. Firstly, many existing systems are
inappropriately controlled by air temperature thermostats, rather than by
sensing the dry-resultant temperature. The air temperature may be significantly
different from the dry-resultant temperature, and the accuracy of control may be
compromised. Secondly, most radiant systems do not have the ability to modulate
the heat output for part load conditions.
The control of convective systems is generally easier than for radiant systems, as
conventional air temperature sensors or thermostats can be used. These are
usually easy to calibrate, and are inexpensive to install. Convective systems,
which utilise heat produced by a central boiler system, are able to modulate their
heat output over a wide range.
An example of an inappropriate type of heating and control was often observed in

storage facilities where radiant heating was employed to control humidity. The
systems were controlled to a fixed air temperature even though they were
generally unoccupied. In such an application a convective heating system
controlled by humidity, or dehumidification, would be an energy efficient
alternative.
6.6 LOCALISED HEATING
Localised heating has both advantages and disadvantages.
In large spaces with few occupants, localised ëtaskí heating may be sufficient to
provide comfort conditions at a particular work-station, while the remainder of
the space is colder. On the other hand, if an even distribution of heat is required
throughout the space, the systems must be selected accordingly. Local zone
control may improve occupant satisfaction if they are allowed to regulate the
temperature of their own environment.
Local overheating may cause problems in the vicinity of the heaters. Radiant
heaters, in particular, can cause discomfort to people in close proximity to them
due to assymetric radiation.
32
PIMP
" " ,, _ 6. Selecting the heat source and equipment
6.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY
6.7.1 Health
Air quality can be affected by the choice of heating equipment. Direct fired
equipment discharges the products of combustion directly into the room, raising
the level of pollution in the space.
6.7.2 Fire risk

The risk of fire must be assessed, as heating systems are often the source of fires.
An example of poor siting was in a joiner's workshop heated by high level heaters.
Where these units were positioned above areas which produced sawdust they were
unusable due to the associated fire risk. For further guidance on fire standards for
particular applications, refer to the fire standards listed in the DE Technical
Publications Index and Crown Fire Standards.
6.7.3 Noise
Clearly, noise can be a source of annoyance for occupants, and should be minimised
in occupied buildings. Typical noise sources from heating systems
include:
• rapid air movement, such as that from a high velocity ducted system
• fan noise from convective systems
• fuel burning noise.
6.8 AIR MOVEMENT
Convective systems rely on air movement to heat the space. If the air movement is
pronounced, it may be perceived as draughts. Particularly draughty conditions are
likely to occur beneath door air curtains and adjacent to convective heaters.
De-stratification equipment and high velocity ducted systems can also increase air
movement.
Apart from affecting comfort, excessive air movement can entrain dust and fumes,
thus reducing air quality. If smoke or fumes are generated within the space they
tend to rise to high level. A high level re-circulation or de-stratification
installation is likely to redirect any contaminants back down to the occupied zone.
6.9 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Well designed radiant heating systems are generally more efficient than convective
heating systems. In rooms equipped with a radiant heating system, the air
temperature can typically be kept 2-4°C lower, thus minimising the amount of
heat required.
Consequently, gas fired radiant heating systems can have a very low environmental
impact. Electric radiant heating systems, however, may have a higher
environmental impact due to the production of pollutants during the process of
electricity production.
33
6.10 OCCUPANT INTERACTION
One particular variable, which is difficult to quantify, is the requirement for

operator input and interaction with the users. Occupant interactions which can
preclude successful operation include tampering with heating controls and leaving
doors open. Good systems should be easy to operate and should be robust against
damage.
6.11 SPACE USAGE
The use of space must be considered. Different heating systems require different
amounts of space, and the activity within the space may preclude certain heating
systems:
low level heating systems, such as floor standing unit heaters or panel
convectors, may take valuable space. High level systems are less likely to
conflict with operator's space requirements, but require more complex access
systems for maintenance
low level systems may be prone to damage
stores with high level racking systems may preclude the use of radiant
systems. In this case the radiation cannot heat low level areas due to the
shading effects of the racks
high infiltration rates due to frequently opening doors impair the

performance of convective systems in particular
high temperature radiant systems have been known to cause discolouration

to sensitive goods
if ventilation is required, a ducted convective system may be simultaneously

used to distribute the air within the space
flues from indirect fired unitary systems such as gas fired radiant heaters
result in numerous roof penetrations and potential water-proofing problems.
34
6.12 SUITABILITY TO BUILDING REFURBISHMENT WORK
A recent DE study highlighted the following problems which can occur when an
existing building is refurbished:
• the majority of the buildings visited suffered from high heat loss. The roofs
were generally constructed from asbestos, or similar sheeting and
contained single glazed north lights. This resulted in high roof heat losses.
Often the doors in the spaces were of a large surface area and poorly sealed
giving rise to a high infiltration of outdoor air. These buildings were prone
to under heating during periods of extreme weather
• a number of similar buildings had been refurbished. Following

refurbishment work, which often involved the installation of insulated roofs
and well sealed doors, an adequate level of heating was achieved in all
conditions. However, the improvements have brought rise to a further
problem. During mild weather conditions the buildings are prone to over
heating as the heating systems, or their controls, were not modified to suit
the reduced heating load. As a result, windows are often opened to release
the build-up of heat and some of the energy saving benefits are lost
• it is also important to note that in many buildings infiltration is the only

form of ventilation. Therefore, when steps are taken to reduce this,
consideration should be given to the minimum ventilation which must be
provided. This is particularly important in the case of buildings which are
fitted with direct fired heating equipment.
6.13 FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTIBILITY
The study mentioned above found that the use of many buildings differs from their
original intended purpose. However, the heating systems are generally not
modified to accommodate such changes. This may result in inadequate, or
inappropriate control. Often, after areas are sub-divided, the control for the
heating system remains in only one of the served areas, even though the
temperature required in each area may differ. One of the workshop buildings
visited had been sub-divided to create a large storage area. The heating system
had not been modified to accommodate the division. This resulted in the store
being maintained at the same temperature as the workshop area.
35
6.14 CAPITAL COST
The heat source selected as the basis of a new heating system will clearly
influence the capital cost and running cost of the installation.
When an existing hot water/steam distribution system is available, the least

capital cost option would generally be to utilise this heat source to serve the new
heating installation, particularly if there is no gas/oil infrastructure around
the site. However, the following must be considered in determining whether this
is a viable option:
• has the existing distribution system capacity to serve the new load?
• what is the anticipated life of the central plant? If it is less than that of
the new installation then provision will have to be made for the
replacement heat source in the future
• how efficient is the distribution system at delivering heat around the site?
The table below indicates the typical order of cost for the various heating
systems, which have been discussed in this paper, when they are served from a
central heat source:
Figure 38 Cost comparison for various heating systems utilising a central heat source
System Category System Type Magnitude of Cost

Convective Floor standing unit heaters least expensive
High level unit heaters
Ducted warm air
High temperature high velocity most expensive
Radiant High level tubes/panels (hot water/steam) least expensive
Hot air tubes most expensive
Combination Panel convectors least expensive
Under floor heating most expensive
Where no existing heat source is readily available, or its future is uncertain, it is

likely that the most cost effective option would be to provide self contained heating
equipment, eg. gas fired unit heaters as opposed to the installation of a central
boiler plant.
An Investment/Financial Appraisal should be carried out when assessing the

'Magnitude of Cost' for a particular system (on a Net Present Value NPV basis).
The 'life expectancy' of the system may well be the deciding factor, influencing
which system is the best value for money.
36
The table below indicates the typical order of cost for the various heating systems,
which have been discussed in this paper, which come complete with an independent
heat source:
Figure 39 Cost comparison for various heating systems utilising an independent heat source
System Category System Type Magnitude of Cost

Convective Floor standing unit heaters least expensive
Ducted warm air
High temperature high velocity most expensive
Radiant Gas plaque heaters least expensive
Gas tubes
Hot air tubes most expensive
Combination Panel convectors least expensive
Under floor heating most expensive
6.15 RUNNING COSTS
Due to the number of variables which influence the energy consumption of a

heating system it is virtually impossible to comment on the likely performance of
each system. However, on a general basis, the following points can be made:
for comfort heating applications in poorly insulated buildings and

anybuilding which is intermittently or sparsely occupied, a high intensity
radiant system is likely to prove economical
for comfort heating applications in a well insulated building or in

buildings where occupancy is constant, there is likely to be no economic
differences between systems
in applications which do not require comfort control but do require

humidity control, or large quantities of ventilation air, a convective
system is likely to prove economical
the life expectancy of plant should also be considered.

The above points are intended to indicate the system most likely to prove to be
the most economically viable, in terms of energy usage.
37
DMG 20 References
Annex A - Site Surveys
A1 INTRODUCTION
As part of this study visits were made to existing MOD facilities. The purpose of
these visits was to:
gain an insight into the particular heating requirements for a range of

large spaces within the facilities
establish what heating systems were employed
gain feedback on the performance of the heating systems.

The heating systems installed at the facilities visited included both radiant and
convective types. The particular systems for each site are summarised below:
Eaglescliff
Floor standing unit heaters
Ducted warm air system
All the above were served from a hot water boiler installation
Portsmouth
High level radiant tubes and panels

Over door heaters
All the above were served from a central steam installation
Donnington
High level radiant tubes and panels
All the above were served from a hot water boiler installation
Old Dolby
High level unit heaters served from a hot water boiler installation
Shawbury
High level radiant tubes heated by air

High level unit heaters served from a hot water boiler installation
St Athan
High level high velocity jet warm air heating system.
38
DMG 20 Annex A - Site Surveys
A2 HEATING SYSTEMS OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE
A2.1 Centralised Plant and Site Distribution Mains

The majority of the facilities visited were served from a central boiler plant via a
network of distribution mains. The general perception of such systems, which are
now around 30 years old, is that the distribution system is inefficient in delivering
heat around the site. This results in poor response times for the heating systems,
particularly for poorly insulated buildings or those at the end of the distribution
line. In some cases it was reported that buildings could take a day, or longer, to
reach the desired conditions from start up.
The root of this problem was not investigated. However, inefficient balancing and
high distribution losses were thought to be a contributory factors.
The implication of this, is that such factors must be considered when new heating
systems are added to an existing system, or when buildings are upgraded.
A2.2 Radiant Heating Systems

The general perception of the radiant heating systems employed at the facilities
was that they performed well, and were able to achieve the desired comfort
conditions in all but the most extreme weather conditions. The buildings which
did not perform as well under such circumstances were often poorly insulated
leaky buildings.
The most common perception noted was that radiant systems were able to recover
temperature quickly after the opening of an access door. The main reason for this
is that the most dominant temperature for comfort with a radiant system is the
MRT, although the ingress of outside air will reduce the air temperature within
the space, the MRT will be virtually unaffected. Therefore, comfort conditions
return quickly once the door is closed.
It was noted that some of the buildings were prone to over heating during mild
weather conditions. The method and efficiency of the control system is most likely
to be the main contributory factor in this case.
The heating systems inspected were controlled by an air temperature thermostat.

This is not the most appropriate method of control for radiant systems as the air
temperature measured by the thermostat may not reflect the mean MRT within
the space, therefore comfort or efficiency may be comprised.
The internal air temperatures were measured in each of the spaces. These
ranged from 16-20oC at 1.5m above the floor. The recommended dry resultant
temperature for workshops is in the range of 13-16oC, dependant upon the
activity level.
39
DMG 20 Annex A-Site Surveys
A2.3 Convective Heating Systems

The general perceptions of the convective heating systems were:
• long pre-heat periods were required
• dust/smoke was circulated within the space
• localised hot areas are created in the vicinity of the heaters
• high air velocities were experienced adjacent to the heaters - these were
generally perceived as draughts.
• high noise levels
• comfort conditions were lost as soon as access doors were opened.
The internal air temperatures measured within the spaces ranged from 18-24oC.
The higher air temperatures recorded confirmed that higher air temperatures
are required for comfort with convective systems due to the comparatively low
resulting mean radiant temperature.
A2.4 Air Temperature Destratification Equipment

Air temperature stratification was observed in most of the buildings visited. In
many of these buildings de-stratification equipment had been installed with only
limited success. Some of the reasons established for this were:
• the design and specification of such equipment was poor
• increased air movements within the space was perceived as draughts by

the occupants, therefore, the systems were not used.
• the systems drew contaminated air from high level within the space and
re-introduced them at occupancy level.
However, it is worth noting that a successful destratification system can

potentially improve comfort conditions within the space and return energy
savings up to 10%. Therefore, consideration should be given to its installation
in tall spaces, however, the system needs careful design.
A2.5 Over Door Air Curtains
Over door air curtains were found at a facility in Portsmouth. These units were
not used. The reasons given for this were:
• they were not effective at preventing the infiltration of cold air
• they consumed excessive amounts of energy
• occupants complained of draughts caused by the units
• the units were noisy.
40
DMG 20 Annex A-Site
It is worth noting that the building in which they were installed had two large
access doors in opposing walls. Therefore, the air stream created by the door
curtains was inadequate at preventing the through flow of high velocity wind.
A2.6 PLASTIC DOOR STRIPS
The installation of plastic strips was noted at some of the facilities visited. These
were generally considered to be effective in terms of reducing infiltration of
outdoor air. However, it was noted that since the installation of the curtains, the
access doors were rarely closed by the occupants. Therefore, these energy-saving
devices may well cause an increase in energy consumption due to the doors being
left open. It was also reported that personnel were concerned over safety due to
restricted visibility through the curtains when they became marked in use.
41
DMG 20 References
References
1) Iles PJ, " Destratification of air in industrial buildings", BRE Information Paper IP 9/95,
Department Of the Environment, Garston, May 1995, ISBN 1 86081 011X
2) "Sonnaire high radiant tube heating systems"

The Sonning Heating Company
Mayflower Close
Chandlers Ford Industrial Estate
EASTLEIGH
Hampshire SO53 4AR
Tel 01703 262826
3) "Energy efficiency in advance factory units"

Occupiers Manual
BRECSU Best Practice Programme. Good Practice Guide 62, 1993
BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR
Tel 01923 664258
4) efficiency in advance factory units"

BRECSU Best Practice Programme. Good Practice Case Study 141, 1993
BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR
5) "Energy efficiency in refurbishment of industrial buildings"

BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR
6) "Energy saving heating equipment'

Ambi-Rad Ltd
Fens Pool Avenue
Wallows Industrial Estate
BRIERLEY HILL
West Midlands DY5 1QA
Tel 01384 489700
7} "Introduction to energy efficiency in factories & warehouses"

Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions
Energy Efficiency Office
Eland House
Bressenden Place
LONDON SW1E 5DU
Tel 0171 890 3000
8) "Energy efficiency in industrial buildings and sites"

BRECSU Best Practice Programme. Energy Consumption Guide 18, 1993
BRESCU
Garston
Watford WD2 7JR
9) Hughes D, "Energy efficient factories: design & performance", BRE Information Paper IP 13/89,
Department of The Environment, Garston, June 1989
42
DMG 20

Design Manual
BRECSU Best Practice Programme. Good Practice Guide 61, 1993
BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR

Design Manual
BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR

Design Manual
BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR
13) "Energy efficiency in refurbishment of industrial buildings"

BRESCU
Garston
WATFORD WD2 7JR
14) "Radiant heating systems"

Ambi-Rad Ltd
Fens Pool Avenue
BRIERLEY HILL
15) "Warming up Britannia - The Ambi-Rad way"

Ambi-Rad Ltd
Fens Pool Avenue
BRIERLEY HILL
16) Brown R, "Space heating emissions", Building Services Journal, March 1995, pp 39
17) Cuell M, "The space race", Building Services Journal, November 1993, pp 45
18) Ashley R, "Beware factory overheating", Building Services Journal, September 1990, pp 36
19) "Draught free air distribution" Hoval Ltd, Building Services Journal, October 1993, pp 18
20) Jones P J, "Comfort heating in modern low energy factories", Preceding paper presented at the 56th
autumn meeting & Gas 90 exhibition.
The Institute of Gas Engineers
17 Grosvenor Crescent
LONDON SW1X 7ES
21) Brown R, "Radiant heating", BSRIA, Application Guide AG 3/96, March 1996, ISBN 0 86022 426 0
22) CIBSE Guide - Volume A, "Design data", The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers,
LONDON, 1997, ISBN 0 900953 29 2
23) CIBSE Guide - Volume B, "Installation & equipment data", The Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, LONDON, 1998, ISBN 0 900953 30 6
24) CIBSE Guide - Volume C, "Reference data", The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers,
LONDON, 1998, ISBN 0 900953 31 4
43

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DEFENCE ESTATES

Delivering Estate Solutions to Defence

The heating of large spaces

Consultant Authors: Ove Arup & Partners

© Crown Copyright 1999

CONTACT FOR QUERIES

2 THE PRINCIPLE FORMS OF HEAT TRANSFER 4

3 THE PURPOSE OF SPACE HEATING 8

4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE HEATING OF LARGE SPACES 10

5 SUMMARY OF HEATING EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS 16

5.1.4 Ducted warm air system

6 SELECTING THE HEAT SOURCE AND EQUIPMENT 28

ANNEX A - SITE SURVEYS 38

1 Typical heat rejection from the human body 4

1.1 Background to this guide

1.2 THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

1.3 ASSOCIATED MOD PUBLICATIONS

Work on MOD heating systems, should be carried out in accordance with

Design and Maintenance Guide (DMG) 07 - Justifying the provision of air

Defence Estates Publications are listed in Defence Estates Technical

1.4 OUTLINE OF THE GUIDE

Section 1 Introduces the guide.

Section 3 Outlines basic heat transfer theory.

Section 5 Summarises the advantages and disadvantages of specific heating

Annex A Site Survey Results

2 The principle forms of heat transfer

Before assessing the benefits of different heating systems, it is important to

2.1 ENERGY BALANCE FOR HUMAN COMFORT

In engineering terms, the human body may be likened to a heat engine,

evaporation (of perspiration)

conduction (through contact with colder surfaces)

radiation (to surrounding cooler objects)

convection (to air passing over the skin).

Figure 1 Typical heat rejection 20% evaporative

45% radiant 35% convective

2.2 TEMPERATURE AND COMFORT

To feel comfortable, we must maintain our inner-body temperature at about 37oC,

2.3 CONVECTIVE HEATING

Figure 2 Convective Heating

Mean radiant temperature 18°C

Dry resultant temperature 22 °C

2.4 RADIANT HEATING

Figure 3 Radiant Heating

Air temperature 18°C

Mean radiant temperature 26°C

Dry resultant temperature 22°C

As radiant heating operates at a lower air temperature than convective systems,

2.5 TYPES OF HEATING SYSTEMS

Few heat emitters can be categorised as wholly radiant, or wholly convective.

Figure 4 Radiant proportion

Each type of heat emitter is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.

3 The purpose of Space Heating

• for the health and comfort of the occupants

• to protect the building fabric

• to protect the contents.

3.1 HEATING FOR HEALTH AND COMFORT

Most buildings usually require heating in order to provide a comfortable, healthy

In terms of statutory requirements, the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) provides more

Figure 5 Extract from CIBSE table A1.3

Type of Building Dry Resultant Temperature oC

Somewhat contradictory to this requirement, the Fuel and Electricity (Heating)