FAO Document 1995

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Retail markets planning guide

Table of contants
by
J.D. Tracey-White
FAO AGRICULTURAL SERVICES BULLETIN 121
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations concerning legal status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
M-62
ISBN 92-5-1 03732-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the
purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100
Rome, Italy.
© FAO 1995
Contents
Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1. Retail markets

What are retail markets?
Justification for market developments
Benefits of market development
Chapter 2. Planning context

A brief history of settlement growth
Markets in rural areas
Retail markets in urban areas
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Chapter 3. Surveys and projections

Market surveys
Projections
Chapter 4. The market master plan

Preparation of a market master plan
General Principles Of Market Layouts
Market Layouts: Case Studies
Comparative features of market layouts
Chapter 5. The design of market buildings and infrastructure

General design principles
The design of buildings and stalls
Conservation of market buildings
Market infrastructure
Chapter 6. Mobile facilities and equipment

Facilities at periodic and street markets
Other market equipment
Chapter 7. Management and regulation of markets

Market management systems
Market rules and regulations
Market maintenance
Training
Chapter 8. Formulating a simple market project

Defining the purpose of a project
The formulation of a project
Annexes
Annex A. Market survey questionnaire
Annex B. Roadside survey methodology
Annex C .Model market regulations
Further reading

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Preface
Contents - Next
Notwithstanding current developments in the establishment of integrated food marketing systems, the
traditional forms of wholesale and retail markets remain as important components of the marketing
chain from farm to consumer. Retailing, the last stage in this process, is the point at which economies
achieved in the previous stages can be passed on to the consumer.
This Guide is a companion to that produced by FAO on wholesale market planning and design (FAO
Agricultural Services Bulletin 90). It has been prepared to assist those engaged in the new
development or improvement of rural and urban retail markets, including market managers, planners
and public administrators, and engineers preparing detailed project designs. The general focus of the
manual is on markets for the trading of fresh produce, such as vegetables, fruits, grains, fresh meat,
fish, eggs and poultry.
The Guide addresses the entire range of issues related to market development, from initial formulation
of a plan through to its implementation. Chapter I sets the framework by considering different types of
rural and urban retail markets, how they operate, their likely physical and institutional deficiencies
and the benefits that might be expected if these defects are remedied. This is followed by an
examination of the planning context for markets: how they function and how their role within a
community will vary according to whether they are located in a rural village, a small town? a
suburban area or a city centre. Chapter 3 outlines a practical methodology to undertake rapid and
cost-effective surveys to understand how the present retail marketing system operates and how it may
be improved. It also provides basic guidelines on how to make projections of market throughput and
how to use these to estimate the size of the market area and sales space and to assess what facilities
should be provided in the market.
Chapters 4 and 5 are concerned with detailed design, including the preparation of market master
plans, the zoning of specialised activities in the market, traffic circulation patterns, a market's
relationship to adjacent uses and potential conflicts. The design of buildings and infrastructure is
demonstrated by using drawings or illustrations of actual market projects, supplemented with general
descriptions of the organization of market buildings, typical materials, structures and servicing
arrangements. Chapter 6 outlines typical market equipment requirements.
Chapter 7 provides an outline of the management and institutional factors which need to be taken into
account when developing proposals for a new market or for upgrading existing market facilities,
including the application of market regulations. The Guide concludes with a chapter on the overall
formulation and economic and financial analysis of a simple market project, whether it is to be funded
locally by central or local government, by a private entrepreneur or financed by an outside donor.
This publication has been prepared by John Tracey-White. Technical and editorial advice has been
provided by Andrew Shepherd and by other members of the Marketing and Rural Finance Service of
the Agricultural Support Systems Division. The Guide draws heavily on an earlier draft prepared by
Jean-Michel Ambrosino and on material prepared by Peter de Balogh. Illustrations have been
provided by the author, by Jean-Michel Ambrosino, the FAO Photo Library and from published
sources, the use of which is gratefully acknowledged.
A. Sawadogo
Assistant Director-General
Agriculture Department

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Contents - Next

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Introduction
Contents - Previous - Next
This Guide has been prepared to assist those engaged in improving existing retail markets or building
new markets. Users of the guide may include market staff, technicians involved with detailed project
design and implementation as well as urban planners and public administrators, at national, regional
or local level, concerned with the planning and operation of food marketing systems. It should also be
of use to those interested in the education and training of market personnel.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE?
The main aim of the Guide is to provide a simple step-by-step approach to developing markets. It
concentrates on general principles governing planning and operational efficiency of rural and urban
retail markets. It provides information on how to carry out surveys, prepare layouts and building
designs, choose equipment and assess a project's technical and financial feasibility. It is not a guide to
marketing in general, nor to the design of specialised facilities such as wholesale markets.
The Guide uses a systematic approach in which the design and formulation process that will need to
be followed is broken down into a series of steps. These steps are summarised in Box 1 and developed
in detail in the following chapters.
WHY SHOULD WE IMPROVE OR BUILD NEW MARKETS?
There is a natural wish to be able to purchase foodstuffs and other goods at one location and
preferably under a single roof. Markets are an important component of the marketing chain from farm
level to consumer. Efforts made in improving production and reducing post-harvest losses as well as
investments in agricultural infrastructure, such as storage, have only a limited chance of providing
benefits if the last stage in the marketing chain, retailing, is not able to pass on to the consumer the
economies achieved in the previous stages.
BOX 1
The design process for preparing a market development project
1. FINDING OUT WHAT EXISTS
Reviewing the planning context/policies of the market and its catchment area
Collecting data on agricultural production and urban consumption
Making surveys of existing markets, retail facilities and traffic levels
2. FINDING OUT WHAT IS NEEDED
Analysing the existing throughput and market channels
Projecting future market throughput
Calculating sales space requirements and site area
Defining ancillary needs and services
Setting targets and priorities for the development
Developing a management structure and training needs
3. DESIGNING THE MARKET PROJECT
Preparing an overall master plan of the market site
Preliminary design of individual buildings and infrastructure components
Defining equipment needs

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4. FORMULATING THE PROJECT

Assessing the potential benefits of the project in meeting its objectives
Preparing capital and recurrent budgets and cash flow forecasts
Calculating the project's financial and economic returns
Evaluating the legal, environmental and social impact of the project
Defining the mode of implementation, sources of finance and actions needed
5. FINALISING DESIGNS
Adjusting master plan to conform with formulation results and available financ
Final design of individual buildings and infrastructure components
Preparation of bills of quantities and other tender documents
Effective retailing, either from shops, scattered outlets such as mobile facilities, or markets, not only
improves the flow of products, but can also provide an incentive to agricultural production. The
retailer is directly in contact with consumers and knows their needs. By offering consumers
commodities they can afford the retailer is able to both maximise profits and increase supplies from
producers.
WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE A MARKET ENVIRONMENT?
The efficient operation of retail markets is influenced by two factors. The first is the physical
environment, i.e. the market premises, access, stalls, storage and equipment. Irrespective of whether it
is a street market, a shop, a covered market or a mobile facility, all aspects of the development and
maintenance of the physical environment have cost implications. To maximise financial returns the
facility should be:
● close to the customer;
● designed according to the expected level of sales; and
● adapted to the best preservation of the product being sold.
Equally important, however, is the second factor, which is the social and managerial functioning of
the market. A retail market is a mechanism for distributing goods, but it is only fully effective if it
enables the retailer to operate profitably and the customer to obtain products at the most advantageous
prices. This presupposes that an organization exists to forge relationships between retailers and their
partners (suppliers, customers, and market authorities) and that there is a level of shared knowledge
on how the market should operate in order to optimise the operation of sales, storage and handling
facilities.

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Chapter 1. Retail markets

This chapter sets the framework for the guide by considering different types of rural and urban retail
markets, how the! operate, what are their likely physical and institutional deficiencies and what
benefits might be expected if these defects are remedied. The general focus of the manual is Oft
markers for the trading of fresh produce, such as vegetables, fruits, grains, fresh meat, fish, eggs and
poultry.
What are retail markets?

Before looking at the markets themselves it is first necessary to define what is meant by retailing. The
purpose of retail shops or markets for any commodity is to provide an environment for looking at and
buying merchandise that is displayed for sale. With a conventional shop, including a large-scale
supermarket, there is usually a sales area where goods are displayed, a shop front used for advertising
the goods and a service area where goods can be received, re-packed and stored. With a market stall
these functions occur at one place.
A retail market, like any other type of market, is a location at which there is a public gathering of
buyers and sellers at a known time. All retail markets involve a large number of transactions of
relatively small quantities of goods on a face-to-face basis between a seller and buyer. An essential
feature of a market is the opportunity it can provide to immediately and easily compare prices
between different sellers of the same product.
Functions of markets
Markets provide low-cost retailing facilities based on small-scale operations and are typically found in
the low and middle-income, higher density areas of cities and small towns and in the centres of
villages in rural areas. The main functions of markets are:
● to provide opportunities for the exchange of goods and for sales by producers in rural areas;
● to provide, at assembly markets, opportunities for the bulking-up and export of goods and
produce to outside areas;
● to provide easy access to a wide range of produce for consumers;
● to provide an important means of generating a diversity of retail outlets in towns and cities by
supplying low-cost space for street vendors who use stalls or carts and do not therefore require
buildings; and
● to provide an opportunity to achieve improvements in food hygiene standards and reductions in
post-harvest food losses.
Evolution of retail markets
Retail marketing systems in western countries have broadly evolved from traditional street markets
through to the modern regionally based hypermarket or out-of-town shopping centre. A broad review
of the history of retailing and its relationship to the growth of settlements is contained in Chapter 2.
Variation in the types of market, whether rural or urban, can be broadly defined according to a
number of characteristics:
by physical and spatial characteristics.

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● undifferentiated open sales spaces, operated by an individual hawker or peddler, shown at its
simplest and most rudimentary form in Figure 1;
● street or roadside markets (common in both rural or urban areas);
● open-air markets (typically in a paved urban square);
● covered markets (more usual in urban areas, as in Figure 2);
● small-scale retail shops associated with urban market areas; and
● markets sharing a number of the above characteristics, most commonly found in the centre of
small rural towns, as shown in Figure 3.
by type of commodity traded:
● horticultural produce, such as fresh fruit, vegetables and flowers;
● freshly slaughtered meat;
● fresh and dried fish; dry foods, including grains;
● cooked food ("street food");
● household, non-perishable consumer goods and utensils;
● cloth and clothing; and, most commonly
● a heterogeneous market, trading in a wide range of goods.
FIGURE 2.Covered retail market, convertible for use for fairs, concerts, dances and sporting
events, and with provision for 50 apartments to be built over the top at a later date, at Vevey,
Switzerland. Source: Architectural Record, Volume 79, p. 374-379, May /936. Tarerbey,
Schobinger and Getag, Architects.
by time of operation (and services that are offered):

● markets offering a wider range of trading functions than retailing, typically those which are
combined retail and wholesale markets found in small towns and cities.
● buildings or areas specialising as markets on one day in the week or at a specific time of the day
(the whole or part of the site may be used for different purpose at other times such as a car park,
as sports facilities or as a cinema, as illustrated in Figure 2);
● weekly or seasonal markets as shown in Figure 4 (generally termed "periodic markets" in rural
areas or "weekly markets" in urban areas). A specialized form of seasonal market is the
assembly market where the emphasis is on the sale of goods to outside buyers rather than to
local consumers; and
● markets operating every day on a permanent site, whether from a fixed building or a mobile
stall such as in Figure 5 (possibly with expanded activities at weekends or on specific days).
by type of ownership and operation:
● by urban municipalities or rural local authorities:
● by government or parastatal organizations;
● by private enterprise;
● by religious or charitable foundations and other organizations, such as tracers' associations; and
● open markets operated on "common land" not owned by any individual or organization.

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Justification for market developments

A market is usually located at a critical point in the overall marketing, transport and passenger
movement system. In the case of rural areas, and in many urban areas, markets also form the main
link between agricultural producers and consumers.
In formulating a market development programme, whether for a new or upgraded market, there is a
great temptation to attempt to solve all the problems experienced at a market by adopting a radical
physical solution. Responses to problems might include complete rebuilding, relocation to a new site
or the separation of one function of the market (e.g. wholesaling) from the other uses. It is often found
that such radical approaches may be both impractical and unnecessary. The best option may be to
develop and rationalise operations on the existing site including, particularly, improving the market's
management system.
First of all it is necessary to be very clear as to what are the constraints that a development programme
will need to address. A survey and analysis of present market characteristics, conditions and
operations is invariably required (these are elaborated in Chapter 3 and in Annexes A and B). Typical
problems a market may exhibit can be broadly classified into physical problems and social and
managerial problems.
Physical problems: these might include the following:
● insufficient sales space, particularly of temporary spaces at peak periods and during peak
seasons, leading to produce being sold in the open, with consequent spoilage;
● the presence of poorly designed and constructed sheds, making the marketing process
inefficient and inhibiting customer flow;
● a general lack of building maintenance;
● insufficient circulation space and traffic management measures, leading to vehicular and
pedestrian congestion;
● lack of parking provision and areas for unloading;
● poor condition of roads and paving;
● inadequate drainage and severe flooding problems, leading to produce losses and potential
health problems;
● inadequate site security and overnight storage facilities; and
● inadequate hygienic provision for meat, poultry and fish handling, including a lack of
refrigeration facilities.
Social and managerial problems: these might include the following:
● difficulties in enforcing the market bye-laws and regulations;
● an inefficient use of market sales space with low sales volume per trader and low rents;
● a high demand for places in the market, reflecting either uncontrolled use of space or relatively
high profit margins; and
● a market management system where there is no clear relationship between revenues and costs
and, consequently, the market is underfunded, especially for repairs and maintenance.
Components of a market development project
The implementation of a market improvement programme can become a vehicle for addressing the
physical and social/managerial problems outlined above. It is important to stress, however, that a

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project should not be artificially expanded to deal with peripheral problems unless there is an
additional budget available for that purpose. With the exception of main urban covered markets,
therefore, infrastructure improvements are likely to be very modest.
FIGURE 5 Street market in the 1950s, Copenhagen, Denmark Source: Salodin E. (undated).
Wanderings in Copenhagen. Carit Anderson Publishers. Copenhagen.
The typical range of construction works that might be needed for the upgrading of rural markets and
small-scale urban markets could include: internal access roads and parking, paving and sales pitches,
surface water drainage, including perimeter drainage and outfall structures, perimeter fencing and
access gates, tube wells/hand pumps, latrines and, if appropriate, the provision of a market
supervisor's office. Traders themselves can contribute to the improvement of the market by, for
example, improving building spaces which they rent on a long-term basis or by providing temporary
shade structures.
Benefits of market development

There is little point in undertaking market development improvements unless they result in a positive
socio-economic impact. To achieve such an aim effective regulation of markets is essential. Inside the
market, both hygiene rules and revenue collection activities have to be enforced. Of equal Importance,
however, will be the maintenance of order outside the market. Licensed traders in a market will not be
willing to cooperate in raising standards if they face competition from unlicensed operators outside
who do not pay any of the costs involved in providing a proper service. On the other hand, market
development should not be used to artificially reinforce exploitation of traders by providing a
monopoly in retail trade to an influential minority.
Existing rules should be enforced within the framework of a coherent policy on the numbers of
licenses to be issued and the sites at which selling is allowed. Street hawkers, for example, can play an
important role in retailing of low-cost cooked foods, but this should not be allowed to conflict with the
activities of markets. One of the major goals of a market development programme should be to
re-establish a framework for managing markets. Once created, a wide range of benefits might be
expected from a project. These are outlined below. Such benefits may form the basis of the project
formulation and economic analysis explained in Chapter 8.
Reductions in crop losses
Many projects are justified on the basis of reductions in crop losses through quicker and better
handling in an improved market. However, such losses can be overestimated. Savings are sometimes
quoted as being between six to ten per cent of produce by value but this would be very high in normal
circumstances. Harvesting and handling at the farm and damage during transport are usually far
greater sources of post-harvest loss than the limited handling that takes place in a market. A more
realistic level of losses at market level is in the range of two to five per cent of the value of the
produce in the case of rural markets and even less with urban markets.
With the most up-to-date facilities there will always be a certain amount of wastage that cannot be
reduced and, where produce is of relatively low value, such as tomatoes in the glut season, the effort
involved in loss reduction may not even be worth taking. Nevertheless, the provision of covered stalls,
better storage and, in many countries, an end to flooding of markets in the rainy seasons, will all help
to reduce post-harvest losses to more acceptable levels.
An important aspect of produce loss is pilferage. This can be very much more significant than other

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losses and may be radically improved by better fencing and security arrangements. The reduction of
congestion by the improvement of access to a market will also help to reduce losses artificially created
by an inability of producers or traders to sell produce.
Improved efficiency of market operations
Improved conditions in a market can result in substantial savings for market operators. The potential
for greater throughput due to an improved layout and the elimination of congestion, resulting in
reduced vehicle operating costs (see below) means that operating expenses for both users and
management will be reduced. These savings should be reflected in higher rental levels and charges.
However, the present situation in many markets is one of very low rents. Where public facilities are
charged out to users at lower than normal levels, the facilities are likely to be used inefficiently.
Increasing rents and the level of charges to more realistic levels without a parallel improvement in
benefits to market traders, in terms of maintenance or services available, is likely to be met with
strong resistance from market users. Improvements have to lead to savings in the trader's operating
costs or otherwise market prices are likely to increase to compensate for the additional costs.
Public health benefits
In the case of urban markets, health gains, while they are virtually unquantifiable in financial or
economic terms, are likely to be the greatest project benefit. Markets are a major potential source of
infection from food and water-borne diseases. The central location of many street markets and their
relationship to the public transport system may offer a particularly rapid way for disease to spread.
Such diseases can arise from a number of sources, including;
● poor sanitary conditions for the slaughter of poultry and the sale of meat and fish;
● lack of public toilet facilities, including hand washing facilities;
● inadequate market cleaning provision and solid-waste disposal practices; and
● contaminated food resulting from a lack of adequate paving and drainage, particularly critical
during the rainy seasons.
The most immediate health benefit is likely to be a reduction in the more common and less
threatening diseases, such as gastro-enteritis and worms. However, if only one epidemic of a more
dangerous but less common diseases such as cholera, is prevented or reduced, a market programme
will have been justified.
Amenity and aesthetic benefits
There can be substantial improvements in amenity and convenience for all users from market
improvements and this has always been viewed as the main benefit of programmes implemented in
urban areas. Traders will usually have better stalls with greater protection from the sun and rain. while
consumers will be able to make their choices from produce that is more cleanly and attractively
displayed.
In the case of market improvements in traditional urban areas there may also be a conservation gain,
with related benefits to the tourist trade. Many markets are important public buildings (such as the
Starbroek market in Georgetown, Guyana and the Old Stone Town Market in Zanzibar) and when
they have been upgraded they can provide the basis of an integrated area improvement programme.
Figure 6 is a typical example of such an area upgrading, where a proposal for pedestrianisation of a
section of a small coastal town in Britain was developed around the improvement of its fishing port
and associated market,

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Time savings
Time savings can occur in two ways: for market users and for other road users. In the case of the
former the savings will occur because the market improvements reduce waiting time for those
delivering and collecting produce. Such savings will tend to be greatest in the case of assembly
markets, where the essential function of the market is one of providing a trans-shipment point.
Time savings for other road users occur when the present arrangement of a market has an impact on
the adjacent road system. For example, the fruit and vegetable assembly market at Al Husainiah in
Yemen straddles the main highway between the port of Hodeidah and the city of Taiz and the whole
south-central area of the Republic. This is an extremely busy road with an average daily traffic level
of 2,865 vehicles travelling in both directions. During the market's peak season it takes road traffic an
hour or more to get through the market area. On that basis there would be considerable benefits to
other road users if the market was relocated away from the main road.
Generation of public funds
Many local authorities face severe budgetary difficulties and increased revenues from retail markets
would consequently be very welcome as a useful means of generating additional income. In the case
of private markets the same arguments will generally apply.
Provided that the raising of these funds takes place within the context of a general improvement in
market management the additional funds can provide a significant contribution to upgrading the
quality of services offered to both rural and urban residents. The profits will be available for the
provision of additional market facilities and for re-investment in other markets and infrastructure. The
importance of this is emphasized by the fact that unimproved markets often do not even cover the cost
of the staff employed to run them, let alone operations and maintenance, the cost of capital or the
rental value of the site.
Income generation is equally important with the introduction of structural adjustment programmes,
where in many countries the opportunity is often taken to rationalize the operation of former
centralized, state-operated food distribution facilities in order that they can operate as commercially
run retail markets. An example of this process, taking place in China, utilizing the site of a
state-owned facility, is shown in Figure 7.
Income from additional services
A variant of income generating benefits arises when a market is able to provide services additional to
those available before. An example of this is the provision of chill stores for the storage of fruits, meat
and fish, and banana ripening rooms. Grading and packing facilities are also a possibility. However,
the introduction of such additional facilities needs to be approached with some caution. There is little
point in raising the standards of produce presentation if there is no local demand for graded produce.
Impact on agricultural production
Market developments can stimulate increased growth in agricultural production by providing access to
market opportunities arising from demographic and income changes. Such "induced" growth is
particularly important for smallholder producers who may rely on markets as their sole or main outlet.
With the development of an economy they may begin to face stiff competition from larger
commercial operators able to afford the use of more sophisticated techniques, such as on-farm grading
and packing, and direct sales to supermarkets. Raising standards in markets is likely to provide a
means by which small-scale vegetable and fruit producers can improve the efficiency of their

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marketing in order to compete effectively in the sale of greater quantities of cheaper produce.

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Chapter 2. Planning context

This chapter examines the planning context for markets. How they function and what their role is within a community will vary according to
whether they are located in a rural village, a small town, a suburban area or a city centre.
A brief history of settlement growth

Retailing is normally one of the main commercial activities of settlements. In many circumstances, markets provide the dominant form of
retail facility and are a major land use. In understanding the context of markets, therefore, it is also necessary to comprehend their relationship
to the process of urbanization.
Prior to the 19th century, the typical city or market town in Europe was based around a market square which was not only the geographical
centre of the settlement but also the social and commercial heart. as well as the religious and cultural focus of the community. The open area
of the market square served a wide range of functions. providing retail facilities as well as entertainment. These market squares were often
planned from the outset. In many other cases, particularly in rural areas, markets have resulted from spontaneous growth. A gathering of
peddlers, when they start to do this at a given location and at a regular time, will create the nucleus of a market. This pattern continues today
in many countries.
The industrialization of cities in Europe led to a demand for inexpensive shopping facilities and this was often met by providing purpose-built
market structures. In England, for example, some 400 private Acts of Parliament were passed during the 19th century to enable the
construction of market halls to take place, both in the centre of cities and in new suburban areas. Similar developments happened elsewhere in
Europe, particularly in Spain and France (see Figure 8).
Industrialization also had the effect of changing the character and organization of cities and of promoting a desire for suburban living. In the
20th century the main influence on the location of new residential areas and their associated retailing facilities has been the emergence of the
automobile as the primary form of mass public transport. In the USA, for example, the population of suburban areas in the 1950s grew at 30
times that of the inner cities and distances between the suburban areas and the centre of towns and cities increased considerably. The effect of
this growth has resulted in the development of suburban shopping malls and out-of-town shopping centres based around highway
accessibility. However, there has been a partial reversal of this trend recently with the construction of new urban shopping centres, often
including market areas, as part of downtown or central area revitalisation and conservation programmes.
Markets in rural areas

The critical issues to be examined when considering interventions in the rural marketing system are the relationship of the market facilities to
the pattern of rural settlements, the location and nature of agricultural production areas, how the regional road system is evolving, the possible
assembly functions of a market, the present marketing channels and the relationship of rural markets to urban areas and their wholesale
markets. The types of rural markets that need to be considered are:
● existing retail markets located in traditional rural village centres;
● markets in newly planned rural settlements; and
● assembly markets.
Central place theory

One of the key concepts that needs to be understood in reviewing the functioning of markets is that they form one of the main components of
rural towns and villages. In fact, they may be the main force behind the creation and economic livelihood of such settlements. They act as the
"central place" in providing the population of the surrounding area with goods and services (a distribution function), and may also be the main
mechanism for the assembly of local produce for the bulking-up and onward movement of the produce to urban areas.
Figures 9 illustrate how the linkage between centres might operate, with the individual settlements forming a series or "hierarchy" of
"catchment areas" or "spheres of influence". The limit of a catchment area would be the result of the "range" or "threshold" for economically
providing services or goods. The theoretical shape of catchment areas is circular, but it is normally represented as a series of nesting hexagons
(see Figure 10). In reality, the location of centres and the shape of their related catchment areas is distorted by transport routes and other
geographical features.
FIGURE 9.Trade links and general pattern of connections between village, town and regional markets. Source: Village Markets in
Ghana. USAD. 1963.
FIGURE 10.A hierarchy of central places, with hexagonalshaped catchment areas, adapted from Christaller's marketing principle
Source: DHV consulting Engineers. (1979). Guidelines for rural centre planning. Economic & Social Commission for Asia & the
Pacific
In such a system, the lowest order centres (e.g. a village) would look to the next level (e.g. a small town) for more specialised services,
ultimately culminating at the top of the hierarchy in the highest level of services, such as universities and speciality shops, provided in a
regional or national capital. At the lowest level, periodic markets will only operate on one day in a week. A typical pattern of periodic
markets, in the Ghana Upper Region, is illustrated in Figure 11.
As an illustration of the different scales of rural markets, an analysis of the features of ten rural markets in Bangladesh is summarised in Table
2.1. The smaller markets broadly correspond to a rural service centre or district centre and the larger market to that found in a growth centre

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(see below).
TABLE 2.1 Features of markets in rural towns in Bangladesh
Average Typical market type:
Characteristics: 10 markets Small Large
1. Catchment area (sq. kms) 143.60 79.00 153.00
2. Total population 1981 ('000) 85.80 45.82 110.66
3. Market area (hectares) 1.40 0.72 4.69
4. Daily buyers/sellers (peak number) 29418.00 27418.00 47537.00
5. Annual auction revenue (Take '000) 325.90 11.00 1456.0 0
6. Open sales area (m²) 4694.00 3772.00 9651.00
7. Buyer/seller density (number/ha) 26862.00 38081.00 10136.00
8. Sales area as % of site area 32.00 52.40 20.60
Source: FAO Project No.TCP/BGD/4511

Levels of service
Governments often base their rural settlement policies on the principle of reinforcing an existing hierarchy of service centres as a means of
reducing regional imbalances and distributing government services on an equitable basis. Typically, such a system has three levels of central
places, which will also be reflected in the market facilities:
● growth centres: major regional towns or cities based around a sustainable natural resources base (agriculture or mining) and with strong
social and economic linkages to their hinterlands. The centre might contain a range of higher-level services, such as college, hospitals,
banking services, a major market (often with some wholesaling functions) and specialized shopping facilities;
● district centres: rural settlements whose primary function is to provide administration and to deliver public services. These centres
might contain a secondary school, a health clinic and a market area, which might perform assembly functions for the district. The
market area is usually associated with a bus station and a number of permanent shops; and
● rural service centres: typically, the services provided at such a centre would include a primary school, a health post or dispensary, a
police post and a primary market, often operating periodically, rotating on a weekly or fortnightly basis. Rural service centres are
normally located in the centre of a village (and associated hamlets) serving around 500 to 1,000 families (a population of 5,000 people
is the usual standard) and with a catchment area not exceeding a 10 kilometre radius from the market. In Bangladesh, for example, the
majority of users of small markets came from within 5 kilometres.
Building and improving existing rural markets
The improvement of markets located in major rural settlements is likely to require a detailed study of each market to establish the relative
benefits of such developments. The high level of trade at such markets is likely to mean that a financially and economically viable project can
be formulated, hut normally only if the level of market revenue collection can also be increased at the same time to cover the capital outlay.
FIGURE 11 Hierarchy of periodic markets, Bulsa, Upper Region, Ghana.
Source: Smith, R. and Gormsen, E. Eds. (1979) Market Place Exchange. Geograhisches Institut der Johannes Gutenberg Universität Main,
Germany.
Typical layouts of rural markets are shown in Figures 12, 13 and 14. In all three layouts, the key factor in locating the markets is their
relationship to other public facilities and particularly to the provision of lorry parking. Even at the level of a small open sales space (Figure
13) lorry parking needs special consideration.
In some circumstances, no real provision of marketing facilities may exist. This is illustrated in Figure 15, where the fish market simply
operates on the beach of Lake Victoria, despite the market being one of the main sources of dried fish for the whole of Tanzania. Figure 16
shows a small rural market established in the highlands of Irian Jaya, Indonesia, close to the main air strip, in an area where no markets had
formerly existed.
Improving the facilities of periodic markets operating in smaller settlements may present quite formidable problems - as it is usually difficult
to increase revenues to cover the capital costs. This is despite the fact that by improving the range of goods and services provided at such
centres it is often possible to have the greatest impact on the rural population, thus providing a stimulus to the rural economy. However, the
improvements must be sustainable and an approach is needed based on keeping to a minimum the level of investment in physical
infrastructure.
In Chapter 6, experiments in Zimbabwe and Papua New Guinea are described. These are based on combining markets with the use of mobile
public facilities, such as rural credit, agricultural production and marketing extension and input supply, allowing the maximum utilization of
scarce personnel and of capital investments in buildings and equipment.
Assembly markets
Assembly markets are a slightly different case from other rural markets as their function is oriented to production rather than consumption.
The purpose of such producer-area markets is to act as a focus for the display of local produce to outside buyers, typically from urban areas. In
addition, they provide a point where the bulking-up of produce can occur. These markets are often purely seasonal and are highly vulnerable

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to changes in marketing habits and channels. Producers, if they believe that they can market directly themselves using their own transport, will
often by-pass an assembly market. The distance of the assembly market from major urban area is, therefore , crucial. If the production area is
close to an urban area the assembly market is not likely to be able to sustain its role. This is further discussed in the next section.
Assembly markets have a very important function in rural areas, particularly if they are also the points at which farmers can obtain credit,
agricultural inputs and, sometimes, imported consumer goods. The linkage of the assembly market to retail markets may, therefore, be an
important element of their success. In addition, they are highly sensitive to the level of charges operating in the market and, more than any
other form of market, the assessment of their financial and economic viability must be undertaken in a rigorous manner. This will be highly
dependent on adequate survey data being available. Trying to guess the throughput of even a small-scale assembly market is an impossible
task. In Yemen, for example, substantial differences were found between an initial assessment of an assembly market's throughput based on
traders' opinions and the results of a limited survey.
Transport of produce to markets
In formulating a rural market development project it will also be important to take account of the methods by which produce is transported to
and from the markets. Most agricultural marketing systems are designed to allow a large number of small producers to sell as directly as
possible to equally numerous small purchasers. This pattern is typical of many African countries, where most of the produce comes straight
from the farm to the assembly market (and often directly to an urban market) and there is little bulking-up. This kind of marketing system
influences the transport facilities and has two key characteristics:
● passengers and goods travel together, usually in a bus, modified lorry or a pick-up with seats and a roof added to the back; and
● most goods are moved in small lots, which means that a typical load is very mixed.
Coordination of markets & other infrastructure improvements

In any rural development programme there will be a clear need to coordinate the upgrading of rural markets with that of associated
infrastructure and services if the maximum benefits to agricultural production are to be obtained. This may include upgrading extension
services and the improvement of feeder and access roads, bridges and irrigation structures. River and coastal wharves directly serving market
areas may also be critical links in the transport system.
The usual difficulty in developing such a programme, where a project intends to improve both roads and markets, will be to strike the right
investment balance between the different components. A judgement will need to be made on how these two components will interact.
Investment in local markets may be counter-productive if the simultaneous improvement of access and feeder roads either encourages the
farmer to market more produce at the farm gate or deliver produce directly to urban markets. For this reason, it is essential that the flows in
the present marketing system are well understood. Therefore' systematic market surveys need to be undertaken.
A variant of the integration of markets with other infrastructure arises where new agricultural areas are opened up and new settlements are
constructed to provide services. An example of this is illustrated on a small scale in Figure 14 with a village centre in Indonesia related to a
new dry land cropping scheme. Figure 17 illustrates this on a larger scale, with a town centre based around a market area serving a major new
irrigation scheme.
Criteria for designing rural market improvement programmes
In developing rural market improvement programmes it is first necessary to determine (after survey and analysis, see Chapters 3 and 8) that
the improvements are worthwhile. From such an analysis, it may be established, for example, that a programme's main priority should be to
improve only those markets which have an assembly function. The improvement of markets which have solely a local retail function may not
be either financially or economically viable. Within these constraints, two additional selection criteria need to be adopted:
(a) there should be a willingness on the part of market traders to improve the efficiency of the present market operations and to accept higher
rents and charges as a condition of improvements being made; and
(b) the emphasis should be on markets where the private sector takes on the responsibility for improving individual sheds and stalls, and the
improvement programme should concentrate its activities on the upgrading of "common" infrastructure (i.e. roads, paving, fencing, drainage,
latrines, etc.).
As part of a rural market improvement programme, the main markets of nearby urban areas may need to be improved in order to expand the
opportunities for meeting demand created by population growth and by changes in consumption (e.g for higher-value produce). This may
necessitate enhancing facilities for the handling of produce, both to reduce post-harvest losses and to reduce the time spent by farmers and
traders bringing produce to urban market. Such project interventions should again also be conditional on introducing increased charges to
cover the project costs and on establishing the willingness of traders to accept these charges.
Retail markets in urban areas

To understand the role of markets in urban areas it is necessary to understand their relationship to demographic changes in city structure,
changing traffic patterns, the availability of public transport, conflicts with other land uses and the location of the residential population they
are serving. In addition, factors such as pressures for redevelopment of inner city sites, market relocation problems and potential linkages to
wholesale markets should be taken into account. Two basic types of market need to considered:
● covered, open and roadside markets located in traditional city centre and inner city sites; and
● markets needed for new urban fringe and suburban areas.
Urban master plans and planning controls

Proposals for the development of a market will need to take account of the how urban growth is occurring and to conform with any
comprehensive development plan and future urban strategy, where this is available. Many urban areas are characterised by rapid, uncontrolled

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and outward growth and the main features of such plans would normally include the designation of new residential and industrial development
areas and improved primary and secondary road systems. Despite the spontaneous growth of informal-sector marketing activities, typified by
increasing number of hawkers, the issue of market location is often not directly addressed in a plan. The problem is frequently exacerbated by
a general shortage of affordable commercial land, often compounded by land tenure constraints. However, the overall land use and
transportation policies a plan contains are likely to be relevant to the evolution of many of the social and physical planning aspects of market
development programmes.
Urban growth patterns
Urban land uses tend to group together for reasons of economic advantage. This clustering forms a nucleus - the city or town centre providing
a wide and rich range of services and facilities. If this nucleus keeps expanding then the comparative advantage of access to the centre gets
lost. A rough rule of thumb to use is that for retail services the city centre should ideally directly serve around 300,000 people. Beyond this
figure it will usually be necessary to plan for additional retail areas to serve the suburban areas.
A convenient unit often used for town planning purposes is to divide the urban area into local neighbourhoods of one to three kilometres
across. This might correspond with a population of 5,000 - 10,000 people. Such a neighbourhood would be served by a small shopping area
and a retail market.
Intersections of transport systems and modes provide the most convenient locations for markets, particularly if the transfer distance between
different transport modes is minimised (e.g a taxi rank next to the railway station, etc.). The typical growth of market facilities at bus stands in
developing countries demonstrates this.
Locating market facilities
In locating shopping facilities a difficult balance has to be struck between the retailers' natural desire to maximize profit and the consumers'
desire to have the convenience of a wide range of reasonably priced services and facilities within a short distance of where they live. Both
factors should influence the location of market facilities. However, the catchment area of groups of shops or market stalls is likely to be
greater than it would be for an individual retail unit. Therefore, large areas of many towns, particularly low-density suburban areas, may
consequently have lower levels of retail services. An analysis of urban catchment areas is illustrated in Figure 18, which shows the areas
served by markets in Calcutta.
The need for new facilities may often be filled by local corner shops and small-scale markets, particularly if rental levels are sufficiently low.
These facilities fill the gap in the existing pattern of retail shopping by locating themselves to take advantage of areas where there are
potential, and often low-income, local consumers. In developing countries, small scale shops may be located within dwellings, although
zoning practices by planning authorities often forbid this on the grounds that it is disruptive to residential areas.
Before deciding on the improvement of an individual market it is desirable to review the range of market facilities available within an urban
area. In doing this the factors that need to be considered in assessing the location of the market are population density and the purchasing
power of the population (these factors are further discussed later on under the topic of suburban markets).
In order to review the provision of markets in an urban area the following procedure can be used:
● identify potential locations which would most strongly support a new market;
● define the size for new markets based on what would be most economically feasible; and
● close down existing markets when they are not economically feasible and do not capture sufficient business to support their size.
Urban catchment areas

The purpose of an analysis of existing retail facilities should be to change the pattern of markets from one which is random to a distribution of
markets which is more economically stable. To achieve this, surveys of the existing retail pattern will be required (see Chapter 3) to identify
and map the location of existing facilities and potential consumers. Gaps in the pattern of retailing need to be identified and within these gaps
new markets and small shops should be located next to clusters of other kinds of shops. The broad characteristics of an overall pattern or
hierarchy of markets and retail facilities for a major city is shown in Table 2.2
TABLE 2.2 Theoretical urban market population catchments
Population Served Minimum distance apart (kms.)
City centre/main covered market 300,000 16.0

District shopping centre/covered market 50,000 6.5
Neighbourhood shopping centre/open market 10,000 2.9
Group of shops/street market 4,000 1.8
Corner groceries/street barrows 1,000 0.8
Notes:The table assumes an average population density of around 2,000 persons per square kilometre. If the density is say 1,000 persons per
square kilometre the distance needs to be increased to 1.4 times the distance specified in the table. if the density is say 3,000 persons per
square kilometre the distance needs to be reduced by a factor of 0.8.
Locational characteristics of markets in urban areas
Within urban areas, markets should form one of the main uses that would be strategically located in an urban master plan and, ideally, all the

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urban population should be within ten to fifteen minutes walk of some form of shop or market stall.
Street markets, like other shopping streets, depend on a high level of access. Modern shopping centres and supermarkets are generally located
directly adjacent to major roads, with the shopping centre located within a parking area and with a pedestrian-only area within the shopping
centre itself. This form of development is unlikely to be appropriate for shopping streets and street markets in traditional areas of cities, which
are typically mixed-use areas, often with older buildings. There will usually be a need for a mixture of modes of access for those using
markets, to include people coming by foot, by bus, by car, etc. However, there is often a direct problem of conflict between shoppers and
traffic.
The ideal solution for all urban markets, and particularly street markets, is to locate them at right angles to main traffic arteries, linking with
pedestrian routes and with parking areas behind so that cars can pull off the main road without entering the market area. To minimize their
impact on the environment, parking areas for markets should preferably be located in small-scale lots, shielded from view by plants or walls.
Land ownership and values
Markets need to be considered in relation to the nature of their ownership. Individual stalls are small-scale units, which are usually family-run
businesses, in contrast to larger-scale operations such as supermarkets. Market stall holders needs are, therefore, completely different. The
overall market area, however, is likely to come under one overall ownership, either that of a private landowner or, more typically for urban
market areas, by a local or municipal authority.
High land values or a lack of suitable land in public ownership in order to expand an existing market or build a new one is often a major
constraint in urban areas. Quite ingenious solutions to this problem can be developed, including the infilling of existing streets with market
structures (see Figure 48). On the other hand, urban markets often find themselves in locations which are no longer appropriate to the present
distribution of urban population.
Markets also generally occupy a considerable area of land on prime sites in the centres of towns and villages. Therefore, the opportunity cost,
in terms of the rent that might be earned from alternative uses on the market site, needs to be considered. The existing value of the land may
not be substantial, but it may be likely to increase as the general economy starts to grow.
It will, therefore, be up to a local authority or market board to clearly demonstrate that retaining a market in its present location or building
one on a new site is the best use of public resources (see Chapter 8). As an example, in the city of Leicester, in England, it was established that
the best economic use of the existing market square was to retain it in market use and to improve facilities, rather than undertake a complete
redevelopment.
Suburban markets
The provision of new markets in suburban areas needs to be integrated in the planning process. Land for a market site should therefore, be
allocated in any local comprehensive development plan and be located near to other communal and commercial facilities. Land will need to be
reserved in the plan for long-term market growth (5 to 20 years), otherwise there may be no possibility of expansion.
Although the ultimate goal may be to construct a permanent covered market, a possible short-term strategy for a new suburban area can be to
encourage the provision of retail facilities through mobile vendors or street markets. An existing unplanned spontaneous market is often a
good indicator that an area is in need of permanent market facilities. The factors influencing whether a new market in a suburban area is likely
to be successful are:
● the population density;
● the size of the potential catchment area;
● the purchasing power of local consumers;
● whether most families have refrigerators;
● whether families tend to use cars for shopping;
● whether the site for the market is likely to provide comfortable and safe conditions for shopping;
● whether there is adequate land for a market site;
● whether there is public transport available; and
● whether the area is already established for commercial use, including informal market activities..
FIGURE 20 1,400 m² covered retail market, Sidi-bel-Abbès, Algeria.

Source: Aloi, R. ( 1959). Mercati e Negozi, Ulrico Hoepli Editore Milano
1. entrance
2. exit
3. stalls
4. shops
A balance will need to be struck between locating a market in a low-income, high-density area or in a middle-income area with greater
purchasing power. On balance, it is likely to be more commercially viable to invest in the development of retail facilities in low-income areas
with a high density, provided that access by other income groups is easily obtained and that the management of the market is able to
encourage the sale of a wide range of goods.
An example of a new suburban multi-use market is illustrated in Figure 19. In this case, the market is constructed on reclaimed land (formerly
in rice cultivation) adjacent to a new major highway, but between an existing low-income housing area and a new middle-income suburb.
Integration of street vendors with markets

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The importance of the informal sector in many countries cannot be over-emphasised. Formal urban wholesaling and retailing activities
normally form a relatively small proportion of total commercial sector employment. However, there is usually substantial under-estimating of
the real employment in retailing as the number of street vendors is often not taken into account. Street vendors provide an important means of
supplementary employment, particularly for women. Vendors normally operate from a variety of locations, ranging from tables outside
markets' the backs of vans and lorries, down to small-scale street "hawkers" with a single box of produce to sell.
Upgrading of an existing retail market area should include any adjacent streets and provide measures to assist street vendors in order that they
can be properly integrated with the market and so that environmental and traffic conditions can be improved. Assistance is normally required
(usually provided by the engineering department of a local authority) in planning such an upgrading programme. This might include improved
water supplies and better drainage, and facilities for the daily collection of solid waste.
Selecting an urban market site
The ideal approach when considering whether to improve an existing market or when selecting a new market site is to make on-the-ground
observations of the potential site. The best method is to cover the area by walking all the streets in a five-minute radius around the site,
observing the existing environment, including shops and other commercial activities. Interviews with customers and surrounding shopkeepers
will provide a good indication of the commercial opportunities for the project.
It will be necessary to consider the relative merits of different options. Sites should ideally be located within or near to high density residential
areas, rather than in areas with low density or non-residential uses (e.g. industry). Proximity to other facilities, such as shops, post office and
banks is essential. A site around a public square or adjacent to busy streets with wide pavements is better than one in a cul-de-sac or in an area
of static or declining trading opportunities. Nearness to public transport facilities (such as bus stops or a railway station) is very important and,
if it does not have its own facilities, the site should be close to adequate parking. For new sites, the presence of public utilities, such as water
and electricity, is essential.
FIGURE 22.Covered retail market Guadalajara, Mexico.
Criteria for urban market improvement programmes

Urban market improvement programmes need generally to follow the same criteria as for rural markets described earlier in this chapter, i.e. a
willingness of traders to participate in the programme and an emphasis on the improvement of common infrastructure. Such criteria are also
directly applicable to urban street markets. For covered markets, however, there will almost certainly be a need to upgrade or provide new
structures and the implementation and cost for this work will have to be borne by a market authority, with cost recovery through increased
rents. Priorities for urban markets will also be slightly different: the alleviation of health risks (through, for example, upgrading drainage
systems), urban conservation requirements and the need to reduce traffic congestion may be the main motives for undertaking the
improvement programme.
FIGURE 23.Conservation plan for the Zanzibar Stone Town Market, Tanzania.
A wide range of contrasting conditions can be met in urban market improvement programmes and these are illustrated in Figures 20 to 25. For
example, Figure 20 shows a covered market exclusively for fruit and vegetables in Algeria, built on a site where there were few constraints to
development and which could also accommodate a separate fish market (see Figures 37 and 57). Figure 21 also shows a completely new retail
market in Wolverhampton, England, but on a valuable central area site where the market development needed to be integrated with an
underground car park, shopping units and multi-storey office accommodation.
Figure 23 illustrate a complex problem of redevelopment in the Old Stone Town in Zanzibar. The 19th century covered fish and meat market
needed conservation, whilst also allowing improvements to be made to other parts of the existing market and surrounding streets (particularly
their surface water drainage). The pressure on the market area by wholesalers was to be relieved by the construction of a new auction slab
which would mostly operate during the peak season. In addition, new sheds would be provided for the retailing of fruit and vegetables. Figure
24 shows a similar approach taken in the Castries Central Market in St. Lucia. Figure 25 illustrates a new fish and multi-use market located on
a reclamation area in Tawau Bay, Malaysia, on land adjacent to an existing open retail market and shops.

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Chapter 3. Surveys and projections

This chapter outlines a practical methodology to undertake rapid and cost-effective surveys to understand how the present retail
marketing system operates and how it may he improved. The chapter also provides basic guidelines on how to make projections of
market throughput and use them to estimate the size of the market area and sales space and to assess what facilities should he
provided in the market.
Market surveys
Whether it is intended that an existing market should be modified or expanded or that a new market should be established, there
will always be the need for surveys. In the case of the improvement or relocation of an existing market three types of basic market
survey are usually carried out: a general socio-economic review of the market operations, a traffic survey and mapping of the site.
For new markets a physical survey will still be required and in more complex situations it may be essential to undertake a rapid
appraisal of a city's existing retailing pattern. Where there is a total lack of information on consumption a sample survey of
households may also be necessary.
A proforma market survey questionnaire covering a range of socioeconomic issues is provided in Annex A. This can be modified
to suit most survey conditions. In the case of a simple street market a visual count of the stalls, and their activities, together with
discussions with traders may be adequate. In more complex markets, such as a main urban retail market or an important rural
assembly market, a full traffic count will be required (see Annex B).
Data collection requirements
In summary, the information that will need to be collected during surveys is as follows:
Market surveys: surveys will need to be undertaken over market and non-market days, using a mixture of full and sample surveys
and discussions with individual traders and traders' associations, to determine the following:
● a. Types and quantities of goods transacted, broken down into agricultural produce, inputs and other merchandise, per
market day and other days (using a sample survey).
● b. Market functionaries (i.e. people using the market, including retailers, wholesalers, commission agents, processors, etc.)
by market role and function (including individual daily and seasonal roles), profit margins and total profits (using a sample
survey covering selected functionaries in each category).
● c. Market management and fee collection system and suggested improvements. Income and expenditure - present and
projected(using a sample survey).
● d. Marketing channels for agricultural produce, inputs, food and nonfood items, including an analysis of marketing costs and
margins(using a sample survey covering main crops). A diagram showing typical marketing channels is shown in Figure 26.
● e. Produce transportation modes, frequency and costs (using a sample survey). This will be necessary if a full traffic survey
is not being carried out.
● f. Intra-market produce flow (using a sample survey). This should be in sufficient detail to allow the catchment area of a
market to be defined for produce coming in and going out. Again, a traffic survey may be needed to define this adequately.
● g. Customer count and flow analysis (using a full-day count, on market and non-market days, in all directions into the
market).
● h. Physical facilities (stores, shops, open and enclosed sales space, etc.) available in the market area (full survey). Examples
of simple market structures and sales spaces are shown in Figure 27.
● i. Present and future infrastructure requirements, including in tramarket roads, pathways, surface water drains, tube-wells,
drinking water supply, drainage, sanitary latrines, sanitation and solid wastedisposal (using a full survey).
● j. Present marketing facility requirements, e.g. sales platforms and sheds and special facilities such as slaughter slabs or
meat/fish retail sheds (using a full survey). Traders should also be asked about their future needs.
● k. Commodity-specific sales locations within the market. An exampleof the multiple use of a facility is illustrated in Figure
28, with a fruit seller using the arcade of an enclosed fish and meat market.Many markets, as shown in Figure 29, have a
clearly defined internal structure, with specialised traders being located in specific parts of the market such as near to the
entrances or, alternatively, segregated because they would cause a nuisance.
● l. Optimal locations for new market amenities and marketing facilities (by visual inspection).
FIGURE 26 Rice distribution channels, Ibaji District, Benue State, Nigeria.

Source: Smith, R. and Gormsen. E. Eds. (1979). Market Place Exchange. Geograhisches Institut der
Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz, Germany.
Traffic or roadside surveys: traffic counts (normally over a 14 hour daily period for one week) should be undertaken of the traffic

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entering and leaving the market. The enumerators should be posted at each entrance road to the market or at each entry/exit gate.
The data collected should include the size and type of vehicle, the estimated volume it is carrying (e.g. in bags, bunches, etc.). In
addition, a sample origin and destination survey should be undertaken, by type of transport (mode), and over at least a two-day
period, for all the routes coming into the market. The analysis should also make estimates of traffic at other times of the year.
Surveys of market traffic should cover:
● traders delivering produce stored outside the market area;
● retailers collecting produce from a wholesale market or taking produce to shops or another market (typical of urban areas);
● producers' delivery vehicles (typical of rural areas);
● transhipment vehicles at assembly markets;
● customers' vehicles (i.e. retail consumers); and
● pedestrians and customers coming by public transport.
Physical surveys: one of the first steps to be undertaken before starting a survey is to see if there are maps available of a market
site showing its physical layout and facilities, including infrastructure services. Sources of such information are survey departments
and local authority engineers. Other relevant data may also exist, such as aerial photographs and planning reports.
However, if adequate mapping of the market area is not available a survey should be carried out, to record all the existing features
within the market. The survey should be at least 1:500 scale, picking up details of levels (spot heights on a 2-5 metre grid, inverts
of drains, slabs, breaks in slope, etc.) and the market site related to a fixed point or datum. The survey may need to be extended to
record other important features outside the market area, such as drainage outfalls. All mapping should be plotted to conform to a
standard sheet size. If a survey is undertaken by a contractor, separate field checks should be undertaken to verify all the map's
features against an inventory of facilities.
Time requirements for surveys
Experience of market studies is that both the survey and analysis stages can be extremely time consuming. It is essential, therefore,
that sufficient trained and competent manpower and financial resources are allocated to them. Box 2 indicates the level of staff
resources that would be needed to undertake a full week's survey of a medium-scale rural or urban retail market. This assumes a
site area of between one and two hectares, a throughput of 10,000 to 30,00 tons per year and five points of approach to the market.
The person-days quoted take account of shift working during traffic surveys (i.e. two shifts in one day = two person-days).
BOX 2.Resources required for a medium-sized market survey
Market Surveys Staff Person-days
Surveys: Agricultural Economist 1 5

Field Supervisor 1 7
Survey Enumerators 5 35
Analysis: Agricultural Economist 1 5
Supervisor 1 7
Assistants 2 14
Traffic Surveys (5 locations)
Surveys: Planner/Engineer 1 1
Field Supervisors 2 4
Survey Assistants 5 10
Analysis: Planner/Engineer 1 2
Supervisor 1 7
Assistants 2 14
Physical Surveys
Surveys: Engineer/Architect 1 5
Survey Assistants 2 10
Analysis: Engineer/Architect 1 1
Supervisor 1 2
Cartographer 1 7
FIGURE 29 Internal structure of a typical weekly market, illustrating the activity gradient within the suq, Es Souassi,

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Tunisian Sahel.
Source: Smith R. and Gormsen. E. Eds. (1979). Market Place Exchange. Geographisches Institut der
Johannes-Gutenherg-Universität Mainz Germany.
Using survey results: simple visual surveys A common approach to market surveys is simply to make a visual count of the stalls
and to record the activities being undertaken. Table 3.1 illustrates the result of a survey of a London street market located in an
inner urban residential area with its main trade on Saturday mornings.
TABLE 3.1 Church Street Market, Westminster, London
Type of stall No. % total
Fruit and vegetables 7 3.2
Vegetables only 9 4.1
Fruit only 10 4.5
Dried fruit 1 0.4
Flowers and plants 5 2.3
Dried flowers 1 0.4
Fresh meat 1 0.4
Fresh fish 1 0.4
Dry and canned goods 3 1.4
Cooked food 2 0.9
Other (primarily clothing) 181 82.0
Total stalls 221 100.0
Source: Author's survey, 22nd May 1993

This survey method can also be used to compare the use of stalls between different markets. For example, the results of an
approximate count of the number of retailers in four of the most important suburban markets in Zanzibar town is shown in Table
3.2
TABLE 3.2 Retailers in the Zanzibar suburban markets
Market Meat Fruit and vegetables Fresh and dried fish Total
Kwahaji-Tumbo 4 25 26 55
Mikunguni 2 37 15 54
Magorneni 2 26 11 39
Jang'ombe 3 25 14 42
Source: UNCDF Project No. URT/93/C06 (Renovation of Zanzibar Stone Town Market, 1994)
The 20 main retail markets in Bratislava, the capital of the Slovak Republic, were surveyed by making a simple count and a visual
assessment of what each stall contained. The resulting distribution and use of stalls is shown in Table 3.3. An interesting feature
arising from such surveys of retail outlets is that it is possible to use them (assuming that other retail facilities are also included in
the survey) to estimate the distribution of retail sales through different outlets. In the case of Bratislava, for example, it was found
from the survey that the most important retail outlets were the markets, accounting for around 60 per cent of the total volume of
turnover of fruits and vegetables (see Table 34)
TABLE 3.3 Market stalls in Bratislava. Slovak Republic
Market location Number of stalls: Fruit/Neg.
All stalls Fruit/Vegetables %total
Central covered retail market (Mestka Trznica) 152 122 80
Mileticova Ulica 282 170 60
Svidnicka Ulica 50 25 50
Parickova Ulica 92 78 85
Other suburban street markets (16 locations) 515 378 73
Total 1091 773 71

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Source: FAO Protect No. TCP/CZE/2253(A)
TABLE 3.4 Produce distribution, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Point of fruit and vegetable distribution Annual sales (tons) per cent
Central covered retail market 5,000 6
Street markets (19 locations) 47,000 52
Retail strops end supermarkets 21,000 23
Institutional meals 5,000 6
Auto-consumption/purchases outside the city 12,000 13
Total annual urban consumption 90,000 100
Source: FAO Project No. TCP/CZE/2253(A)

In Table 3.3 the allocation of stalls on a per caput basis is around one stall per 400 to 500 inhabitants (with a sales area of 2 to 4m²
per stall). On the basis of a per caput consumption of around 240 kg. (including vegetables, fruit and potatoes) and around 60 per
cent of all produce in Bratislava being purchased in markets, this would be equivalent to a turnover of 18 tons per m², a figure
corresponding to norms found in other urban area retail markets (see description of projection method later in this chapter).
Using survey results: surveys of vehicle flows
A survey based on a count of the incoming and outgoing vehicles provides one of the most reliable sources of data. The
disadvantage of the method is that it requires skill in data handling and analysis, and can be very labour intensive. The surveys
generate a great deal of data and can only be practically analysed by using a computer. However, such surveys are essential for
assessing the development needs of larger assembly markets and more complex urban markets. A description of a methodology for
traffic flow surveys is contained in Annex B.
The results of a typical survey of vehicle flows are shown in Table 3.5, which indicates the movement of vehicles carrying goods
into and out of the Zanzibar central market over a week in November 1993. The table shows that the greater part of the goods
coming into the market is transported on buses, with over 90 per cent of the produce arriving in the market from country areas. The
majority of the produce leaving the market is carried on pick-ups over suburban routes. The larger lots transported into the market
over longer routes are thus broken down into smaller amounts for distribution around the suburban markets. The average lot size
arriving is 675 kilograms and departing only 212 kilograms.
TABLE 3.5 Zanzibar Central Market: daily vehicle movements
Type of vehicle Number bringing produce % Total Number taking % Total
produce
Not Specified 11 2.5 12 2.7
Bus/shamba lorry 297 67.3 5 1.1
Lorry 12 2.7 15 3.3
Mid-Size Trucks 14 3.2 - 0
Pickup/dalla-dalla 107 24.3 408 90.7
Total 441 100.0 450 100.0
Source: UNCDF Project No. URT/93/C06 (Renovation of Zanzibar Stone Town Market, 1994)
Using survey results: surveys of retailers
Experience from many countries demonstrates that there is always a significant difference in consumption between urban and rural
areas.
Where produce is freely available, per caput consumption in capital and other major cities is likely to be substantially higher than
in other urban areas and rural areas. One method of getting an indication of consumption is to undertake a small-scale sample of all
retail outlets. The results of such a survey in Lesotho, which covered only the sale of a limited range of vegetables, are shown in
Table 3.6. This study estimated that around 19 per cent of the total retail trade in the city was marketed through supermarkets, 44
per cent through local grocers and 37 per cent through street vendors.
Table 3.6 Retail vegetables sales in 1989 ,Maseru, Lesotho
Type of trader No. of Annual retail vegetable sales (tons):
traders Cabbage Onion Potatoes Tomatoes Total
Supermarkets 7 774 455 1,084 299 2,612

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Local grocers 479 3,853 423 1,083 658 6,017

Street vendors 415 2,441 777 1,392 440 5,050
Total 7,068 1,655 3,559 1,397 13,679
Source: Estimates from survey by MOA, Marketing Department and USAID/LAPIS Project.
The major difficulty in carrying out retail surveys in urban areas relates to the enormous number of small retail outlets (usually
unlicensed). This can be demonstrated by reference to licensing data. Of the 629 retail premises in Maseru, for example, only 77
were licensed for the sale of food and beverages, compared to the 500 or so small stalls which could be observed actually selling
food. In these circumstances alternative methods for estimating consumption need to be used. In some cases this may require a
household consumption survey to be undertaken.
Using survey results: physical problems in existing markets
The purpose of the physical survey of an existing market is to observe what problems exist in its operation. Space may be at a
premium, with produce being sold at the roadside and no physical facilities being provided. In this case losses due to stock
deterioration are likely to occur. A very important part of such a survey is to record the views of the market traders themselves. The
range of conditions that may cause problems which are likely to be encountered in both rural and urban markets, include:
● crops being displayed largely in the open air on an earth road and damage being caused by heavy rainfall, high temperatures
and intense sunlight (particularly affecting fruit and vegetables).
● lack of permanent roofed-over space can be overcome using temporary protection. However, it is likely to be expensive for
traders to purchase tarpaulins to cover produce and they may tend to use the more affordable plastic sheeting (if anything is
used at all), which is far less satisfactory as it leads to humid conditions and consequent germination or bacteria growth (e.g.
with grains and onions).
● produce may be raised off the ground on simple platforms (dunnage), comprising of lengths of timber resting directly on the
earth. This provides only limited protection from water infiltration, particularly where flooding is a problem and or where
there is an inadequate system of open ditches taking rainwater run-off.
● often, the market conditions are very unhygienic, with different produce mixed up and with barely any differentiation
between the sales spaces and access roads;
● provision for solid waste to be deposited in bins or skips may be inadequate. Traders often prefer to manage solid waste
collection and disposal themselves, but this is only viable if the market is operated by a management authority or traders'
association.
● pilferage is often a major problem and traders may specifically request that a new market should have a site security system
and be enclosed by a wall. The provision of a nearby bank may also minimise theft as traders could immediately deposit
their takings;
● the provision for vehicle circulation, unloading/loading and parking may be very poor. This is often the most obvious of
faults, but one that may be rectified, in part at least by instituting better and stricter traffic management. This may not be
entirely the fault of a market's management, which in many circumstances is hampered by lack of cooperation from the
police. Involving the police, on management committees for example, is essential.
Projections
This section outlines the methods by which survey data, combined with information on agricultural production and household
consumption, can be used to estimate the potential throughput of a market and how this key characteristic is applied to predict floor
space and site area requirements. There is a difference in approach between pure retail markets, whether urban or rural, and those
markets that also fulfil an assembly or wholesaling function.
Retail markets: household consumption
The first step in the design process requires a review to be made of existing consumption data, which is normally expressed as an
annual average consumption for individual food items on a per caput (per head) basis, e.g 100 kg. of potatoes per caput. These data
are often available from nutrition surveys, but the best method of estimating consumption is generally on the basis of a
comprehensive household budget survey, if this is available. Household budget survey data can also be used to check whether there
is any relationship between estimates of daily or annual consumption and the estimated throughput of a market. With allowances
made for wastage and the inevitable inaccuracies in estimating weights this method can provide a reasonable cross check on survey
results.
continue

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Future throughput of assembly markets

The future throughput of produce marketed at an assembly market is dependent on how the local production base is likely to grow and
what proportion of this increased growth will pass through the market. This will be influenced by a number of factors and it is
essential that the nature of existing marketing channels is understood before interventions are made. The precise role of existing
produce markets should be established, i.e. the percentage of produce marketed through direct purchase at field level, what goes to
rural assembly markets and what is delivered directly to the urban wholesale and retail markets. The calculation should also ideally
take account of the losses that will occur in the marketing chain. An illustration of the calculation that will need to be undertaken to
obtain the approximate throughput of a local assembly market is shown in Box 3.
BOX 3
Calculation of the present throughput of a rural assembly market
Estimated local production of fruits and vegetables ( in tons)
minus
On-farm use (in tons),
i.e. consumption of produce by rural households
(per caput consumption in kg. x farm population ÷1000)
+ use for fodder + use for seed + on-farm losses
=
Net marketable surplus (in tons),
i.e. Gross marketable surplus less estimated marketing losses
minus
Farm gate sales and direct delivery to urban markets (in tons)
Net amount passing through all local assembly markets (in tons)
x
Percentage going through the specified rural assembly market
=
Estimated throughput of the specified rural assembly market (tons)
Present and future demand at retail markets
The key indicators which explain the present throughput of a retail market are the market's present share of the retail trade and the
consumption of produce. As explained above, the latter is normally measured on a per caput basis. Thus, as a simple illustration, the
present annual throughput of a market in tons would be as shown in Box 4. This method should be cross-checked against any
estimates of throughput obtained during surveys (i.e. counting the number of stalls and multiplying by an average turnover per stall,
expanded by the number of working days per year to obtain an annual total).
To use the information shown in Box 4 to project the future demand for the foodstuffs that will be sold through a retail market will
depend on four additional factors:
● population growth;
● private consumption expenditure and income growth;
● income elasticities of demand; and
● competition from other imported products and from other marketing channels.
BOX 4
Calculation of the present throughput of a retail market
Per caput consumption of fruits and vegetables ( in kilos)
times
Urban population
times
individual market's percentage share of the overall retail trade
divided by
1000 (to convert to tons)
More detail on how these factors can be used to project demand is given in Chapter 12 of the Wholesale Markets Planning and Design
Manual (FAO, 1991). Of these factors, reasonably reliable estimates are usually available only for population growth. However,
Census data can often be rather out-of-date and this may be a significant factor when urban growth rates are very rapid.
Adequate macro-economic information on which to make sound estimates of disposable income growth is rarely available.
Nevertheless, if indicative income elasticities can be calculated these should be used, as even relatively small increases in urban
incomes are likely to produce quite substantial increases in demand and hence in potential market throughput.
Central markets may still dominate retail business in a town or city, even when the population served by them is limited. In Zanzibar,

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for example, although it might be expected that the catchment area of the central market would be limited to only 20 percent of the
total urban population (i.e. the inner urban population), the estimated proportion of produce retailed through the central market is over
70 per cent of the total. However, in Zanzibar's case (which is typical of many urban areas) it would seem probable that as the town
continues to grow the suburban markets and other retail outlets will claim a greater share. One way of assessing such changes would
be to check the number of planning and building applications that have been received by a local authority for the construction of new
suburban supermarkets and other retail facilities.
Given the usual paucity of data and the complex interplay of factors, methods for forecasting future demand should be as simple and
robust as possible. An over-sophisticated approach, trying to obtain a firm prediction of throughput, is almost bound to fail. The most
practical technique is usually to employ a high and low-case scenario based on the best information that is available. For example, a
low-case scenario could assume that demand will grow only at the same pace as population and a high case assume that incomes will
also grow. Any information available on urban income elasticities of demand can also be incorporated if they seem to produce
realistic results. On that basis, the urban consumption can be projected. The method is illustrated in Box 5.
BOX 5
Calculation of the future annual throughput of a retail market
METHOD EXAMPLE
Projected per caput consumption of fruits and vegetables (in (5 year projection) Assume per caput Consumption
kilograms) (adjusted to account for income change and/or of 180 kg. Per caput
elasticity if data is available)
divided by divided by
1,000 (to convert to tons) 1,000 (to convert of tons)
times times
Urban population x growth (growth rate as a Decimal number Population of say 10,00 x 4% growth rate i.e. 1.04
plus 1.0) x 1.04 x 1.04 x 1.04 x 1.04
= =
Total urban consumption (tons) Consumption of 2,190 tons
times Times
Individual market's projected future % share of the overall Share of say 60% (i.e. x 0.6)
retail trade
= =
Future throughput Future throughput of 1,314 tons
A typical example of a projection is shown in Table 3.7. In the case of the high estimate, consumption of fruit, vegetables and fish
will have doubled by 2005 and consumption of meat and chicken will have gone up by about three and a half times. However, retail
throughput at the market is only likely to go up in proportion if it retains its overall market share which, in this case. is not probable.
TABLE 3. 7 Zanzibar Town projected daily consumption
Year Urban consumption (tons per day):
Fruit & Veg. Meat Chicken Fish
Low Estimate - Assuming Population Growth of 3.6% Per Annum
1993 85.91 1.16 0.49 11.25
1995 92.21 1.25 0.53 12.07
2000 110.04 1.49 0.63 14.41
2005 131.33 1.77 0.75 17.20
High Estimate - Population Growth of 3.6% Per Annum + Income Growth of 2% Per Annum
1993 85.91 1.16 0.49 11.25
1995 99.14 1.51 0.63 12.70
2000 140.50 2.64 1.07 17.16
2005 196.90 4.26 1.69 23.13

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Source: UNCDF Project No. UFT/93/C06 (renovation of Zanzibar Stone Town Market, 1994)
TABLE 3.8 Maseru market: preliminary throughput projections
Design Year Urban Wholesale Consumption per caput (kg.) Market throughput(tons):
population market annual av. daily
share # gross net *
1992 164,000 0.54 125 67.5 11,070 30
2000 300,000 0.54 145 78.3 23,500 64
2010 500,000 0.54 165 89.1 44,500 122
Source: FAO Project No. LES/88/0 10

Notes: # 0.75 (overall share) x 0.9 (household gardens) x 0.8 (supermarkets, etc.)
* gross consumption x wholesale market share reduction factor of 0.54
An alternative method for projecting turnover at a market is simply to use the consumption data and develop realistic targets for
increases in consumption based on the changes in the pattern of consumption in neighboring countries. Table 3.8 provides such a
projection using consumption data derived from a sample household consumption survey and adopting a single scenario for
population growth. The projection also provides a direct calculation of throughput by assuming that the market will attract 75 per cent
of the town's overall trade, and by excluding home garden production and a proportion of the produce supplied by importers directly
to supermarkets, institutions and hotels. To achieve such a target it may be necessary to enforce market regulations in the urban area
and to limit the operation of "informal" markets.
Turnover projections and floor space requirements
As mentioned above, projections of future consumption for an urban area served by a market (see Table 3.7) should ideally be based
on two hypotheses: a low and a high estimate. These estimates reflect population and income growth, income elasticity of demand
and competition from other marketing channels.
On the basis of these projections the next question that should be addressed is whether the present market can cope with any increased
trade in terms of its building floor space (sales area and other uses) and site requirements (assuming that the market will continue to
play the same role in the future and will maintain its overall share of retail trade as at present). Equally, for a new market, the
projection of floor space requirements will be a key factor in the preparation of any market master plan.
Typically, small-scale retail markets should achieve a sales area turnover in the range of 5 to 20 tons per m²/p.a. To accommodate this
sales space the overall site needs to have a turnover equivalent of I to 4 tons per m²/p.a. This means that the building area should
ideally be around 20 per cent of the total site area and, except in exceptional circumstances, (e.g. street markets where the market
forms part of the common street system) should not exceed 40 per cent of the site area.
These standards are based on empirical data on the relationship between space requirements and the gross annual turnover. The
standards include space for sales and general internal circulation as well as a contingency allowance for daily (and to some extent
seasonal) fluctuations in space requirements. The figures also assume an average mix of produce, with fruit and vegetable sales
predominating. If a market specialises in a particular commodity, some adjustment to these figures may be necessary. An appropriate
range of values that can be used for projections is shown in Box 6.
BOX 6
Sales areas: typical throughput values for retail markets
Type of market Annual throughput
Rural fruit and vegetable open market average 5 tons per m²/p.a.
Rural fruit and vegetable all-year assembly market 15- 20 tons per m²/p.a.
Seasonal assembly market (assuming 3 month peak) 20- 25 tons per m²/p.a.
Urban fruit and vegetable open market 5-10 tons per m²/p.a.
Urban fruit and vegetable covered market 15- 20 tons per m²/p.a.
Combined urban market (fruit, vegetables, fish, meat) 10- 15 tons per m²/p.a.
Specialised fruit market (with fruit in packed cases) 20- 25 tons per m²/p.a.
Specialised covered fish, poultry, egg or meat market 5-15 tons per m²/p.a.
Specialised retail grain, potato or onion market 10-15 tons per m²/p.a.
These standards can be used both for the development of a new market and the assessment of an existing market. If an existing market
broadly matches these standards then the sales space should be examined to see if there is scope for it to be used in a more efficient
manner in order to meet future demand. No additional space may be required but it would be essential for management practices to be
improved in order to meet these targets.

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In any case, with the introduction of physical and management improvements the utilization of a market will become more efficient
over time, which means that the unit space required for the various activities will therefore gradually decrees - this might be
encouraged by changes in rental levels. Thus, a standard of say five tons per m² might be used for the initial period of operation for an
open market, increasing to ten tons per m² with improved management. Table 3.9 shows a projection of floorspace and overall site
area using such a technique.
Table 3.9 Maseru market: sales space projections (m²)
Design Year Annual Sales area: Site area:
throughput (tons) Space standard Total area (m²) Space standard Total area
(mt/m²) (mt/m²) (m²)
1992 (initial) 11,070 10 1,107 2.0 5,535

2000 (interim) 23,500 12 1,960 2.5 9,400
2010 (ultimate) 44,500 15 2,970 3.0 15,170
Source: FAO Project NO. LES/88/010

Although the standards in Box 6 represent reasonable average values, they need to be used with some caution. Some markets have
very strongly peaked trading patterns either on a weekly or seasonal basis. If this is the case, the projected space requirements may
only be sufficient for average conditions. Peak daily fluctuations (e.g. between a normal weekday and the weekend) and peak
seasonal variations (with, for example an assembly market or an urban retail market that also has some wholesale trade) may
necessitate the use of additional space. It may be uneconomic to provide this to the same standard as the rest of the market facilities
and some special provision may need to be made, such as the use of a nearby car park or an overspill area, located outside the
immediate market area, as an open sales area.
Determining ovrall site requirements and ancillary facilities
The method for estimating the overall space requirements for a market site is shown in Box 7. In addition to the sales space an
allowance needs to be made for other ancillary buildings that may need to be accommodated on the market site. For a normal
small-scale urban or rural retail market this is likely to consist of a market manager's office, toilets and security/cleaning
arrangements. Suitable space standards for such facilities are also shown in Box 7
Specialised facilities may also be required. These facilities might include:
● an auction slab or a separate wholesale shed if the retail market also performs a wholesaling function;
● limited storage facilities, for example where a market retails grains (the standard used in Box 6 assumes three to seven days
storage but if a longer period is required then additional space would be needed);
● fruit and vegetable grading and packing (typically at an assembly market which is supplying the export trade);
● an area for live poultry;
● an area for holding live animals and a slaughter slab;
● separate lock-up butchers' or fishmongers' shops; and
● extension services office and meeting room.
BOX 7
Estimating overall space requirements for a basic retail market
Projected annual market throughput (see Box 5)
divided by
Sales space standard tons per m²/p.a. (see Box 6)
Total sales space requirements (covered and open)
plus
Office space @ 10 to 15 m² per office worker
plus
Cleaner's store plus guardhouse @ say 10 m²
plus
Toilets @ 2 m² per 25 market employees (male and female separate)
plus
Toilets @ 2 m² per 1000 peak period market users
plus
Allowance for other specialised uses (e.g auction slab)
Total sales space + ancillary uses in m²
times
Factor of 2.5 to 5 times usable space for roads and parking

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=
Overall site area in m²
From the surveys, other physical facilities that the traders may believe are important to locate near the market may have been
identified. These might not be accommodated on the market site, but provision can often be negotiated for adjacent sites. Such
facilities include:
● a police post;
● a dispensary or clinic;
● banks or credit facilities;
● a post office and public telephones;
● space for grain millers (e.g. rice and maize mills);
● cooked food stands;
● a bus stand;
● a créche or nursery for mothers working in the market;
● dormitory accommodation for farmers and traders who need to make an overnight stay; and
● a second-hand clothes market. This has become of major importance in Africa, where clothing traders often move close to the
markets because the farmers visiting the market have money to spend after selling their produce.
Conclusions
The purpose of undertaking surveys and making projections is to provide a basis for rational and economic planning. This is
important in order to ensure that new and improved market sites and facilities are not over-designed. However, in looking at existing
markets it also is important to assess whether it is possible to improve conditions without an intervention requiring new infrastructure.
Often, the introduction of new management practices and, particularly, the enforcement of market regulations may provide a more
cost-effective means of achieving improvements in market operations without making extensive physical improvements. If the market
is subject to strong growth pressures such measures may place excessive pressures on the market users, particularly if there is only
limited capacity to raise the efficiency with which the retail space is used. There may also be scope for greater efficiency in transport
operations at a market if, for example, more produce is carried on lorries rather than passenger buses.

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Chapter 4. The market master plan

In this chapter the survey data and projections described in Chapter 3 are applied in the preparation of a market master plan. The
organization and components of typical market layouts are discussed in terms of the suitability of different layouts, the zoning of
specialised activities in the market, the market's traffic circulation pattern, its relationship to adjacent uses and the potential
conflict with traffic flows. The chapter concludes with case studies comparing the different types of problems that are likely to be
encountered in developing an overall market programme and in preparing site layouts.
Preparation of a market master plan

The stage after completing surveys is the preparation of a market master plan. This consists of two components: an overall layout
(which may be supplemented by additional detailed drawings - for example, of infrastructure and individual buildings) and a
written statement of the plan's intentions. including its phasing and costs. Why is it necessary to prepare such a market master plan?
The master plan is a synthesis of all the factors that influence the management and operation of the market. A good plan reflects
these factors well and will provide the maximum benefit for the minimum investment. A bad plan does not and is thus a hindrance
to the market's operations.
The types of questions that need to be considered in making this synthesis and evaluating a market master plan are summarised in
Box 8. These questions raise issues involving a complex interaction of economic, social, physical and institutional factors. For
convenience, they can effectively be defined by looking at the market master plant using four fundamental principles:
● market development as a socio-economic process;
● markets as flow systems for goods and people;
● markets as expressions of public interaction; and
● markets as organizations for the sale of goods.
BOX 8
Questions to be considered in a market master plan
1. does the plan provide the basis for creating an attractive and comfortable environment for shoppers, which will allow the market
to compete with other retail outlets?
2. does the plan reflect the perceived needs of the market users?
3. is the market suitable for the income and expenditure habits of the existing and potential users?
4. does the plan reflect the market's overall management system?
5. are the financial constraints under which the plan will have to operate recognized?
6. are minimum development standards applied? (e.g. health standards)
7. does the plan observe the general principles of good layout?
(such as the relation to climate, site geometry, optimum stall size and simple circulation patterns)
8. does it provide sufficient space for vehicle parking, including cycles and motorcycles?
In themselves these general principles will not result in a master plan but will produce a set of conditions that the plan should
follow and will enable a "design brief" to be prepared. This will be followed by the planner and engineer in preparing market
layouts and designing buildings. In doing this, the planner and engineer will be influenced by a number of additional factors:
● the geometry of the site - its shape, its boundary conditions whether it is flat or sloping and the positions of vehicular and
pedestrian access points;
● the surrounding land uses and infrastructure facilities - such as main drains, sewers, overhead power lines, adjacent
buildings, bus stops, etc.;
● the organization and zoning of uses defined on the site for maximum efficiency;
● the dimensions of the components of the market; such as the size of buildings/stalls and width of streets and drain reserves;
and
● the orientation of buildings in respect to climatic factors (e.g maximising air flow and minimising solar heat gain for
buildings in the tropics by staggering the buildings in relation to each other and orienting them on an east-west axis).
FIGURE 30 Development of a rural village market around shade trees, Ghana
Source: Alcock, A. E. S. & Richards, H. M. (1953). How to plan your village. Longmans Green and Co., How to Build Series,
London.
This interaction of the site conditions with the design of buildings and infrastructure is explained in greater detail in Chapter 5. The
"clients" of a market project (which might include a local authority, traders, etc.) should examine the market layouts critically on
the basis of the questions raised in Box 8 to see if the plans fulfil the requirements set down in the design brief. Only one solution
to any design problem is unlikely and the client would expect to be presented with a number of alternative layouts so that the most

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appropriate one can be chosen.
General Principles Of Market Layouts

The general principles which should guide the preparation of a market master plan are:
The process of market development
One of the first issues that will arise in developing a market master plan will be the question of what type of facilities should be
provided. In making projections of need in Chapter 3 this issue was raised in general terms. At the planning stage it will need to be
re-examined from a narrower economic viewpoint, i.e. whether the proposed infrastructure investment (assuming funds are
available) is likely to be covered by the expected revenues. This will depend on two factors: the expected growth in the market's
volume of trade; and the value of that trade. Low income and low growth will not support large investments, whilst with increasing
income growth and accompanying demographic change a reasonable expectation might exist that investments in market facilities
may be viable.
The most convenient way of looking at this problem is to view market development as a process responding to need. Thus, the
process might start with the development of an open street market with temporary stalls, progressing to the construction of simple
sheds for retailers. Assuming that sufficient land is available, the market might gradually provide more specialised facilities,
justifying the provision of a main covered market building.
The development of a market site is, therefore, a process which could be initiated with the provision of quite basic facilities. Figure
30 shows the evolution of a small rural market, which was started with the construction of a perimeter wall. paving and rubbish
collection facilities. Subsequently, covered stalls were built when they could be afforded. A similar kind of model could be
developed for a new market in an urban suburb.
The extent of enclosure a market offers will be one of the fundamental issues to address in the market master plan. As suggested
above, this is partly a question of affordability and the stage of development of the market. It is also, however, a question of the
convenience of the market to its users, in which case, a simple market structure might be the appropriate long-term solution. The
retail fish market in Bruges, illustrated in Figure 31, for example, is effectively a "planned" open street market, but with the sales
areas roofed-over with a permanent structure. Many fruit and vegetable markets in Spain and Italy use a similar approach. The
basic point to remember is that the higher the standard of enclosure the greater the cost of both buildings and internal servicing.
The question of market structures is discussed further in Chapter 5.
Another factor influencing the process of market development is the degree to which specialized uses (which are further discussed
later in this chapter) should remain in a general market or whether they would be better served at another location. Meat markets,
for example, are often located adjacent to an abattoir or slaughter slab, rather than near a food market. This may be particularly
important with offal and blood products (such as blood sausages) the sale of which should be closely supervised by public health
officials.
The question of segregating assembly and wholesaling functions is a more difficult one. Few rural assembly markets are
exclusively for bulking-up produce and many assemblers are also retail traders and suppliers of credit. Farmers bringing their
produce to assembly markets are often also using the markets' retail facilities. The mixture of retailing and wholesaling in urban
markets raises similar problems. For cities of over half a million inhabitants (and certainly over a million) it will be essential to
separate the functions as the problems of traffic management will become insurmountable. However, the mixture of wholesale and
retail functions in smaller markets can be viable, particularly if the functions are separated by time, i.e. the wholesaling function
occurs early in the morning before retailing starts. Again, the same functionaries may perform both tasks.
Vehicle access and traffic circulation
Vehicle access to serve markets is essential for the efficient movement of goods and the people delivering and purchasing them.
With a small rural or urban market this may be achieved by a road through the market area (i.e. a street market) or by a perimeter
road around the market site (the typical market square). For larger markets a higher level of access will be needed and this is
preferably obtained by a system of looped roads which are neither short cuts to other destinations nor dead-ends (such as
cur-de-sacs). To avoid traffic conflicts, junctions of the loop roads to main roads should be T-junctions (i.e. having only three
potential collision points compared with the 16 that occur with cross roads.) The T-junctions should be as near as possible at right
angles so that maximum visibility at corners is obtained.
In preparing plans for the central area of towns it is frequently the practice to separate cars and pedestrians' particularly where there
is a reasonably high traffic density. However, total pedestrianisation rarely works and the most intense urban activities tend to
occur where the two systems meet. An alternative approach is to develop a system of intersecting pedestrian paths and roads, with
the paths roughly at right angles to the roads. In Arab countries, for example, this intersection is often marked by a precinct and a
gateway forming the boundary between the two traffic systems (e.g. Shibam in Southern Yemen, the suqs in Sana'a and in Rabat,
Morocco,). In Medieval Europe, this point was often marked by a market cross. Details of pedestrian sidewalks are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 5.
The interaction between pedestrian and vehicular circulation in an urban market place is illustrated in Figure 32. Visitors' vehicles

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are parked in separate parking areas. Delivery vehicles have direct access to the market stalls, but to reduce the impact of traffic in
the market area it is normal practice to arrange for deliveries to be made during a restricted period before trading starts (usually the
early hours of the morning) and for rubbish collection and cleaning-up to be undertaken at the end of the working day. Traders are
sometimes allocated separate parking for their vehicles, usually in an area from which the general public is excluded. Special road
signs indicating who is allowed to park and at what time parking is permitted are frequently needed as part of a market
development programme.
The relationship of the market site to access is equally relevant in the case of rural areas. Figure 33 illustrates two examples of
markets integrated into rural villages. In both these cases, lorry parking is provided adjacent to the market area. The relationship of
the market to bus stands and petrol filling stations is also important and ideally all these facilities should be located in a nearby
area.
The market as a public space
Markets, particularly street markets and market squares, were traditionally part of the main system of open spaces of cities and
towns. With new development areas, provision should also be ideally made for such public spaces. However, like their traditional
counterparts they need to be properly defined. The market layout should not be disorienting and it is thus necessary to arrange the
circulation system so that there is a hierarchy of spaces, with at least one major space, which might be the main market square or
street, off which there are minor spaces serving other functions.
Partial enclosure of spaces, by arcades, plants or buildings, generally makes them more comfortable to use. A common mistake is
to make the market space too large as empty spaces are not conducive to providing an atmosphere favorable to selling. A
pedestrian network must feel lively if shoppers are to be encouraged to use the facilities. Simple standards that can be adopted are
that the maximum dimension or diameter of a space should be 20 to 25 metres and the density of usage of the space should be not
less than 15 to 30 square metres of public space per person. A good rule of thumb for the proportion of minor pedestrian routes is
to try and make the width not to exceed the height of the surrounding buildings.
Equally important to ensuring that the space feels lively is that there should be activities occurring around its edges (e.g. such as the
opening up of small-scale shops fully to the street) and that the centre of any larger space has some form of central focus such as a
fountain, clock tower or public notice board. Usually, retail markets are fringed by smallscale individual shops - which can be little
more than stalls enclosed by permanent infrastructure. Such shops can be as small as 5m². The intention should be to make the
units available at low rentals so that they can be afforded by local entrepreneurs, thus encouraging the retention of wealth created in
the community.
A common feature of many traditional market spaces is the provision of facilities such as seating for people to rest whilst shopping.
Space also often needs to be provided for carnivals, street musicians, dancers and other outdoor events. Typical examples are the
fairs at Indian tribal heats, mariachi bands in Mexico and carol singing in Christian cultures. There is frequently a conflict with
local regulations and police authorities in allowing such events (on the argument that they obstruct sidewalks or encourage
loiterers) and the best approach is often to provide a specified location. such as a raised platform or bandstand, where the events
can take place.
Essential components of any market are places, such as cafes and food stands, where both traders and shoppers can sit and relax.
Such stands provide inexpensive food and the employment they give can be of critical importance for providing incomes to
families who would find it difficult to find other forms of work. Food stands need to be concentrated at crossings of roads and
paths to maximize trade. They are typically either portable stands or small huts, or are built into the front of buildings and may be
owner-operated or franchise operations.
As has been highlighted above a market must be conducive to the act of buying and selling. A busy market always gives a better
impression than one that is under utilized. The continuing attraction of street markets in Europe, for example, is that they provide
vibrant and interesting places to shop. The main city square in Brno (Figure 34) illustrates how a major public space can be utilized
as a market by using temporary/mobile facilities. Investment in improving such spaces is normally confined to improving paving
and ensuring that basic infrastructure (such as a water supply, toilets and garbage disposal facilities) is available. These issues are
further discussed in Chapter 5.
The organization of market land uses
The master plan will provide a method for organizing a range of different land uses on the site. These may include: retailing of
fresh produce; assembly of produce; wholesaling by farmers and vendors; meat and fish sales; and the retailing of other goods such
as clothes and utensils. In addition to zoning of uses, there will also be a number of other factors which will need to be taken into
account in organizing the market site.
Grouping of sales outlets: one of the basic questions a plan will need to address is whether retailers selling the same products
should be grouped together. If stalls are laid out randomly then impulse sales will be promoted, but it will be more difficult to
create a competitive selling environment and consumers will not be able to perceive differences in quality and prices. However. if
retailers are grouped by line of products, competition will be greater. which will be more beneficial for the consumer. On balance.
the grouping of specialised uses is the more effective method. Some uses may not be compatible with each other (e.g. a repair
workshop with a butcher's or fishmonger's stall) and they should be located in different sections of the market or at least separated

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by a main path or aisle.

Customer flow: the main arrival point of customers will influence the location and grouping of stalls. In open markets, customers
will often come from a main point such as a bus stop or from the direction of a more densely populated area. With covered markets
there is usually a main entrance from a main street. In both cases, it is preferable for staple products to be located away from these
approach points so that customers can be drawn into the market. With street markets, for example, it is common for fruit and
vegetable stalls to be located in the centre of the market area.
Facilities for temporary vendors: in many markets, there are in addition to the permanent retailers, temporary vendors, (often
producers) operating during some days of the week or during a limited season. To maximise market convenience for users on
non-peak days, it is better to group together sellers operating regularly (i.e. those on long-lease arrangements) and assign them
fixed locations. Separate spaces can be allotted to temporary vendors. In this case, and where there are small-scale vendors, it will
be necessary to have some form of management system which is able to issue temporary pitch licences.
Facilities for small vendors: small vendors often operate in the area surrounding a market, causing congestion and competing with
the permanent retailers It is not desirable to evict them as they would lose their means of livelihood. They should, however, be
required to pay daily or weekly market fees and ideally, be allocated space in the market so as not to obstruct the movement of
customers and so as to maintain minimum public hygiene standards.
Marketing of live animals: because of the risks of damage, accidents and disease transmission, livestock has no place inside a food
retail market. whether it is open or covered. If it is necessary for livestock to be associated with a market then it is necessary to
provide a special outside enclosure' with its own water supply. Poultry can be admitted to covered markets if there is no possibility
of erecting a separate special building. In this case. the birds should be grouped in a well-ventilated area, close to the exits and
should be kept in cages. In order to avoid disease among poultry, their stalls should be separated by solid masonry walls and the
hygiene of the birds closely monitored.
FIGURE 35.Typical layouts for small-scale rural retail markets in West Africa
Source. Drew, J. R., Mexwell Fry. E. and Ford, H. L. (1947). Village housing in the tropics. Lund Humphries, London.
FIGURE 36 0.8 hectare central market site with 50 shops and 0.275 hectare paved open market area, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
Source: Aloi. R. (1959). Mercati e Negozi. Ulrico Hoepli Editore Milano.
1. open market stalls
2. shops
3. meat and fish
4. public toilets
5. paved market area
6. parking
7. fountain
8. petrol station
Organization of simple markets: in even the simplest markets some consideration has to be given to organising the provision of
facilities. Figure 35 illustrates the organization of small and medium-size rural markets. All the facilities that are serving the whole
market area, such as latrines? rubbish bins and price boards should, as far as possible, be centrally located so that they are easily
accessible. With larger markets, the facilities will need to be located at a number of points in the market. Box 10, in Chapter S.
indicates standards for the walking distance to such facilities.
Zoning and mixed use: many markets combine the use of open and enclosed facilities. Essentially, the permanent traders use
permanent facilities and the visiting traders use open areas. Figure 36 illustrates three zones of use: fixed shop units; open stalls
(roofed); and a paved market square used by casual traders. This market also illustrates the principle of zoning in markets - the
meat and fish shops being grouped into one location. Figure 37 shows a more extreme example where there are no open sales areas
and where all the facilities are provided under cover in a circular fruit and vegetable market and a separate fish market (also
illustrated in Figure 57). In this case, the only other land uses in the market site are the road system and associated parking areas.
Even with this extreme example the circulation areas take up at least 60 per cent of the total site area. This is equally true with the
market illustrated in Figure 36, if the roads surrounding the site are taken into account.
Market Layouts: Case Studies

There are effectively three different situations which can be met in any market development: redevelopment or relocation of an
existing market, conservation/rehabilitation of an existing market (i.e. the physical form of the market stays essentially unchanged);
and a new market development. All these cases can be met in both rural and urban areas, although perhaps the second case is less
likely in a rural area. The following three examples compare the problems likely to be met and how the general principles outlined
above are incorporated into the layouts.
FIGURE 37.Site plan of covered fruit/vegetable and fish retail markets, on 0.65 hectare site, Sidi-bel-Abbes, Algeria

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Source. Aloi, R. (1959). Mercati e Negozi. Ulrico Hoepli Editore Milano.
1. fruit and vegetable market
2. fish market
3. control
4. parking
Redevelopment
Redevelopment of a market area can result from a number of circumstances, the most common of which is that the present site is
needed for an alternative use. The difference between redevelopment and a new market is that with redevelopment the new market
will have to accommodate the needs of the existing users and will have to fit into the constraints imposed by an existing street
pattern. Figure 38 illustrates a market redevelopment resulting from war damage. Rather than reinstating an existing street market'
an opportunity was taken to rationalize the whole pattern of shopping in the area. A new open market square was created, with an
adjacent covered market, surrounded by new shop units with rear servicing. Both the shops and the market became part of a new
system of pedestrian paths and precincts.
In many cases, however, such radical changes to the traffic circulation system of an existing site may not be possible. particularly
where a market area has developed as an uncontrolled extension around a spontaneous market. In addition' high land values may
prevent the acquisition of further land for extending a market site. In these circumstances, a shift of the market to a green-field site
may be necessary - with all the problems this may present in terms of trader resistance.
Conservation and improvement
As an alternative to the complete redevelopment of a site, Figure 39 illustrates a market development in the Caribbean based
around the rehabilitation and upgrading of existing covered market buildings. In this case, formal shopping areas were not
significant and in the rehabilitation of the market area an opportunity was taken to develop new, but separate' meat, fish and
handicraft markets, as well as additional "temporary" stalls for fruit and vegetable sales. Site access was also improved and a new
bus terminal created. A similar approach was used in the rehabilitation proposal for Zanzibar shown in Figure 23.
New development
The conditions for the creation of a new market are either that a market is needed to meet new population growth, typically
requiring a market to be developed in a suburban area of a city on a reserved green-field site, or that a market is developed as part
of the central area of a new town.
Figure 40 is an illustration of the latter. In this case, a market square was used as the focus of the new development - in recognition
of the fact that the migrants to the new town were coming from London, where street markets for fresh produce were the dominant
pattern. Again, the market area is integrated into the general shopping and open-space system for the new town. Vehicle access is
generally from the rear of the surrounding shops, via service courts and parking areas.
Choice of approach: new versus improved markets
Any intervention in the marketing system will rely on knowing where the existing and future customers will be coming from and
what will be the prevailing level of prices in the market. Catchment areas are not homogeneous and the attraction of markets
decreases with distance. In comparing new markets to existing ones, therefore, there can be a number of significant differences:
a) existing or redeveloped markets in existing urban areas will not have such a high demand for parking spaces as new markets as
they will already be served by public transport,. Local markets may only be serving a limited catchment area, which for
low-income consumers may typically be within five to fifteen minutes walk from the market;
b) rural markets will also have catchment areas which are defined by bus routes (or sometimes short river journeys) and by walking
distance, but this may be up to one hour's walk (i.e. 5 to 6 kilometres); and
c) new suburban markets may have higher-income users (with corresponding higher private vehicle ownership levels) but will tend
to be in direct competition with suburban shopping centres and other out-of-town facilities. Competitive pricing in the market will
therefore be critical - suggesting that low rents and minimum investment levels will be as equally important as they would be with
more centrally located facilities.
Another issue to consider is that a project for a new or upgraded market will not interest market users unless they have participated
in the design of the project and clearly perceive that the development will bring advantages. Participation should occur at two
levels: at the general planning stage the planning authority should ensure that residents' (consumers) needs are addressed; and at the
level of the market the full participation of the traders should be sought.
Even with such a dialogue, conflict may still occur and the fact that the new facilities are clearly an improvement may not be
sufficient inducement. Retailers may refuse, for example, to transfer their activities to a new market if their new stalls are smaller
than in the old market.
TABLE 4.1 Comparative features of generic market layouts

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Layout principle Characteristics

Street markets:
1. development process simplest type of market to develop in both urban and
ruralareas as it makes use of existing infrastructure
Iow level of investment
2. access/circulation potential traffic management problems. Easiest to manage
with dedicated pedestrian street or with stalls arranged
along a single side of the street.
most disruptive if located on cross roads
generally good access for public transport
3. use as public spaces close integration into the fabric and functions of a town or
village
4. site organization cannot be easily managed as a separate facility
storage and security are usually problems
not appropriate for use as rural assembly markets or urban
wholesale markets
zoning of uses has to be included in licensing arrangements
5. other features Market squares: integration with mobile outlets easy
unable to operate effectively in bad weather
easy to relocate facility to another site
1. development process requires a dedicated public square to be available

more typical of urban areas and large villages
transition to permanent facilities possible
2. access/circulation delivery access from roads bounding square easy
separate parking area required near exit of square or on
adjacent sites
3. use as public spaces forms a natural focus to urban areas
other urban functions such as parks and sitting areas can
be integrated into the market layout
multiple use of space possible after market hours
4. site organization small squares - customer circulation on outside
Iarge squares - customer circulation on inside
easier to manage than street markets but security and
storage are still problems
5. other features easier to arrange for the accommodation of temporary users
and for the provision of semi-permanent stalls
TABLE 4.1 Comparative features of generic market layouts

Layout principle Characteristics
Open markets:
1. development process special site required
modest investment costs
degree of roof coverage can be phased
mobile facilities can still be accommodated
2. access/circulation possible to arrange special delivery access systems and
dedicated parking areas
3. use as public spaces does not function as a fully integrated urban space

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4. site organization full management control usual

some degree of decentralized management possible
specialised market facilities can be easily provided
appropriate for use as rural assembly markets or urban
wholesale markets
5. other features can accommodate temporary users and make provision for
semi-permanent stalls
level of climate control depends on extent of roof coverage
Covered markets:
1. development process special site required
high investment costs, requiring high turnover
suitable only for high density urban areas
difficult to allow for growth and change
2. access/circulation separate dedicated parking areas should be provided
internal delivery to stalls may require special produce
handling facilities
3. use as public spaces does not usually function as a fully integrated urban space
4. site organization completely centrally managed environment
zoning of uses integrated into the design of the building(s)
difficult to accommodate temporary users
5. other features full weather protection
high running costs, particularly for building maintenance
Practical training sessions may be needed to demonstrate that the new stall arrangement will enable them to store and display more
products than before and to achieve higher levels of sales.
Comparative features of market layouts

Table 4.1 summarises the comparative advantages and disadvantages of the four main generic types of market layouts, based on the
principles discussed earlier in the chapter. Except for new wholesale markets and covered markets in central areas, "pure" market
layouts are in reality uncommon and most markets (as shown in Figures 38 to 40) are mixtures of the generic types, i.e. they may
contain an open square with stalls, combined with covered market buildings
FIGURE 40. Market Square

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Chapter 5. The design of market buildings and infrastructure

This chapter discusses the types of fixed elements, such as buildings and infrastructure, that occur in most markets. They are
demonstrated by using drawings or illustrations of actual market projects, supplemented with general descriptions of the
organization of market buildings, typical materials, structures and servicing arrangements.
General design principles

The overriding consideration in the design of most markets is that the most cost-effective solution should be found However, there
are a number of basic design principles that will need to be considered when preparing proposals for market infrastructure These
factors include space standards, the choice of materials and structures and the impact of the climate (rainfall, temperature' wind) on
design
The use of space in markets
The use of space in markets will vary substantially with the type of function it contains The standards indicated in Chapter 3 (see
Box 6) provide a basis for estimating overall space needs However, at the detailed design stage it will be necessary to develop
more precise descriptions of the different sections of a market, distinguishing between
● fresh fruit and vegetable trading areas;
● meat, fish, poultry and egg sales;
● sales of grains and spices;
● sales of cooked food;
● other non-food sales, such as clothing and household goods;
● general circulation areas (internal and external); and
● other uses, such as storage, administration, public toilets, etc
There is generally a wide variety in the overall number of stalls, ranging from relatively small suburban street markets with, say, 50
stalls to main urban covered markets with, for example, over 2,000 stalls. A typical distribution of stalls, based on observations in
medium-sized covered markets in Bratislava (Slovak Republic) and Kuwait, is shown in Table 5.1. In these cases some 60 to 80
per cent of the stalls are used for fruit and vegetable sales. In contrast, the fruit and vegetable stalls in some urban markets may
only represent a small proportion (around 15 30 per cent) of the total number of stalls available. Figure 41 illustrates how a wide
range of functions are distributed within the market area of a small rural town and the use of a simple standard fixed stall unit
which is appropriate for the sale of a variety of produce.
TABLE 5.1 Main urban retail markets: comparative stall usage
Type of retail activity Mestka Trznica, Bratislava: Shuwaikh retail market, Kuwait
No. of users % total No. of users % total
Fruit & Vegetables stalls 122 80 199 58
Produce promotion stalls 4 3 0 0
Textiles/clothing stalls 10 6 0 0
Flower stalls 16 11 0 0
Butchers' stalls 0 0 51 15
Fishmongers' stalls 0 0 94 27
Total stalls 152 100 344 100
Retail shops (groceries, etc. ) 55 66
Source: FAO Project No. TCP/CZE/2253(A) and Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research
A basic issue to resolve in the detailed design of a market will be to determine the number and distribution of sales spaces required
and whether these need to be accommodated in open air stalls or within purpose-built market buildings. The facilities needed and
affordable by fruit and vegetable sellers, for example, will be much simpler than those of traders with higher-value goods such as
clothing who will invariably demand lockup facilities. There has to be a clear relationship between the rent or fees charged and the
type of facilities provided.
However, even within one category of goods there may be a wide range of needs in terms of size and amenity standard of sales
space. At the simplest level, some sellers may only be trading in a sack of fresh produce (say 25 to 50 kilograms) on any one day.
In this case, renting open space on a daily basis to erect a small uncovered trestle table would be the most appropriate solution.
Even seemingly quite busy lock-up stalls in covered markets, with an overall stall area of 4 to 12 square metres, are only likely to

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be selling 100 to 300 kilograms of fruits and vegetables daily. There will also be a need for large stalls in markets, but this is
usually very limited (e.g. a specialised trader in grains or dry foods requiring additional space for storage) and can normally be
accommodated by designing the stalls in a modular fashion so that a number of stalls can be combined to form a larger unit.
FIGURE 41.Project for a new market, Onitsha, Nigeria
Source: Maxwell Fry, E. and Drew, J. (1956). Tropical Architecture in the Humid zone. B. T. Batsford Ltd. London.
BOX 9
Procedure for determining detailed space requirements in open and covered markets
1. Estimate the total number of sales spaces required based on the projected turnover of the market and the likely range of
turnovers (e.g. small, medium or large) and the different uses (i.e. fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, poultry, grains, dairy products,
clothing, household goods, etc.)
2. Decide, for each different type of user, on the distribution between open and covered spaces based on an assumed (for new
markets) or observed (for existing markets ) pattern of use (e.g. 90 per cent open spaces in a weekly rural market, 100 per cent
under cover in a central urban market, etc.)
3. Allocate the stalls within the market remembering that stall sizes should be kept as small as possible to minimize rents (normally
2 x 2 metres to 3 x 4 metres, with sales space or table taking up 30-50 per cent of the area)
4. Allocate the circulation space (aisle widths should be in the range of 3.5 to 6 metres and wide enough for ease of pedestrian
circulation and so that small delivery trolleys or vehicles can enter the market)
5. Check that there is a maximum length of 12 metres between cross aisles
6. Total the sales and circulation space and check whether it broadly corresponds to the overall area projected for the market (see
Chapter 3)
7. Adjust the total requirements to take account of existing facilities
8. Phase the development to take account of immediate urgent requirements and long-term needs
9. Discuss the proposals with traders (if applicable) to ensure their acceptability
A typical procedure that can be followed in determining the distribution of sales space in the design of both open and covered
markets is summarised in Box 9. This procedure will broadly be the same for the modification of existing markets except that the
existing provision has to be taken into account. If this is adequate then the procedure only needs to be applied to the incremental
change (e.g. new facilities required because of population growth). If the existing market is sub-standard it is better to consider its
re-design as though it were a new market and then make some allowance for existing facilities. It is strongly recommended that this
exercise be undertaken in collaboration with traders.
Even with rural markets it is necessary to determine the number of sellers who will be provided facilities under cover and those
who will prefer to sell in the open air or provide their own facility. Figure 42 illustrates a simple village market' located on a
sloping site in which the majority of the permanent traders are accommodated in open sheds and a small section of the market is
reserved for casual traders
Materials and structure
The choice of materials and construction techniques for markets involves balancing the need for robust and simply maintained
structures against the need to minimize expenditure. Additional costs should only be incurred if this can be justified on the basis of
the returns obtained from market fees. Other issues that will have a hearing on the choice of materials and structures will include
the span of the structures consideration of how a project is to be Implemented (whether contractor built or by means of self-help
programmes) and the extent to which standardised components can be used (e.g. prefabricated stalls,).
FIGURE 42 Design for a small rural village market on a sloping site, with covered stalls and room for casual traders
against outside walls
Source: Alcock, A. E. S & Richard H. M.(1953). How to plan your village. Longmans Green and ( J., How to Build Series.
London.
FIGURE 43 Typical designs for blocks of around 20 fixed stalls in a rural village market, integrating rainwater collection
and drainage
Source: Alcock, A. E. S. & Richards, H. M. (1953). How to plan your village
Longmans Green and Co., Ho`` to Build Series. London.
In general, the materials used for market construction are those conventionally adopted for other simple building types such as
industrial and farm buildings, i.e. steel or timber roof structures, and roofs and walls clad in profiled steel sheeting with, in some
cases, load-bearing walls in concrete blocks or brickwork. The choice of construction technology will depend on a range of factors,
including whether indigenous materials are available and what methods of construction might be appropriate. What is appropriate
for an urban covered market (e.g. locally produced or imported steel framing and cladding for largespan structures) may be
completely inappropriate for remote rural markets in the same country where, for example, only small-span earth brick structures
may be possible.

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Use of colour in markets

The general appearance of a market is an important issue as it will depend on this feature to attract custom. There is a clear need to
choose the colours so that they promote the appeal of the products. In general, paler materials are preferred as they reflect light,
providing brighter surroundings, and suggest hygienic conditions. The use of colour will depend on the type of produce being sold
and the following colours are usually adopted, particularly for the walls dividing sales outlets:
fruits and vegetables: green, yellow, grey, or orange
fish: blue, turquoise, mauve, or grey-blue
meat and poultry: beige, pink or grey
dairy products: blue, white or beige
Influence of climate
In areas with extreme climatic conditions, such as cold weather, high rainfall and intense sunshine, there are distinct advantages,
for both sellers and customers, in constructing enclosed market buildings. Traditionally, such structures are very characteristic of
France, Britain and Spain. As was discussed in Chapter 2, many markets were built in the 19th century, but some date back to
Mediaeval times. In the 20th century, this building form has been extensively adopted in South-East Asia. For convenience of
market operations, single-storey market structures are preferable, but where markets are located in high density urban areas the
building may need to be two to three stories high.
In arid climates, and to some extent the tropics, it may be appropriate to use internal open courtyards within market buildings. This
provides a way of improving comfort conditions by allowing cross-ventilation. If the courtyard is too enclosed there is probability
of it being "dead" and this can be avoided by opening it up to the activities of the building. The spaces can be used as sitting areas,
overspill selling spaces or the courtyard can form part of the entry to the building. Many traditional Arab suqs use this type of plan
very effectively.
The design of buildings and stalls

There is, in essence, relatively little difference between the organization of a rural market and that of an urban market, or of an
open market compared with a covered market. The plan form may be virtually identical i.e. a defined space with limited entrances,
with a main walkway and a series of minor walkways or aisles, connected together by cross aisles. The differences arise because of
the degree of enclosure, the different intensity of use of the spaces (a rural market would not expect to be used as efficiently as an
urban market) and the site-specific circumstances. The latter, which would include factors like the shape and slope of a site, its
relation to surrounding land uses and road systems, is often the greatest influence on the shape of the development. The following
section highlights the design features of a range of market building types.
FIGURE 44. Layout of small rural market, located around an existing shade tree
Source: Drew. J. R. Maxwell Fry, E. and Ford, H. L. (1947). Village Housing in the Tropics. Lund Humpries, London.Temporary
and mobile facilities
For most small-scale rural markets and for urban street and open markets, where the space is also used for different purposes at
other times (e.g. as a car park), it is usual for traders to operate using small-scale individual structures. These are normally left up
to the individual stallholder to provide. They often take the form of umbrellas' barrows with integral roofs or a simple demountable
structure, with a canvas awning or plastic-sheeted roof spanning between a timber, bamboo or steel framework. In these cases, the
market stalls are not subject to any design control by the market authority and are the property of the individual stallholders.
Alternatively, the market authority might provide standard prefabricated stalls on an individual or group basis, the rent charged for
them reflecting the hire of the stall as well as the space. Typical examples of such "temporary" or mobile structures, appropriate for
urban and rural street markets. are illustrated in Chanter 6.
FIGURE 45 Plan, elevation and cross-section of roofed stalls with concrete tables for sale of fruit and vegetables - located
on a sloping site. Source: Village Markets in Ghana, USAID, 1963.
Rural market buildings and stalls

Fixed stall designs for rural markets can either be accommodated in single-sided buildings ranged along the external wall of a
market or in double-sided blocks. With the latter, access can either be from the perimeter or stalls can be approached from a central
buyers' walk through the centre of the building. This is particularly important when protection from weather conditions is a major
consideration. Figure 43 shows some typical arrangements for rural market buildings.
An ideal arrangement for creating a small-scale rural market is to locate it around an existing shade tree. Figure 44 illustrates an
example of such a market, with a shaded open area in the centre for visiting traders and covered stalls provided on the perimeter.
The internal arrangement of a small rural market building with open stalls is illustrated in Figure 45. In this instance, traders are
provided with fixed concrete tables (see also Figure 83), behind which the produce can be stored under cover.

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Rural markets may form part of a comprehensive improvement programme. Figure 46 shows work undertaken in Bangladesh, as
part of a nation-wide programme, which includes the provision of open sheds for fruit and vegetable sales, and for meat and fish
sales, plus simple infrastructure, such as drainage, paving and water supply.
FIGURE 47 Proposal for hawker's pavements, Bombay, India Source: Cantacuzino, S. editor. (1984). Charles Correa.
Mimar Book, Concept Media, Singapore.
Street markets and stalls
Facilities provided for street markets and public squares may adopt a wide range of solutions, One extreme, illustrated in Figure 47,
is the provision of facilities for hawkers alongside an existing arcaded roadway. In this case, the raised selling slabs provided for
the hawkers are also used as sleeping platforms at night.
A common way that street markets develop is in the gradual roofing over of open spaces. In Italy, for example, this often takes the
form of inserting covered market buildings into existing squares or wide streets, as illustrated in Figure 48. A variant on this,
common in Britain, has been the roofing-over of streets or open spaces with glazed panels, to form an arcade at the rear of existing
shops.
Although mobile stalls are common, these may not be affordable. An alternative is to construct simple fixed roofs over individual
stalls or, more economically, over the stalls of two to four vendors, (see Figures 49 and 50). By this means, a traditional street
market or market square, as it becomes more intensively used, can evolve into a permanent market facility. Figure 51 illustrates
how the provision of new covered stalls, combined with a pedestrianisation and landscaping programme, is able to create a
completely new urban environment. In colder climates or where the products being sold are of high value (e.g. flowers) a common
method of providing stalls is by using individually operated and fully enclosed lock-up kiosks, which can be either of permanent
construction or demountable.
FIGURE 48.Covered market buildings, inserted into an existing 275 metre length street, Crema, Italy
Source: Aloi, R. ( 1959). Mercati e Negozi. Ulrico Hoepli Editore Milano.Permanent facilities: covered market buildings
For permanent markets, a fully or partially enclosed building is the most common form of sales area adopted in both tropical and
temperate climates. Covered market buildings can take on a wide range of forms. They can range from a small facility. as shown in
Figure 52, to a complex multi-storey building, such as the fully glazed and air conditioned central retail market in Bratislava
(Slovak Republic). Such buildings can also provide an opportunity for multi-purpose uses, such as providing space for sports
events, cinemas or theatres (see Figure 2).
FIGURE 49 Urban redevelopment scheme with street hawkers' stalls around an entertainment area, Samarinda, East
Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Source: Architectural Review, November 1989. Vol CLXXXVI. No. 1113. Architects: Anitio Ismael with P. T. Griyantare and P.
T. Triaco 1. street hawkers' stalls 2. shop houses 3. shops
The degree of enclosure of a covered market depends on two factors: the need for climatic control; and security requirements,
particularly for storing produce. These two factors will determine the overall circulation system of the market building. In some
cases, markets can combine open air stalls with covered facilities, as shown in Figure 53. This example also illustrates the
integration of a market with related facilities, such as cool storage rooms, a public bathhouse and a nursery school.
Enclosed or covered market buildings should preferably be thought of as covered-over streets. To encourage people to use the
space the market should have highly visible and wide entrances, positioned so that it is possible for the public to immediately grasp
how to enter the building. Ideally, the building should also form part of a main public route, making it possible for pedestrians to
take short-cuts through the building or to linger without feeling that they must move on.
Although it is important not to create dead-ends within market layouts, many modern markets are laid-out on a monotonous and
rigid grid system of aisles. This provides little encouragement for pedestrians to be drawn into the market. To counteract this, the
paths or routes which form the market's internal street system should be laid out so that they connect through a series of busy
intermediate spaces in which cafes and other public facilities are located.
FIGURE 50 Details of small market stalls (2 x 1 metres) in timber construction, Castries Central Market, St. Lucia. Source:
FAO (PFL/RLA/001). Ian Marshall, Architect.
Where maximum air-flow has to be encouraged, this can be provided by constructing a steel or timber-framed, open-sided shed
(often referred to ax a "hangar"), with either fixed stalls or pitches for sellers laid out within it. This type of facility often uses a
standardized industrial or agricultural building. However, caution should be exercised in choosing standard buildings as they are
not specifically designed for market use. Figure 54 illustrates how such a building, originally designed for storage, has had to be
modified by the users so that sufficient ventilation and improved access could be obtained.
Within the building the width of aisles should be in the range of 3.5 to 6 metres. The minimum width is based on allowing a group

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of three people walking together to pass one person standing by a stall, or for two people walking to pass two other people. The 6
metre width of aisle would allow for seating and other uses and is ideal for the main thoroughfare of the market. A conventional
arrangement of covered markets (tending to reflect what often also occurs in open street markets) is to have two or three aisles, i.e.
with one or two double-sided sets of stalls down the middle of the building and single-sided stalls looking into the market on the
perimeter.
FIGURE 51 New covered stalls, the Market Place, Norwich, Norfolk, England Source: Bowne, K. (1965). Norwich Ring and
Loop. The Architectural Review, Volume 138, Number 821, July 1965
A reasonable ceiling height for the market building is also needed, and again a range of 3.5 to 6 metres is appropriate, depending
on the street width. A higher space over the central space and a lower one at the edges is also very suitable, either by using a
pitched roof for a single-storey market or by using an open atrium for a multi-storey building. Within such buildings, it is important
to make full provision for fire precautions, adequate means of escape, fire hydrants and the need to divide-up larger spaces into
compartments.
Principles of market stall design
The basic module from which the design of any market is based is the individual market stall. Figure 55 shows typical fixed stalls
for a covered market, the difference in design in the illustration reflecting the slightly different needs for the sale of fruit as
opposed to vegetables. The sale of flowers would need a different arrangement, requiring fully tiered shelving and probably
omitting the sales counter, whilst for grains and spices space would be needed for the stacking of sacks at the rear of the stall and
for the display of samples of the product in trays at the front of the stall.
Dimensions for a simplified multi-use stall design are also shown in Figure 83 in Chapter 6. This design, particularly appropriate
for simple meat and fish stalls, is based on the trader standing behind the stall to serve customers, requiring a clear space behind of
around 2 metres for standing and the stacking of boxes. For fruit and vegetable sales it is equally common for the stallholder to
stand in front of the stall, in which case, the stall could be flat and the depth may be made deeper (say 1.2 to 1.5 metres) to
accommodate a stacked display. Another variant in stall design is for the trader to sit on the stall, in which case the stall would be
set at a height of around 450 to 600 mm. above the floor level. The overall dimension of the stall would need to be based on the
reach of the trader and a width of 1.8 metres and depth of 1.2 metres are the optimum dimensions. It is essential to consult with the
traders on the suitability of the stalls and their dimensions before finalizing the design.
FIGURE 52 Design for a small-scale covered municipal market, Sri Lanka Source: Author
Different stall designs will be required to reflect the different goods being sold - although these variations can be provided within a
standard enclosure. Figure 56 illustrates a market where a wide variety of different needs has been accommodated within a small
covered market inserted between existing buildings. The stalls around the perimeter of the market are often the most popular with
sellers and sometimes are of a different design, e.g lock-up shops.
Most retail markets are likely to include a mixture of sales functions. However, although in covered markets a wide variety of stalls
can be accommodated it is also important than the stalls selling similar products are grouped together. This is partly for the
convenience of the customers, particularly so prices can easily be compared, but there are other reasons,. One is the need for the
sanitary segregation of fresh produce stalls from meat, fish and poultry stalls, particularly so that the area for the latter can be easily
cleaned and the disposal of waste controlled.
Another is the requirement for physical segregation of fruit stalls from flower stalls so that the natural ethylene gas produced by the
fruits does not damage the flowers.
Meat and fish stalls
Although fresh fruits and vegetables may make up the majority of the food-related stalls, facilities for butchers and fishmongers are
also likely to be important. Rarely is a separate building provided and such uses are normally integrated with the main market
facilities. However, there can be advantages to providing a separate building so that hygiene standards and cleaning routines can
vary from that prevailing in other parts of a market. Figure 57 illustrates a small retail fish market in Algeria, with its own cool
stores, where sales are made from a single long counter rather than individual stalls. Where fish are sold live, communal or
individual tanks may need to be provided, requiring a nearby water supply and provision for draining down the tanks
Larger traders in meat or fish are likely to require separate premises and Figure 58 shows a section through a fishmonger's stall in a
covered market, illustrating the importance of ventilation and of facilities for effectively washing down the stall area. It is equally
important from a health point of view that facilities for butchers and fishmongers are concentrated in one location in a market
(ideally away from the movement of animals and vehicles). Figures 59 and 6() show a modular design for small butchers' shops,
which could either be integrated into the main market building or provided as stand-alone facilities. Note the provision of fly-proof
meat safes and hanging rails for meat. The latter is also illustrated in Figure 61, which shows part of a covered market under a
single hangar roof - with separate sections for butchers, meat slaughter, fish sales, fish gutting and fruit/vegetable sales.
Poultry and egg marketing

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Poultry sections of markets, including areas for the sale of chickens, ducks and geese, have their own unique design requirements.
The main distinction will be whether the poultry is sold live or already slaughtered. In the latter case, the sales facility will not be
visibly much different from that used for fresh meat or fish, except that using hanging rails for display of the dressed birds will be
preferred. For live birds, which have the distinct advantage over pre-killed birds in that they do not have to be disposed of by the
end of the working day, there are two basic modes of sale. Firstly, the poultry can be bought live (i.e. for slaughter at home) or it
can be slaughtered and plucked (de-feathered) in the market on demand, in which case special slaughter facilities will need to
provided, This usually requires a shackle for hanging the birds and hot water for scalding carcasses. In Muslim societies a slaughter
slab oriented to Mecca will be needed.
FIGURE 55.Typical fixed fruit and vegetable stall in a covered market
Source: FAO (illustration by Jean-Michel Ambrosino)
A. stall construction in blockwork, brickwork or timber (overall dimensions: frontage 1.5-1.8 metres; depth 1.5-2.5 metres).
B. counter flap to provide access to stall
C. shelves for display of vegetables
D. inclined display for fruits in crates
Provision should be made for condemned carcasses, which are usually incinerated. Evisceration (cutting-up and boning) of the
dressed birds should be segregated from that of slaughtering. This is normally done by using shackles, combined with chopping
surfaces, in a stall similar to that provided for meat or fish sales. A plentiful supply of clean water is essential for these processes.
In simple rural markets the display of live poultry may be in an open enclosure or by using the baskets in which the birds were
transported to market. With urban markets, where space is at a premium, a bank of stacked display cages is normally used, usually
three cages high (typically cages are around 0.7 to 0.8 metres high). The wooden-framed, wire-netted crates used for transport from
the farm can be utilized for this purpose. In facility design it is important not to over-provide for poultry display, otherwise large
sections of a market becomes a storage area for live birds. The potential impact of a developing battery chicken industry and frozen
poultry meat sales through supermarkets should also be taken into account. This may limit the long-term need for extensive
provision of facilities in markets.
Eggs are sold by grade, typically in baskets, cartons or trays. The eggs are often displayed as samples on a table or bench. As eggs
are highly perishable it is essential that the sales area in a market is located in the coolest place, with adequate shade and
cross-ventilation.
FIGURE 57 250 m² retail fish market, Sidi-bel-Abbes, Algeria
Source: Aloi, R. (1959). Mercati e Negozi. Ulrico Horpli Editore Milano. 1. administration 2. refrigeration room 3. sales counter
Storage
Security and the related issue of overnight storage of unsold produce is a difficult question in market design. With street markets it
is obviously unreasonable to expect that goods can be left in the market, although in many cases special lock-up facilities are
provided, either for the traders' barrows or for the produce. In fenced-in or covered markets most retailers would obviously prefer
to have secure facilities. A simple lockable cupboard under a stall is often sufficient. The next level of complexity are stalls which
can be closed off with pull-down shutters. To satisfy major traders some lock-up retail shop units are also often included within the
market area, either as separate buildings or integrated into a covered market.
FIGURE 58.Cross-section through typical fish stall in a covered market.
Source: FAO (illustration by Jeun-Michel Ambrosino)

A. insect trap
B. ventilation extract
C. display lighting, mounted sufficiently high to avoid produce damage
D. price board and promotion material
E. cutting table, possibly behind wall separating preparation and sales areas
F. storage bins
G. drainage outlet in floor
H. weighing scales over display area
continue

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Conservation of market buildings

Many existing enclosed markets have evolved almost accidentally. Decisions made to alter premises
in the past may no longer be relevant or may simply reflect policies which are no longer followed.
Political expediency may have forced market operators to implement changes which are
counter-productive to the smooth functioning of a market. For example, problems may be the result of
the re-allocation of stall space for fresh produce to vendors of other products (e.g. clothing), who are
willing to pay slightly higher rents or other inducements. Strict enforcement of market regulations,
poor revenue collection and the lack of periodic maintenance are also frequent problems.
Before deciding how to improve an existing covered market the physical fabric and operating
procedures used in the market should be examined objectively. It does not automatically follow that a
market was well designed when it was originally constructed. For example. entrances and service
access may have always been inadequate, exacerbated by recent growth in traffic levels. Some
markets are located in basement premises and others have irregular internal layouts. with obstructions
in customer flow caused by narrow aisles or because of the placing of structural columns.
FIGURE 63 Typical fixed fishmonger's or butcher's stall in a covered market Source: FAO
(illustration by Jean -Michel Ambrosino)
The market upgrading programme may necessitate, for example, the building of new lock-up premises
for non-food product traders, in order that they can be re-located outside the market hall. The overall
layout and approach to a covered market may have to be altered so that wider door openings are
provided, natural lighting and ventilation improved by enlarging window openings and service access
provided at the rear of the premises. Stalls may have to be re-positioned and aisle widths increased so
that there is more room for customers to move around safely and for produce to be visibly and more
hygienically displayed. A typical proposal for market upgrading is illustrated in Figure 62.
For fish and meat markets, existing stalls are often in a poor sanitary condition. Wall and floor
finishes may have to be renewed so that they can be properly cleaned and running water and power
may have to be provided. Figure 63 illustrates a simple stall for the sale of fish and meat, appropriate
for a new or upgraded covered market. Particular features to be noted in this illustration are the
easily-cleaned, light-coloured ceramic tiled walls and non-skid flooring, the individual water supply to
each sales unit and the display areas using easily cleaned materials, such as terrazzo, marble or
stainless steel. Concrete is also used for stalls. This may be appropriate for fruits, vegetables, spices
and grains, but is not really suitable for meat and fish. There is often a tendency for the butcher or
fishmonger to consider the concrete surface suitable for chopping, but it cannot be really kept clean
and maximum encouragement should be given to using a separate cutting board or block. A detail not
shown in the illustration, but frequently used, is a pull-down wooden or steel shutter to provide night
security.
Market infrastructure
This section broadly reviews some of the typical market infrastructure design problems and the
solutions that are used in terms of materials, construction methods and standards. Typical dimensions
for the layout of stalls for roadside and open markets are shown in Figure 64. Similar dimensions to
those used in an open market square would be applicable to the inside layout of an enclosed market.
Overall infrastructure standards are summarised in Box 10. Further details of engineering design

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criteria are given in Chapter 14 of the Wholesale Markets: Planning and Design Guide (FAO, 1991).
BOX 10
Typical market infrastructure standards
● single lane road width: 3.5 metres
● one-way road width: 7 metres
● two-way road width: 12 metres
● size of car parking areas: 4.8 x 2.4 metres
● visitors' car parking: 2 - 5 spaces per 100 m² of sale area
● visitors' car parking: preferred maximum distance from market: 100 metres (absolute maximum
distance at peak periods 200 metres)
● size of pick-up parking areas: 8 x 3.65 metres
● size of truck parking areas: 11 x 3.65 metres
● parking for traders and delivery vehicles: one or two per four stalls (in a highly motorized
society: equal to the number of stalls)
● sidewalk widths: 2.5 metres minimum (5.2 metres if roadside stalls are to be accommodated)
● water supply standpipes or tubewells at a maximum distance of 50 metres from users (25
metres preferred)
● meat and fish stalls with immediate access to water supply (i.e. adjacent)
● latrines and urinals at a maximum distance of 100 metres from users (50 metres preferred)
● dustbins or garbage pits at a maximum distance of 50 metres from users (25 metres preferred)
● lamp standards spaced at an interval of 15 to 25 metres
Roads and parking areas

All markets, however primitive in their level of facilities, require some form of vehicular access.
Farmers and traders need to bring and unload produce. Consumers need to reach markets by bus and
other forms of public transport and, in some cases may use private cars to do their shopping. With a
simple market the best form of access is a stopping point for public transport at the front of the site
and service access from the sides and rear of the premises. A more complex market, particularly a
rural assembly market or an urban market which has a partial wholesaling function, will have its own
internal road system. However, retail markets in general should be the domain of the pedestrian, at
least during their main hours of operation.
Parking provision will be dependent on the level of car ownership within society, the standard of
public transport and the catchment area of the market, i.e. whether it serves an area wider than
immediate walking distance. In some cases, the provision of parking areas for bicycles and
motorcycles can be more important than that for cars.
Sidewalks
At low levels of car or vehicle usage, such as with rural retail markets, no special provision needs to
be made for pedestrians. For urban markets, however, traffic conditions are likely to make some form
of pedestrian segregation essential. The whole market area itself may be designated as traffic-free,
except for periods when delivery vehicles are allowed to enter.
FIGURE 64 Typical road widths and street market stall dimensions. Source: Tutt, P. and Adler,

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D. (1979). New metric handbook. The Architectural Press Ltd., London, England.
With street markets and where there are very high traffic densities, such as in the centre of major
cities, the segregation is often more effectively achieved by widening the sidewalk (an absolute
minimum of 4 metres) parallel to main roads. The edge nearest the road (i.e. the kerb-side) would
contain the more intensive activities such as hawkers and street stalls. The preferred clear width of the
sidewalk should be 5.2 metres, which allows 2.5 metres for general circulation on the sidewalk, 1.2
metres in front of the stalls for customers and 1.5 metres for the stall itself (assuming that the seller
does not stand behind the stall - in which case a further 1.2 metres is needed). A variant of an area of
stalls and vendors running parallel to the main street is the "Rambles" in Barcelona - where the main
pedestrian route is down the central reservation of a street. A similar Italian example is shown in
Figure 48, where the market structure has been inserted into the centre of a street.
Where paths and roads cross it is conventional practice to provide some form of crossing where the
pedestrians can have priority. The zebra or pelican crossings, where pedestrians have right-of-way
over vehicles, are typical examples. A more effective method at markets might be to provide a
physical interruption in the road so that vehicles are forced to slow down. The surface itself might be
altered, a speed-hump ("sleeping policeman") provided or, most effectively, the road width section
might be reduced for through-traffic and the pedestrian pavement surface might continue at its normal
level across the road (say 150 to 300 mm above the road surface), with the road ramped-up on either
side (with a maximum slope on the ramps of 17 per cent).
Arcades and street coverings
To provide comfortable conditions for walking and shopping the sidewalk is often covered by an
arcade, sometimes with the edge protected by a low wall, fence or seating. Such arcades or covered
walkways are a common characteristic of traditional shopping areas in many parts of the world,
defining the edge of spaces and providing shade for pedestrians from rain and heat. To persuade
private shopkeepers to construct an arcade it may be necessary to make the construction a condition of
giving planning permission or a building permit. A variant on arcades is the semi-covered street which
uses trellises, mats, nets or vines to cover the full width of a narrow street in order to filter sunlight
and provide shade. These structures can be used to span between shops lining the market street or in
conjunction with arcades.
Pitch markings
For street markets the area allocated to the traders, usually termed a "pitch", should be clearly
delineated. A typical example from a street market improvement programme in London is shown in
Figure 65. There are a number of methods for defining pitches including: conventional roadline
painting techniques; using a different material (e.g. defining the pitch using a concrete strip or a
different colour of brick or stone); or using white thermoplastic paint baked onto bricks. The most
important consideration is that the paint or other method of defining the pitch should not be worn-off
with normal foot traffic.
The sizes of the pitches should be based on the experience of stallholders' needs. It will also be
important to distinguish each pitch by numbering. Again, a technique of painting the pitch number on
the paving is the simplest method. Pitches can also be numbered by using pre-numbered, pre-cast
concrete or bronze plates set into the street surface or by numbering a post or bollard adjacent to each
pitch.
Paving and surface water drainage

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Except in the simplest of rural situations, a market area is likely to have completely paved surfaces,
using asphalt, in-situ concrete or, where vehicle traffic is minimal, some form of paving units such as
pre-cast concrete or stone flags. The cost of paving can often use up most of the limited budget that is
available for market construction and maintenance. Finding an economic solution to paving is,
therefore, an important issue. Although easy to clean and wash down, the continuous paved surfaces
of markets can cause severe run-off and erosion problems. For these reasons small-scale, rural
markets may be effectively paved using more traditional paving materials, such as low-fired brick
paving stones or stone cobbles or even crushed and rolled gravel, which allow some of the rainwater
to be absorbed into the sub-soil.
FIGURE 66.Typical drainage channels and kerbs.
Source: Cartwright R. M (1980). The design of urban space.

The Architectural Press Ltd., London, England.
A key factor in designing any paving system will be the method of drainage. Clogging of poorly
designed or maintained drains is a common feature of many markets. With a small market there may
be no necessity to have any internal drains within the market area - all the rainwater can run to
perimeter drains. This will not be possible in larger markets where internal drains will need to be
installed. This presents two problems: the difficulty of routine cleaning, particularly of debris from
vegetables, and the potential obstruction the drains introduce, both to delivery vehicles and foot
traffic.
To counteract this, as shown in Figure 66 for example, the drainage channels are set as flush as
possible with the general level of the paving. Trapezoidal or dished-shaped drains are generally easier
to keep clean and are less damaged when a vehicle inadvertently enters them. Drain covers using
fixed steel grills are invariably damaged and should be avoided and if covers must be provided they
should be of a lift-out type. Ignoring these problems will not help, as market users often take matters
into their own hands by, for example, back-filling a drain with earth so that it does not cause an
obstruction to handcarts. Like any drainage system the alignment and gradients should be designed to
obtain a self cleansing velocity and to achieve this it is better to start the drainage runs with a
minimum invert at grade (i.e. the drain bottom at the same level as the pavement).
A major criteria for improving paving of a market should, therefore, be that the paving and associated
drains should not present any tripping hazard to market users. With the upgrading of existing market
areas, this may necessitate the raising of road levels to match that of the surrounding paving and
sidewalks, together with the removal of herbs. If materials such as stone or granite sets are used for
paving they should have as large a face area as possible so that there is a minimum disruption to
disabled people and those wearing high heeled footwear.
Electrical supply and street lighting
For permanent markets an electricity supply will often be essential, both for security reasons and so
that trading can be extended beyond the hours of daylight. This is unlikely to be affordable in most
rural markets, except those located in more important rural towns. For urban street markets a general
lighting system will need to be provided, either using conventional street lights mounted on lamp
standards or fittings attached to adjacent buildings (the spacing for these fittings will usually be in the
range of 15 to 20 metres).
In some cases, an individual electrical supply may be appropriate. The normal, unofficial method for
delivering a supply to traders' stalls is by using an overhead (catenary) cable either coming from a

Ch07a
friendly shopkeeper or from socket outlets mounted on adjacent walls. This is potentially dangerous
and will probably not conform with local electrical supply regulations. One way of getting around this
problem is by using a special electrical fitting mounted onto a pole or incorporated into a bollard. The
latter involves fitting a lockable door into a hollow-section, cast-iron or steel bollard, into which an
electrical socket outlet is installed. The cable leading to the outlet normally comes via an underground
duct, connected to a remote meter - which can record electrical consumption on the basis of part of the
market or for the individual stallholder.
Lighting for covered markets is relatively easy as light fittings can be suspended from the roof
structure. The important point to remember is that the fittings should be robust (either industrial
quality pendant fittings or fluorescent tubes) and easily accessible for replacement of bulbs or tubes.
Long-life, low-energy fittings are highly appropriate for market buildings. Maintenance procedures
for replacement of fittings should not be fully relied upon and all areas of markets should also have
some form of natural light from windows or roof-lights. In addition to lighting, traders, particularly
those operating stalls selling meat, fish or dairy products, may need an electrical power supply for
running a small refrigerator or chiller cabinet. Separate metering to maintain energy conservation is
essential in this case, unless a special charge is built into the stall rent.
An auxiliary power supply may be necessary, particularly in rural areas where no mains supply is
available. This is usually obtained using diesel-driven generator units. The environmental impact of
such a provision needs particular attention, i.e. air pollution from poor equipment maintenance and
diesel spillages from the generator itself or from on-site fuel storage tanks. A well-constructed
concrete apron, with an upstand, should be provided to minimise potential risks.
Water supply, sewerage and other infrastructure
A water supply at a reasonable walking distance is an important element in markets, particularly for
washing-down the market area. For urban markets a piped mains supply is usual, but with rural
markets a pumped supply from a bore-hole is often required. This will usually mean that the pump
will require a concrete apron to protect the supply from being contaminated and that it will probably
need to be located on the perimeter of the market. However, the overflow from the pump can be used
to flush-out drains and should not be directed straight to an outfall.
For both covered and open urban markets water is normally provided on a group basis from
stand-pipes. Bollards can also be modified to incorporate a tap. For butchers and fishmongers the
water supply should ideally be on an individual basis, but to reduce costs one water point can be
provided for every four users.
FIGURE 67.Detail of steel gate/barrier, Berwick Street, Soho, London
Source: Westminster City Council

Standards for providing toilet facilities (latrines and urinals) are shown in Box 7 in Chapter 3. It is
important that no toilet provision is made without there being an integral or nearby water supply for
washing hands and, where no mains sewer connection is available, without provision being made for
some form of on-site treatment of effluent (e.g. a septic tank).
Garbage facilities and cleaning services are discussed in Chapters 6 and 7. It is important to
remember, however, that there is little point in providing containers (skips) or constructing garbage
pits if a collection system has not been set up as part of the routine maintenance programme. The
provision of small, easily cleaned garbage pits? or preferably dustbins or paladins spread throughout
the market area is preferable to the provision of large pits remote from the users.

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From the point of view of infrastructure provision it is important to ensure that these facilities are
located so as to minimize their potential contamination of ground water sources.
Site landscaping and outdoor seating
A small part of the development budget should be set aside to provide facilities that will make the
market more comfortable for the users. Advantage should be taken of existing shade trees and new
trees planted wherever possible. The trees should be protected 'from damage by tree guards, typically
a low wall or a cast-iron grating surrounding the tree. Other forms of site landscaping should only be
introduced if it is possible to maintain them.
For larger markets outdoor seating is often provided. This needs to be located to take account of both
views and climate, which means that seats should face into the activities of the market and be
climatically appropriate, i.e. shaded in hot climates, protected from wind, or face into the sun in cooler
climates. Low walls (a minimum 400 mm in height and 300 to 500 mm deep) are an economic means
of providing seating.
Enclosure of sites for security purposes is a common feature of many open and covered markets. This
can be provided from the walls of buildings around the perimeter, close timber fencing, brick or block
walling or using chain-link fencing. Gates can be made from timber, steel or framed chain-linking.
Gates are usually left open during working
hours of the market, although if limited vehicle access is allowed during this period (or there is a
requirement for charging an entrance fee based on the vehicle type) the use of a hinged barrier is
appropriate. For urban street markets the need may be to keep traffic out during the period of market
operations and Figure 67 illustrates a welded steel hinged barrier used for this purpose in London
street markets.

Ch08
Chapter 6. Mobile facilities and equipment

Equipment is an essential element of any market and this chapter contains examples (photographs, annotated drawings and
sketches) of moveable facilities that might be appropriate. A broad distinction can be made between equipment that enables a
trader to operate a mobile or temporary retail outlet, and other types of equipment that are used in the operation of both mobile
and fixed retail facilities, such as scales.
As pointed out in Chapter 2, mobile facilities have always had a key role in the marketing of fresh produce and other household
necessities. The usefulness of such facilities is to provide supplies to areas where densities are low or transport facilities for
consumers are poor. An important part of their function, therefore, is to provide a social service.
Mobile facilities may range from a simple, unmotorized facility used by an individual vendor or hawker, in either a rural or urban
area, to sophisticated motorised vans which operate over much of Europe. In France, nine per cent of retailing is still through such
mobile outlets and in Italy they account for a significant proportion of retail trade. In the Far East (and formerly in Holland) there
has been a tradition of using water transport on rivers and canals for selling produce. The floating markets of Bangkok in Thailand
(now mostly for tourists) are probably the bestk-nown example. Most mobile facilities, however, use wheeled transport, the main
distinction being between those which are motorized and those which are self-propelled or need to be drawn by some other form of
transport, such as animals.
Facilities at periodic and street markets

Apart from use as individual mobile sales outlets, mobile facilities are also commonly used to serve the periodic markets
commonly found in the centres of small towns and villages in rural areas. At one extreme, for example, are the heat bazaars in
India and Nepal or the periodic markets of Africa and Latin America, held in a convenient open space and using
FIGURE 68 Site plan for mobile weekly-market facilities brought to fixed location, (market raun), Papua New Guinea
Source: Ward, R. G. et al. (1974). Growth centres and area improvement in the Eastern Highlands District. Department of Human
Geograpy Australian National Universit, Canberra very rudimentary equipment. At the other extreme, are the typical weekly
markets still operating in Europe where traders come fully equipped to start retailing, using display facilities and counters that can
be reassembled once they are taken off a vehicle,
"Market raun"
An interesting variant of the rural periodic market is the "market raun" system developed by the Australian National University for
the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea. In this instance, what was proposed was the establishment of a network of permanent
but low-cost periodic market sites (normally coinciding with existing informal markets and modern sector services, such as a police
or medical-aid post), the operation of which would be coordinated with the provision of mobile government services, including
health care, agricultural extension, banking and postal facilities, information services and vehicle maintenance.
The market raun sites were selected to be beyond the economic shadow of small towns, but close enough to be accessible by
all-weather road to the market raun unit's base. The logistics of operating the unit's vehicle fleet and the limited purchasing power
in the Eastern Highlands would effectively mean that the sites could only be visited on a fortnightly cycle. However, the system
would be able to provide a higher level of goods and services than would normally be obtained at the traditional periodic markets.
The basic layout for a market raun site is illustrated in Figure 68, with provision made for off-vehicle selling of foodstuffs,
beverages, clothing, hardware and agricultural input supplies, as well as the parking of government vehicles.
Mobile periodic markets in Zimbabwe
A similar programme to market raun was developed in Zimbabwe by the Italian Department for Cooperation (FIA) for the Makoni
District Communal Lands, Manicaland Province. This programme, based on the development of a network of 50 periodic markets,
was designed to serve a rural population of 150,000 people spread over an area of 2,713 square kilometres. The markets would be
located at rural service centres and within walking distance of the main rural communities. They would operate on a weekly or
fortnightly basis. On market days, they would deliver a range of mobile services, including marketing and agricultural extension
advice, health services, rural credit and community development services. Details of the personnel and equipment that would be
required to run such a service are shown in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6. 1 Equipment/personnel, Zimbabwe periodic markets
Function Personnel Equipment
1. Market management and support to local marketing 1 market supervisor one 5-8 ton truck
organizations 1 operator Marketing equipment
1 driver one 3-wheel vehicle
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2. Basic assistance & veterinary dispensary 1 technical officer one equipped van
3. Rural credit 1 government official one equipped van
4. Postage and savings accounts 1 government official one equipped van
5. Health service 1 health official one equipped van
6. General information/entertainment 1 government official one equipped van
7. Veterinary service 1 veterinary assistant one equipped van
8. Banking services 1 bank official one equipped van
9. Handicraft promotion and assistance 1 or 2 community one equipped van
to women's development groups workers one motorcycle
10. Small enterprise promotion not defined not defined
11. Marketing of agricultural products not determined one pick-up
(Information, transport, storage, quality, etc.) three motorcycles
12.Training of farmers 1 extension officer one motorcycle
13. Livestock marketing not defined not defined
Source: MOLlSV, Rural Services and Periodic Markets in Zimbabwe, FM, 1990.
Motorised retail outlets
Typical motorized mobile facilities are illustrated in Figures 69 - 71. These facilities could be operated by an individual trader
involved with door-to-door selling, but equally are likely to be found in markets. The products sold in motorized outlets are usually
fruits and vegetables, fresh meat and fish, cooked meat, cheeses and flowers.
Although such motorized outlets involve comparatively high capital investment and operating costs, they can allow a relatively
large volume of sales and an above-average quality of produce. The level of mobility they provide can permit them to serve an
extensive area, such as a number of rural centres or the suburbs of a city. The only real disadvantage of mobile facilities is the
potential traffic hazard they cause, but this is not a problem if proper parking provision is made.
A wide range of mobile facilities is used throughout the world, varying from light vehicles, such as vans, to heavy ones, like lorries
and buses. Vans generally belong to retailers, who usually purchase their products in a wholesale market or from a town's market
garden area. Lorries often belong to wholesalers - transporting produce from rural areas to the cities and using the lorry as a
temporary retail outlet.
Other transport variants are redundant buses, which can be fitted out at a relatively low cost as self-service outlets, substituting the
seats with display units. Such a converted bus is shown in Figure 69. Purpose-built trailers may be also be equipped with shelves
and an exit door for self service operation and are suitable for general foodstuffs, combined with fruits and vegetables.
For the retailing of meat and fish, the vehicles should be thermally insulated and, ideally, be refrigerated. Figure 70 illustrates a
small van suitable for meat and fish sales using chill cabinets for produce display and with lift-up sides providing protection for the
produce and shelter for customers. When these are located in urban markets a mains electrical connection is often possible. Figure
71 shows a larger refrigerated truck where, as the doors cannot be kept open during retailing operations, a covered demountable
retail stall has been provided beside the truck.
FIGURE 70. Van for meat and fish sales
A. lift-up sides to provide additional protection to produce
B. produce displayed for sale C. price boards
D. weighing scales and cash till E. cutting board
FIGURE 71. Fishmonger's or butcher's refrigerated truck
A. produce displayed on trestle tables
B. canvas awning to provide protection from rain and sun
C. weighing scales
D. cutting board
Unmotorised retail outlets
The typical unmotorized retail outlet is one operating from a cart, barrow or bicycle. Such facilities are low cost and have low
running costs. They are most suitable for door-to-door sales, often for the sale of a limited range of fruits and vegetables,

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sometimes by the original producer. They are also found on the periphery of both rural and urban street markets where they are
used for the sale of more specialized products such as eggs, poultry, fish and bread. The main limitation of these facilities is that
they offer only limited protection to produce, although it is possible to improve their design so as to minimize produce losses.
Figure 72 illustrates such an improved facility for the sale of fish, using a bicycle to tow an insulated storage box.
A variant of the unmotorized outlet is the wheeled stall or barrow, found in many markets throughout the world. As illustrated in
Figure 73, such stalls can have a wide variety of designs, ranging from the simple barrow with a demountable roof, to the
fully-enclosed mobile kiosk which can be towed to the market site by vehicle or animal power. The design of these elements is
discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
FIGURE 72. Three-wheel trailer for the sale of fish
A. display with 3 cm upstand to prevent produce falling
B. weighing scales
C. umbrella to protect fish during sale
D. insulated and airtight box for storage of fish on shelves
Awnings and umbrellas
Typical of many urban and rural street markets are the canvas awnings or tent-like structures which provide shelter and reduce
glare for the market sellers as well as customers. The "tolodos" used in Spain, which usually span the entire street, are typical
examples of canvas awnings. The canvas can be rolled back on overcast days and retractable mechanisms may be appropriate in
some instances. The traditional Italian form of shade structure is a large umbrella which can be easily collapsed for transportation.
These are now found throughout the world. A conventional beach umbrella is often adapted for the purpose. Figure 74 illustrates
the use of umbrellas to expand the sales area of a rural market in Thailand. A more modern way of providing shade is by using a
tension structure, usually with a single central pole and guy ropes or cables.
Prefabricated market stalls and barrows
A common element of many market development programmes is the use of prefabricated stalls and barrows. This has the
advantage that the stalls can be manufactured off-site and after use can be moved around, for example for cleaning, or even moved
to another market. The stalls can be for an individual trader or for a pair of traders or, less commonly, for three or four traders. The
typical sales or table area per trader would be in the range of 0.8 to 1.2 square metres.
The most common materials used for manufacturing the stalls are steel or timber or a combination of these materials. Figure 75
shows a rather over-elaborate stall design in pressed-sheet steel, in contrast to Figure 76 which uses the same material in a more
functional manner. In the latter case. the stalls incorporate a roof integral storage. an upstand rail to prevent produce slipping off
the sales area and a small shelf at a lower level convenient for shoppers to place their bags. For colder climates, or where it is
necessary to provide a greater level of security for the trader's goods, the stall can be constructed as a kiosk which will provide a
complete enclosure (i.e. with a roof and walls).
FIGURE 73. Typical mobile and demountable facilities for selling fresh food and flowers in Denmark
Source: Salodin, E. (undated). Wanderings in Copenhagen. Carit Anderson Publishers, Copenhagen.

Mobile barrows are another form of sales facility common in street markets in the USA, Britain and South-East Asia. The main
advantage they offer is that both the barrow and produce can be taken away from the market site after business hours, thus offering
greater security. The corollary of this is that their use requires that garaging facilities for the barrows are provided at a convenient
location and at an affordable rent.
Figure 77 .Illustrates a simple two-wheeled barrow with a shelf underneath in which produce can be stored. A model frequently
used in Indonesia, for example is a fully enclosed timber box with four wheels and lift-up flaps on top to obtain, access to the
stored produce. Poorer vendors often sleep on top of their barrows. A variant common in London is a barrow with side access for
storage and with a stepped top so that produce can be more effectively displayed and a roof formed from lift-up flaps. Figure 78
shows a simple non-mobile stall, with a sloping top for better produce display, usually from boxes.
In laying out the market pitches in a street market it is important to take account of the dimensions of the commonest form of stalls
and barrows. Most barrows are arranged with their longest dimension parallel to the street. In the case of the usual form of Chinese
barrow, which is either pushed or towed by bicycle (illustrated in Chapter I - Figure 7), the barrows are normally arranged end-on
to the street.
Trestle tables and display stands
The simplest form of sales space in street markets is the trestle table. These are sometimes available ready-made (for example as
foldable painters' tables) although they tend to be not robust enough to stand the heavy wear that will occur in most markets. Figure
79 illustrates a purpose-built vendor's table constructed in local timber and suitable for the sale of fruits and vegetables. This was
developed in the Eastern Caribbean as part of a market improvement project.

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Covered markets and small shops, where there is wall space available, allow the use of a tiered form of display stand as shown in
Figure 80. The sale of fish, meat, dairy products and cooked foods requires that the surface of such tables can be easily cleaned.
Figure 81 shows a rudimentary form of table used for fish sales in Nepal with a metal top to the table. Zinc sheet is used in this
case and aluminium is also common, but stainless steel would be the most appropriate. For gutting and boning, a separate chopping
block or table should be used. Figure 82 shows sea food displayed on a folding bench, lined with plastic-sheet, and shaded by an
umbrella. In the background of the photograph is an insulated fishmonger's van and to the left a metal-topped trestle table. Similar
folding benches are used for the sale of cheeses and other dairy products in French and British markets.
Both covered markets and open sheds are often provided with fixed stalls formed from permanent materials, such as concrete or
masonry. The components for these can be prefabricated off-site so that a higher standard of finish is obtained. The design for such
a stall, suitable for the sale of meat or fish, is shown in Figure 83.
Other market equipment

Retail markets, even when they are the central market of a city, are not like wholesale markets, where sophisticated equipment such
as fork-lift trucks for produce handling on pallets, may be justifiable. Other than weighing facilities, most rural and urban retail
markets will only have very limited equipment.
FIGURE 77. Barrow for the sale of fruits and vegetables
A. display with 3 cm upstand to prevent produce falling
B. produce displayed for sale
C. umbrella to protect produce
D. weighing scales
E. wet sacking to cover produce
F. water for dampening produce
G. storage of produce
Weighing equipment
The types of weighing equipment that are commonly used in retail markets are:
● a steelyard: this type of weighing method utilises a suspended arm with a moveable weight and a single pan scale. It is
convenient for hawkers and other mobile vendors as it is low cost, lightweight, compact and does not utilize separate
weights, nor need adjustment.
● a pan scale: this is a sturdy form of weighing equipment, comprising a bottom fulcrum and two pans one for the weights and
the other for produce. It is convenient for mobile vendors using a working area, such as barrows. motorized vehicles and
street stalls, as well as for fixed outlets. For accurate weighing and to satisfy customers a complete range of weights, ranging
from 50 grams to two kilograms, is needed.
● a spring balance: this is probably the most inexpensive and common type of weighing equipment for both hawkers and for
traders in small rural markets. Generally, the produce is either weighed by the bunch (e.g. bananas) or in a standard container
such as a canned-milk tin.
● a dial scale: this type of weighing equipment is expensive to purchase and relatively fragile, requiring regular adjustment,
but it allows more rapid service as the weight is displayed immediately and precisely. Dial scales are available in table and
suspended versions and are most suitable for fixed retail outlets.
● an electronic scale: this allows the most accurate and rapid service, and is preferred by customers as it displays at the same
time the weight, unit price per kilogram and the price to pay. The disadvantages are the high cost of purchase and repair, and
the need for an electrical connection. It will not function during a power cut and in many countries a stabilizer is necessary,
as well as a stand-by traditional balance. Such weighing equipment is really only appropriate for permanent markets with a
reliable power connection or for shops and supermarkets.
FIGURE 78. Simple stall for the sale of fruits, vegetables and spices
Source: FAO (illustration by Jeun-Michel Ambrosino)
A. wooden tray supported on steel or timber frame (length 1.2-1.5 metres, width 0.7-0.8 metres, height to tray 0.8 metres)
B. display with 3 cm upstand to prevent produce falling
C. canvas awning to provide protection from rain and sun
FIGURE 79. Details of vendor's 0.9 x1.5 metre folding trestle table in timber construction, Eastern Caribbean
Source: FAO
Produce handling
For street markets, produce is usually unloaded directly adjacent to the stall or barrow and manual handling methods are normally

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all that is required. However, developments in packaging methods, resulting from changes on the farm or from changes at a central
wholesale market do have an impact, particularly on the marketing practices adopted in the periodic markets in Western Europe.
FIGURE 80. Typical fruit and vegetable display stand for covered market or small shop
● overall dimensions: length 1.5 metres, width; 0.7 metres
● shelf heights: 0.4 to lowest; 0.9 to middle; 1.4 metres to top shelf
● shelf upstands: 3-8 cm to lowest;3 cm to middle and top shelves
● shelf slope if produce is displayed in crates
● decorative roof, with possibility for display lighting
It is not uncommon in France, for example, for the traders at their stores to stack their produce (typically boxed tropical fruits and
cut flowers) directly on display stands equipped with wheeled bases and then load the stands onto their truck by using a hydraulic
platform fitted to the vehicle. When they arrive at the market, they simply reverse the process and the produce is unloaded and
immediately ready for sale on the display stands.
When produce has to be brought into a market where the parking areas are remote, or into an enclosed market building, some form
of trolley or cart system is usually adopted to reduce the dependence on porters. This necessitates ramped access to the market. The
range of loads that such trolleys can accommodate is wide, but loads of half to one tonne are normal. Smaller trolleys and carts are
sometimes used if a porterage facility is available for handling produce which has already been purchased and needs to be
transported to a customer's vehicle (or in some cases, delivered directly to his or her home). For example, although produce can be
brought in by road, a large proportion of produce leaving Zanzibar's Stone Town Market is delivered by porters,, as car access into
the town's narrow lanes is not possible.
Cool storage
In some circumstances, particularly in covered retail markets handling fresh meat, poultry and fish, the use of cool stores is
appropriate. Care should be taken to ensure that such facilities are not too large and that they can be run on a self-financing basis.
Ideally, these stores should be the property of the traders themselves (e.g. an individual butcher or fishmonger) and come under
their direct management. A possible way of accommodating cool storage is to make provision for electrical outlets on a metered
supply where the trader can plug in a small-scale domestic refrigerator or freezer. However, care should be taken that no CFC
leakages are occuring from the refrigerating equipment.
Solid waste collection
The collection and disposal of solid waste from the market always needs special consideration. Poor solid waste management
measures (including site cleansing) can result in a build up of refuse and rodent/insect infestation. Solid waste at most retail
markets is mostly organic and sophisticated disposal systems using, for example, on-site compactors are generally not financially
viable. Recycling and composting, involving the separation of organic and non-organic elements, is usually better organized as a
centralized facility serving more than just markets. Alternative methods of off-site waste disposal could be investigated, such as the
use of organic waste as compost and the recycling of non-organic waste by small entrepreneurs.
The method often adopted for the organization of solid waste in markets is to arrange for it to be taken (by cleaners and/or the
traders themselves) to a central location, such as a walled enclosure, from where it is re-loaded onto refuse collection vehicles. It is
usually very difficult to keep these facilities clean, particularly as the refuse is double-handled.
A more satisfactory method is the use of a container (skip) system, using receptacles manufactured from sheet steel, which are
relatively easy to clean. Skips can be as small as 2 to 3 m³, but the normal standard skip holds around 7 m³ of vegetable waste. A
market with an annual throughput of 10,000 tons (i.e. around 28 tons per day) would produce a daily amount of solid waste of
around 1.4 tons, requiring a daily skip collection service. For more detailed calculations of rates of solid waste generation see
Chapters 13 and 14 of the Wholesale Markets: Planning and Design Guide (FAO, 1991).
The use of skips does not always require a special collection vehicle. For example, Maseru City Council in Lesotho, has arranged
its commercial and industrial solid waste collection using skips of 6.2 m³ capacity, with doublehinged doors on either side (to
prevent flies and rodents entering the skip) and with a top-hinged tailgate for easy discharge. The skips are transported to the
disposal site using a tractor linked to a tippable chassis on which the skip is transported.
FIGURE 83. Prefabricated concrete stall for the sale of meat and fish, with overhead hanging rail
Source: Author

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Chapter 7. Management and regulation of markets

This chapter outlines the management and institutional factors which need to he taken into account when developing proposals for
a new market or for upgrading existing market facilities.
Market management systems

The improvement of markets should always start with an examination of whether the existing methods of management, rather than
the physical facilities, are not in themselves a major constraint to efficient operations. It may be necessary to develop radically
different ownership patterns and market management procedures.
Market ownership options
There a clear distinction between the management needs of an exclusively retail market and one which has an assembly or
wholesaling function. In the case of the latter it is important for both producers and buyers to be provided with an environment
where price formation can occur. In these circumstances, the public sector may not necessarily provide the best management
system, as the motivations of public sector bodies are often quite unrelated to agriculture. Thus, where the major function of a
market is related to assembly or wholesaling the ideal form of management is more likely to be one where producers or traders are
the main driving force in both creating the market and in providing its long-term management. The wholesale markets of London
and Amsterdam are examples of such cooperative organizations.
However, this is unlikely to be suitable for small-scale. mixed function markets where the main role is that of providing retail
facilities. Although in the long term some form of privatization of market services may be appropriate (e.g. by franchise
agreements for management of selected services), in the short term a rural or municipal council is likely to be the most appropriate
body to manage a retail market.
Changes to market management systems
Any changes to an existing market management system will need to be based on a realistic assessment of what is practical.
Institutional changes may in some cases be essential, whilst in other only minimal changes may be needed. Often, an analysis of
the present operations of a market may reveal that within existing physical and budgetary constraints, a market is quite well
managed. What is needed in that case is to build upon this management capacity. The difficulties which may exist in a market are
often the results of a lack of a unified management system, hampering the efficient utilization of market facilities and limiting the
means by which it is possible to adequately respond to the needs of market users.
Small rural markets or urban roadside markets: a complex organization structure is not appropriate in this case. The presence
of full-time market staff des not make any economic sense and the options are limited to either a franchise operation with private
enterprise or an organization run by a traders' group or association. At the simplest level, particularly when rents for stalls or
pitches are collected on a monthly or annual basis, regular visits by local health and licensing inspectors will be an adequate system
of management.
Larger markets: the control and policy functions are performed on a day-to day basis by officials appointed by a rural or
municipal council. The basic question will be: how can this system be improved? A market should ideally be self-accounting, with
its own budget and be separately audited, with day-to-day operations coming under the direction of the Market Master.
Policy and control functions would normally be vested in a management committee with a wide representation of the parties
directly concerned with the overall market operations, drawn from the local authority and other relevant bodies, including
representatives of traders', producers' and consumers" organizations. If traders are not organized one of the main functions of the
committee will be to assist in setting up an appropriate organization. The chair of the committee should report directly to the
director of the local authority.
A management committee's responsibility is to design and operate a well-functioning organization; which will include defining
procedures for the following:
● management information systems;
● sales methods;
● minimum staffing requirements and qualifications, job descriptions, selection procedures, levels of remuneration, promotion
criteria and training needs;
● budget control procedures, for monitoring expenditure levels and evaluating performance, and for the development of annual
capital and recurrent budgets;
● the operation of market regulations;
● monitoring the quantity, origin and final destination of market throughput;
● ensuring revenue collection and making appropriate revisions to rental levels and daily fees;
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● tracers' short and long-term licensing and leasing arrangements;
● post-harvest techniques, produce handling and phytosanitary control procedures;
● general hygiene and public health control, including solid waste management; and
● elaborating requirements for improved and additional facilities.
For small rural markets and urban street markets many of these functions will still exist but are obviously less complex in nature. In
that case, the majority of decision making should be delegated to a traders' organization. The market authority (whether local
authority or private enterprise) would need to initiate meetings on a regular basis with the traders in order that specific issues can
be discussed and resolved.
Institutional actions
Although the broad framework for operating the market may have been defined this will probably need further clarification before
project implementation can occur. For complex projects a number of actions will typically need to be taken prior to
implementation:
● establish an overall steering committee with the duty of agreeing financial and institutional arrangements, such as modes of
market ownership, operating procedures, and levels of fees;
● establish, through the steering committee, links with the private sector with a view to extending the licensing of traders and
to improving marketing practices;
● agree with public bodies their involvement in solid waste collection' street lighting, drainage and environmental issues; and
● define the scope of an appropriate programme for staff training.
Responsibility of a market authority in market management

The role of an authority or management unit is crucial for a market's administration and operation and there is often a need to
strengthen it so that these functions can be effectively performed. This will apply whether the authority is dealing with individual
street traders or groups of market traders. To achieve the efficient day-to-day operation of a market the minimum duties that a
market authority should be involved in are:
● the allocation of space, including changes in occupancy based on a waiting list;
● maintenance of the market and enforcement of hygiene standards;
● ensuring law and order. including enforcement of market rules and regulations;
● the collection of market fees (to cover the cost of running the market and to collect additional revenue for a local authority;
● traffic control and management; and
● the provision of services, such as water supply and waste collection.
Market fees and revenues

There are a number of different ways in which markets can collect revenues. The collection method should be simple and
inexpensive to administer, and it should correspond to normal practices. The collection method should be seen to be fair and be
highly visible. What is appropriate for a main urban retail market will not be suitable for a street market. The following types of
market tees are usual:
● daily ticket fees: charged for entrance to a market and providing permission for vending outside or inside the market. These
fees are set at a level according to the space occupied or the product brought in for sale (head load, barrel, sack, basket or
box);
● stand or pitch fees: for the daily or weekly use of a pitch area, based on the size of the pitch and sometimes its location in the
market area (e.g. higher feesa are usually for pitches near the entrance);
● parking fees: charged on entry and based on the type of vehicle;
● stall rents: charged on a monthly, quarterly or annual basis for the use of a meat, fish or other fixed stalls or for a lock-up
shop (rents usually based on area and location);
● slaughterhouse dues: paid for permission to slaughter an animal;
● fish tolls: paid for sale of fish and marine products;
● charcoal dues: paid for the sale of bags of charcoal; and
● Iicence tees: paid by specialised market users. such as hucksters, butchers, slaughter-men, fishermen and mushroom sellers.
Function of market staff

The function of the market staff is to co-ordinate and manage the operation of a market and to provide general services for the
benefit of all the market users. A market usually comes under the overall supervision of a market superintendent, master or clerk.
He or she will provide the main channel of communication to the board or committee and be assisted by a minimum number of
staff. A medium or large-size market, for example, may have three basic sections: revenue collection, administration, and record
keeping (including providing price information); security and traffic control; and cleaning and maintenance.

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A major part of a market authority's role is to maintain hygiene standards (e.g collection of waste and regulation of meat/fish sales)
and to provide security. This is usually done in cooperation with public health authorities and the police force. The control of theft
and crime in markets is a major problem worldwide and losses by these means often account for a significant amount of market
users' costs.
Another important function of the market staff is to promote efficient operations. It is essential, therefore, to maintain good
relations with market users, involving them in the operation and maintenance of the facilities. The market staff should also promote
the use of improved facilities and equipment, in order to attract vendors of a diverse range of products and to maximize the
market's turn-over.
Market rules and regulations

Without a minimum of discipline, understood and agreed by the users, market operations cannot succeed. Therefore, the smooth
operation of a market and the proper use of its facilities requires the promotion and strict compliance with a set of realistic
regulations. However, many existing market rules are not directed towards efficient operations. They frequently have a regulatory
character and are hardly implemented.
To allow regulations to be imposed at a market there needs to be enabling legislation in place and this is usually provided in the
form local government acts or, more rarely, special market legislation. This legislation permits an authority to enact or modify
by-laws. Proposals for new regulations should be prepared in collaboration with market administration, staff and users and should
not be limited to questions of the operation of market outlets. The probable behaviour of the users should be taken into account and
rules devised which are enforceable within the constraints of staff availability and cultural norms. For easy and correct
enforcement, the rules need to be clear, concise and written in language intelligible to every user. A public signboard giving a
summary of the main rules, principally those relating to operation hours, traffic, public and users behaviour, should be put up in
various points within the market.
A simple and comprehensive set of model regulations is shown in Annex C. These can be modified depending on the size and
function of the market. The basic issues that need to be addressed in any set of rules or written into any lease agreement are
outlined below.
Market administration
Administrative matters should be covered, including the name and address of the market authority, their general liability and
disciplinary powers, and sanctions which will be applied for breaches of the marketing, hygiene and security rules. The contract
duration should be specified, including the renewal or termination conditions (i.e. the period of notice and how it is to be given).
Ideally, contracts for the rent of fixed stalls should not exceed one year. Temporary users should be required to pay fees in advance
on a daily basis.
Sanctions in case of defaults in payment should be defined (normally requiring the termination of a contract), together with the
liability of retailers for any damage caused by them or their personnel, either to the common parts of the market or to the allocated
stand or stall. The competent authority to settle conflicts between users and administration should also be specified.
Market operations
The opening and closing hours of the market should be specified, including special days such as religious holidays and other days
when the market is closed. In some markets a set period is specified for deliveries and stall preparation (generally during the first 2
to 3 hours before opening to the public). At opening time, all further deliveries should be prohibited and stall displays completed.
At the end of the day it is normal for traders to leave within 30 minutes of public closing time.
The regulations should provide powers to the market personnel to enforce traffic management controls, including correct parking,
non obstruction of roads, prohibition of washing or repairing vehicles, and the rapid departure of vehicles after unloading.
The market authority should have the right to prohibit users from erecting any structure and from installing refrigeration or other
electric equipment without obtaining approval. The authority should also reserve the right to undertake general inspections of
premises at any time and to be able to direct stallholders to make repairs.
Marketing practices
Traders should be prohibited from selling goods other than those noted in their contract. There should be a general obligation for
retailers with permanent contracts to maintain their stall open during the working hours and for the duration of contract. Traders
should be excluded from encroaching or obstructing public rights of way.
Depending on local practice there should be an obligation on traders to display prices by labels or notice board (see Figure 84) and
to use accurate scales. The authority should reserve a right of inspection by market personnel (normally in collaboration with a
local authority's Weights and Measures service).
Public order

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The market authority should reserve the right to prohibit admission or expel any person causing a disturbance in the market. It
should also reserve the right to terminate the contracts of users with a record of bad relationships with other traders, the market
administration and the general public.
Security and fire safety
Theft, accidents or damage caused by fire together with the misuse of equipment has to be minimised. To ensure security, all
critical areas, such as electrical control rooms, should be kept locked and only authorized personnel should have access. Fire
extinguishers and hydrants should be regularly inspected and access to fire-fighting equipment should not be obstructed. There
should be a prohibition on the use of open fires for cooking except in locations designated for that purpose.
Hygiene control and inspection
Hygiene is a critical part of any market rules, and these should thus include the right of a market administration to withdraw any
product unsuitable for consumption and to void a contract in cases of frequent breach of hygiene standards. Where stalls are
provided, products should not be placed on the ground and the market authority should reserve the right to reject any spoiled food
products. Tools and cleaning products should be stored in a place out of contact with food products. Traders should be obliged to
keep stalls clean and waste should be deposited in the bins or skips provided by the market authority. General cleaning should be
undertaken at the end of the working day.
Unless special facilities are provided, the regulations should exclude access for live animals from the market and also prohibit
slaughtering. All slaughtered meat entering a market should have been inspected by competent veterinary services. Butchers'
cutting boards and other tools should be kept clean and butchers should be prohibited from mincing meat in advance of purchase.
Frozen products should be immediately stored in a cold room or cold cabinet.
To prevent diseases spread by direct contact or though product handling every person working in outlets selling dairy products,
fish, poultry, meat-based products and cooked food, should have an annual medical inspection and, ideally, wear an apron and a
head covering, such as a hat or scarf.
Market maintenance
The question of market maintenance is of great importance for market operations. In many cases maintenance is unsatisfactory
because market revenues are usually required to go into the consolidated fund of a local authority or central government treasury.
The creation of an autonomous market authority can be a useful means of preventing this problem, particularly if the market has its
own development and maintenance fund. Ideally, between 20 and 30 per cent of the market revenue should be used for such
purposes.
The maintenance of a market comprises a wide range of activities. Daily cleaning of the common parts and individual premises
will be needed, particularly the stalls and equipment in any meat and fish sections and where cooked food is being prepared. On a
periodic basis, cleaning and maintenance of the building fabric will be needed, including the removal of cobwebs, repair and
cleaning of roof and wall finishes and upkeep of the main services, such as the water supply, drainage and sewerage systems.
Infrastructure and buildings, including the floors, gates, fences and stalls, should be kept in good state of repair.
The proper maintenance of refrigeration facilities is also important. They present a particular health problem and to ensure good
product preservation it is necessary to check the accuracy of the temperature, ensure that the defrost system is functioning and that
air circulation is not obstructed by products in store.
One of the main issues to consider will be the collection of solid waste (see Chapter 6). Inside the market area this will normally be
the responsibility of market cleaners. The local authority will normally be responsible for collection from the market and ultimate
disposal.
The responsibility for market maintenance will be divided between the market authority and the market's users. For long-term
maintenance, the use of outside contractors is likely to be appropriate. An outline schedule for market maintenance is shown in
Table 7.1.
Training
With complex projects, regular training will be an essential component. This should aim to strengthen the ability of market staff to
manage a market more efficiently and help retailers to improve their profit margins. Successful training of retailers should make
them more competitive.
To implement a training programme it will be necessary to appoint a person to be in charge of organizing, coordinating and
supervising the training activities. This will include defining the training needs for market personnel and market users, and
selecting the candidates to participate in the programme. Ideally, a number of persons should be given additional training in
different fields so that they can continue the training activities after the main training programme is completed. With a major
training programme it will also be necessary to undertake a regular evaluation of the training activities.

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Training for market operators needs to be accompanied by the promotion of improved marketing practices, (e.g. use of transactions
by weight) and this is often best achieved by extension programmes.
TABLE 7.1. Market maintenance and repair activities
Section of market Frequency Responsibility
COMMON PARTS: - outside areas
Sweep market common parts before starting operation. Daily Market cleaners
Wash-down slaughter slab (if applicable) Daily Market cleaners
Clean public toilets/latrines Daily Market cleaners
Collect solid waste at end of day Daily Market cleaners
Wash cool store floor, rails and hooks (if applicable) Weekly Market cleaners
Spray against insects Monthly Market cleaners
Inspect and clean out and de-silt surface water drains Monthly Market cleaners
Re-paint road and floor markings Annually Contractor
Rod-out closed drains and sewers Annually Contractor
Check electrical supply connections Annually Contractor
Maintain gates and fences in good repair Every 2 to 3 years Contractor
Maintain roads and floors in good repair Every 3 to 5 years Contractor
BUILDINGS
Sweep aisles and entrances before starting operation. Daily Market cleaners
Sweep market stalls before starting operation. Daily Stall holders
Wash stalls in meat and fish sections Daily Stall holders
Remove cobwebs to roof Weekly Market cleaners
Replace light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, etc. When necessary Market cleaners
Clean windows Every 2 to 3 months Contractor
Check electrical fittings and fuses, etc. Annually Contractor
Check fire extinguishers, alarms, etc. Annually Contractor
Repair fixed market stalls Every 2 to 3 years Contractor
Repaint building structure, doors, windows. etc. Every 3 to 5 years Contractor

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Chapter 8. Formulating a simple market project

The intention of any market development project is to allow retailers to increase incomes, whilst also offering to consumers better produce
at more affordable prices in conditions that are more convenient and hygienic. When formulating and implementing a project it is necessary
to have a clearly defined purpose, whether it be for local funding by central or local government or a private entrepreneur or for financing
by an outside donor.
Defining the purpose of a project

While there may be a distinct difference of emphasis between urban and rural markets, in both cases a project's desired outcome will be to
improve the distribution and marketing of products, in particular perishable foodstuffs (including fruits and vegetables, meat, fish and
poultry), with the purpose of enhancing the welfare of all the parties involved in the marketing chain.
Purposes of a project
To accomplish this overall purpose the results which the project are expected to achieve will need to be defined in detail. This is necessary
in order to ensure that all the components or inputs for undertaking a project (including associated costs) are included in the development
programme. A market project will usually have three basic objectives:
● improvement of the physical conditions and facilities in the market, including in many cases its immediate environs;
● improvement of the public health and hygiene conditions for the marketing of fresh produce in the market and (in some instances)
improving the conditions for slaughtering animals; and
● establishment of an improved capability in marketing of fruit, vegetables, fresh meat, fish and poultry through the provision of an
efficient and cost-effective market management system, including trained and motivated market staff and users.
Benefits of a project
An hygienic and efficient marketing facility brings about a range of clear public and private benefits which will be spread widely between
producers, traders in the market and consumers. A description of these benefits are outlined in Chapter 1. Market sites are often public
property and it is the duty of rural or municipal authorities to realise the maximum return that is compatible with efficiency, good order and
hygiene.
The need for consultation with market users
The provision of modern premises and facilities resulting from a development programme will not on its own achieve improved conditions,
unless the market's functionaries are also encouraged to rationalise their activities and to adapt themselves to new marketing techniques.
Such changes in attitudes are an essential component of any programme and can only be attained through the provision of appropriate
extension and training, as outlined in Chapter 7.
Whether the programme involves the creation of a new market or the upgrading of an existing one it is essential to establish a working
relationship between the administration or developer carrying out the project and the market's users. If not approached in the right way a
number of problems can occur. The following approaches should be avoided:
Assistance on its own: this can lead to a passive, "wait-and-see" attitude, with the market users losing any spirit of initiative and tending to
expect the project to provide the solution to all of their problems. It may result in a general dissatisfaction with the project, and in market
users objecting when their demands are not fully addressed.
There are costs associated with any assistance programme and a corresponding financial contribution should be expected from the retailers.
Stalls and equipment provided by the project should be paid for by the market users. Wherever possible, the users should be the owners of
the equipment. If they cannot afford the capital cost (even with access to credit) equipment should be rented on a daily or weekly basis. For
example, in some places where fruits and vegetables were traditionally sold by the piece or by the heap, sales by weight have been
successfully introduced by renting scales to retailers.
Intervention on its own: developing a new market or a programme for reorganization by initiating changes and introducing regulations
without previous consultation with the users (and without extension and training programmes) can lead to distrust and rejection.
Consequently, users may try to bypass the market rules and conditions for corruption' low performance, high user turnover and parallel
markets may be created.
Mechanisms for user participation
Communication channels between the market's administration and those concerned in the marketing process, especially the traders, should
be established from the outset. The method of management, the introduction of new laws and regulations, the expected changes in working
methods and proposals for reorganization of the site, will all need to be agreed. This will allow the project to take account of users'
suggestions, when compatible with the general interest, and also avoid the spreading of false rumours and the creation of resistance to
change. This implies that during the survey and design stages of the project (see Chapter 3) the following steps should be undertaken:
● information is collected on retailers' activities (i.e. whether they are permanent or seasonal, trade in one or a number of products and
their overall turnover), their financial and technical capability, their interest in further training and what improvements to the market
they think are desirable;
● information is provided to the retailers on when (and where) the project is likely to start, who will undertake the works and manage
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the market, the basis for financing the improvements and the overall budget, a justification for the changes in service charges and
level of activities expected as a result of the changes;
● discussions are held with the market users about selection criteria for the grant of licences and permits, revisions to market rules,
overall organization, proposed changes to rents and charges, the availability of credit, interim measures where markets are being
redeveloped or transferred and the content, dates, venues and duration of training programmes.
The best approach to establishing communication and cooperation between market authorities and users is the creation of a small advisory
committee which meets at frequent intervals during the development period and includes representatives of the authority and every group of
users including, if applicable, wholesalers and producers.
The formulation of a project

The essence of any formulation of a market development project is to enable the funder of a project (whether it is a local authority, a private
company, a donor or a mixture of these) to make a decision on whether to go ahead with the programme. To achieve this it will be necessary
to provide answers to two fundamental questions:
● if the programme is undertaken as envisaged, will the proposed increase in rents and charges cover the estimated cost?
● if the likely maximum rents and charges are already known, what is the total maximum amount of money that can be spent on
improving the market?
BOX 11
The formulation of a simple market project
1. Overall master plan of physical requirements
2. Definition of off-site planning and infrastructure requirements
3. Budget capital cost estimates.
4. Estimate of recurrent costs
5. Estimate of revenues:
● daily licence fees or tolls
● annual or monthly rents; and
● long leases or sale of sites.
6. Calculation of economic and financial benefits

7. Impact evaluation of the project:
● impact on beneficiaries (producers, traders, consumers)
● income generation
8. Environmental impact and effect on special interest groups

9. Definition of project risks and follow-up actions (e.g. land title availability, detailed survey requirements, etc.)
10. Methods of project implementation and financing
In both cases the means of answering these questions is to undertake an analysis or feasibility study in which the costs and benefits of the
project can be represented in financial and economic terms. The components of the formulation process are summarised in Box 11 and are
explained in more detail in the following sections.
Components of a simple market project
Before the financial and economic analysis can be undertaken it will be necessary to assemble together all the information that has been
collected and prepared in designing the project. The usual inputs or components that will need to be considered are described in the
following sections.
Project capital costs:
Detailed budget estimates of capital costs of market improvement works will need to be prepared by an architect or engineer. These
estimates will provide the basis for making an overall cash flow on a year-by-year basis. This budget may include new buildings,
infrastructure and equipment and, in some circumstances, off-site requirements such as road links' bus stops, drainage outfalls, electrical,
sewer and water supply connections.
This part of the preparation of a project should be undertaken as carefully as possible. Preferably, each component of the programme should
be priced in detail on the basis of unit rates derived from recent contracts of a similar scale or, if applicable. using quotations obtained from
manufacturers or suppliers (e.g. for equipment). It is usual to add a physical contingency sum of between 10 to 2() per cent to the costs to
allow for uncertainties. If the nature of the estimate is very broad (i.e. no suitable unit rates are available) or the nature of the works is
speculative, such as site preparation where the sub-soil conditions are unknown, then a higher percentage should be used.
Typical cost summaries are shown in Tables 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3. Table 8.1 illustrates the principal components included in an overall
implementation programme for the development of fifty new periodic markets in Zimbabwe. Table 8.2 shows the costs for improving rural
producer markets in Nigeria, contrasting the requirements for different scales of market yard and facilities.
TABLE 8. 1. Periodic market programme Zimbabwe

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Description of investment Average size of unit Unit cost (Z$) No. of units Total cost (Z$)
required
Site clearance, levelling and access 1 hectare 1,000 50 50,000

Fencing for cattle (paddocks) 500 m run 1,500 50 75,000
Open sheds 100 sq. metres 5,000 50 250,000
Buildings 50 sq. metres 10,000 40 400,000
Water supply Lump sum 10,000 10 100,000
Sanitation Lump sum 1,000 50 50,000
Total for 50 periodic market locations 925,000
Source: MOLISV Rural services and periodic Markets in Zimbabwe. FM 1990.

TABLE 8.2. . Civil works for rural producer market improvements
Item Unit Unit Cost Quantity: Cost (US$'000):
(US$) small large small large
Site levelling ha. 2,000 0.5 2 1.00 4.00
Grading ha. 900 0.5 2 0.45 1.80
Reinforced concrete drains m. run 24 360 720 8.64 17.28
2 m. high steel wire fencing /poles m. run 30 360 720 10.80 21.60
Entry and exit gates Number 720 2 2 1.44 1.44
Latrines (10 no. facilities) Lump sum 3,000 1 1 3.00 3.00
Tubewell and pump Lump sum 1,500 1 1 1.50 1.50
9 m² concrete garbage pit Lump sum 900 1 1 0.90 0.90
Concrete slab for auction platform m² 16 60 60 0.96 0.96
Total cost (US$ '000) 28.69 52.48
Source: FAO Investment Centre. Nigeria Rural Roads and Marketing Project, 1993.
Table 8.3 illustrates the cost components for improving an urban retail market in Zanzibar which combines retailing of fish and meat in an
enclosed building with the sale of fruit, vegetables and poultry in sheds or in open areas. In this instance, the costs are presented in only a
summary form and each component would need to be supported by a detailed cost schedule. Two other features of Table 8.3 are interesting.
First, it includes an allowance for professional fees, as the work is of sufficient complexity to require the employment of outside
consultants; and, second, a significant amount of the budget (over 30 per cent) is allocated to off-site works. Such a provision is frequently
required in the case of upgrading of urban markets, particularly for roadworks and drainage. In the Zanzibar case, to omit the off-site works
would not have allowed a viable project to be developed.
More detail on the types of cost elements and how they should be estimated is given in Chapter 10 of the Wholesale Markets Planning and
Design Manual (FAO, 1991).
TABLE 8.3 Capital costs for urban retail market upgrading
Item Cost (US$ '000) % total
1.Market building - new building works 400.02 30.4
2.Market building - rehabilitation of existing buildings 199.21 15.2
3.Site preparation works and landscaping 45.00 3.4
4.On-site paving and external works 49.98 3.8
5.On-site water distribution, drainage, electricity and 49.97 3.8
sewerage
6.Off-site roads, parking areas and paving 240.10 18.3
7.Off-site sewerage and surface water drainage 150.00 11.4
8.Off-site water and electricity supplies 35.30 2.7
Total civil works (including physical contingencies) 1169.58 89.0
9. Professional fees
Engineer/architect - design @ 5% 4.5 58.48
Engineer/architect - supervision @ 2.5% 2.2 29.24
Quantity surveyor @ 1.5% 1.3 17.54

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10. Market fixed and mobile equipment 40.0 3.0

Total cost (US $\'000) including physical contingencies 1314.84 100.0
Project recurrent costs:

In addition to the capital costs of civil works and equipment it will be necessary to estimate the annual recurrent or running costs of the
market, and to include the cost of any training programme or other special promotions that are proposed.
These costs may increase or decrease as a result of the market improvement. An increase will occur if more staff are employed or if
additional services are used, such as electrical power as a result of introducing internal or external lighting. Running costs may decrease if a
rationalization of management results in reduced staffing requirements or if the improved infrastructure might result in reduced cleaning,
maintenance or insurance costs.
Project revenues:
the next step will be to consider what additional revenues the market improvements will produce. There are two basic approaches to making
such estimates. The first method is to raise charges so that they are in line with comparable properties or facilities elsewhere. The second
method is to estimate the increases on the basis of the additional trade that the market is likely to generate as a result of the improvements
and of income and demographic growth, i.e. to relate the charges to market turnover (in which case detailed projections of future volumes
are essential). In practice, it is best to use a combination of the methods, checking one against the other and looking at the impact of the
changes on the retailers' margins.
Rents that owners of small retail businesses are willing to pay vary directly with the amount of passing pedestrian traffic and are uniformly
higher on street corners and the outer edges of markets, than the middle of blocks.
The revenue components that are likely to occur at typical markets and need to be included in the financial analysis are the following:
● daily tolls or licence fees, typical for casual traders in street markets;
● annual or monthly rents for market stalls or space within a covered market or street market pitches;
● long leases on premises constructed as part of the market development;
● selling of sites for traders to build their own facility; and
● charges for services such as grading and packing, use of special equipment, parking fees and cleaning services.
Economic and financial benefits

When the information on project costs and revenues has been assembled it will be possible to undertake a financial and economic analysis.
The distinction between the two types of analysis is that a financial analysis evaluates the commercial worth of a project to its owner
(effectively the market authority or private entrepreneur), whilst an economic analysis assesses a project's worth from the viewpoint of the
whole economy. In the latter case, the costs are adjusted to account for any distortions, such as subsidies, taxes and transfer payments, and
the benefits are not necessarily quantified on the basis of the market's income but on measures such as reductions in produce losses or time
savings due to reduced traffic congestion (i.e. the types of benefits that are outlined in Chapter 1 ).
The approach normally adopted for project analysis, particularly when there is a bank or external funding agency involved, is to undertake
an investment analysis using discounted cash flows. The normal measures used are the "net present value" of a project (NPV: the present
value of a cash flow stream over the project life), the "benefit-cost ratio" (BCR: the ratio between the present values of the benefits and the
costs) and the "internal rate of return" of the project (IRR). The latter is usually the main criteria that is used and is a measure of the rate of
return of a project when the NPV is equal to zero or the BCR is equal to one. The IRR reduces the assessment of the project to a single
percentage and therefore makes a comparison between different options and cost/benefit assumptions easy to make.. Normally a minimum
return of 10 to 12 per cent is required for a project to be considered viable.
The calculation procedure works in current prices (i.e all costs are expressed in prices prevailing at the time of the analysis). The
calculations are quite straightforward, but relatively laborious if calculated manually and a financial calculator or spread-sheet package on a
computer is normally used. Details of how to undertake such analyses are outlined in Price Gittinger ( 1972) and Abbott ( 1986).
Where complex projects are being analysed it is essential to use this classical approach and to seek the assistance of an economist. Instances
of when this will be necessary are when the investment level is high (such as a new covered urban market), where there are many options
available to consider (such as when there are different sites to choose from) or when the benefits of a project are difficult to assess (such as
when a new or improved rural assembly market is being planned, where it is necessary to consider the impact of the market on other rural
markets, on rural roads and on the overall agricultural production system).
However, in many cases, for instance a small rural market or an urban street market, a simpler approach can be used. Box 12 contains
details of a calculation method, based on obtaining roughly a 20 per cent return, which only requires a normal calculator. Such a method is
highly appropriate if the investment in market improvements is being locally funded. This approach to project analysis ignores discounted
costs and is suitable for checking whether the level of investment matches the incremental increase in rents and other revenues.
The essence of the simplified approach is that it uses a concept familiar to the lay-person of a return on capital (i.e. how many years will it
take to cover the capital cost). The greater the security of income and capital, the greater is the certainty of the income being received and,
therefore, the lower will be the forecast yield that would be accepted by the bank (and vice versa). The other virtue of adopting this
approach is that it is understandable by a local bank manager, accountant or real estate agent. Therefore, it may be a useful method if a bank
loan has to be obtained or a broad valuation has to be made of the existing market site so that it can be used as security.

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Evaluating the overall impact of a project
The methods of financial and economic analyses described above can be used to provide a quantitative description of a project. By using the
more complex (classical) techniques it will be possible to test the assumptions used in analysis - usually referred to as "sensitivity testing" -
such as extending or shortening the project life, increasing the capital or recurrent cost estimates, reducing the income expectation, varying
the interest rates or including additional costs (e.g. technical assistance and training). An example of such an analysis and sensitivity testing
is shown in Table 8.4.
BOX 12
Assessing the viability of a simple market project
1. Add together all the expected annual rents, revenues and notional profit.
2. Deduct the value of any existing total annual rents and revenues.
3. Deduct any additional annual recurrent costs (e.g. electricity, water, etc.)
4. Multiply the result by 5 to obtain a value for 5 years total net revenues (if the project is less risky and/or a high return is not expected
multiply by 10 for 10 years revenues, i.e. equivalent to a 10 % yield).
5. Estimate the total costs of buildings, infrastructure and equipment, plus the existing site value or cost of site acquisition (if applicable).
6. Compare the total net revenues (4) to the budget capital cost estimate (5). If they are roughly equal then the project is viable.
7. If capital cost exceeds the revenues increase the annual or monthly rents.
8. If this looks to produce rents that traders will not be willing to pay (discuss with them the new rent levels) review the project and reduce
capital costs.
TABLE 8.4. Al Husainiah assembly market economic analysis
Internal rate of return Net present value ('000
(per cent) Yemen Rial)
1. Economic analysis on basic case at financial prices 21.8 14,283

2. Sensitivity tests on basic case at financial prices
produce prices down 10 % 19.6 9,772
capital/replacement costs up 10 % 20.6 12,363
operating costs up 10 % 21.4 13,498
grading/packing benefits down 10 % 20.3 10,954
Source: UNCDF Project No. YEM/91/C02 (Fruit and Vegetable Market in Al-Husainiah, 1992)
Using these techniques it is also feasible to investigate the different design and management options for market development. These options
might include, for example:
● assessing whether a market should be relocated to a new site;
● restricting the expansion possibilities of an existing street market;
● introducing a new market in competition with existing outlets;
● investigating the impact of different user charging structures, including the effect of introducing subsidies; and
● assessing whether it might be worth introducing specialised facilities, such as packing facilities at a rural assembly market, or cool
storage for meat and fish in a covered urban market.
However, this analysis may not provide all the information to enable the local authority or private entrepreneur to make a decision whether
to go ahead with a project. Thus, in addition to a quantitative analysis, the formulation of a project should also include a technical statement
of its overall impact.
This statement should incorporate a clear description of the advantages and disadvantages of a project; who will be its beneficiaries (i.e.
producers, traders, consumers); how the project might provide additional income generating opportunities; what effect it might have on
special interest groups (e.g. children, women, urban poor and the physically disabled); its potential environmental impact; what potential
risks exist; sources of financing; and how long it will take to implement the project. Some of these factors are described in greater detail
below.
Environmental and social impact
Market projects if well designed and formulated should not have any negative effect (or "impact") on the environment or local population.
Environmental and social issues that might arise with a market development are shown in Table 8.5. This example applies to the
improvement of a covered meat and fish market and an open fruit and vegetable retail market in an urban conservation area.
TABLE 8.5Environment and social impact
Component/ Function Potential Environmental Implications Socio-Economic Implications

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1. Land No loss of natural habitat or landuse Minimum of further land acquisition No land
conflicts General amenity gain No ownership conflicts Limited loss of existing property
additional soil pollution
2. Labour None Benefits to local construction industry Use of local

labour not requiring additional
accommodation/amenities
3. Health and Services Improved hydrological and drainage Improvement to sanitation system Public health
conditions Reduced water contamination benefits and reduction in disease transmission Reduced
No impact on water table health hazards
4. Waste Disposal No hazardous wastes No additional Improved solid waste collection Limited construction
quantities waste
5. Construction materials Use of renewable resources Use of local materials
6. Energy supply Marginal increase in resource depletion Marginal increase in operating market costs
7. Air pollution No change None

8. Noise pollution Marginal improvement None
9.Cultural/historical Conservation gain Parallel socio-economic gain
Source: UNCDF Project No.. URT/93/C06 (Renovation of Zanzibar Stone Town Market. 1994)
A social issue that may need special attention is the impact of a development programme on employment. Relocating or reorganising a
market may create difficulties for existing employees and there may be job losses due to nationalization. Certain categories of people may
not be able to move when a market is relocated from an inner city area to the suburbs. Porters may not be able to travel to a location poorly
served by public transport and female stallholders may experience difficulties if the new facilities are remote from their children. In both
cases, special provision may be justified, such as a market mini-bus, a crèche or nursery.
The potential negative impacts of a market project usually relate to the actual development of the site and its environs, rather than to a wider
area. Any impact can be ameliorated, but at a cost. It is better, therefore, that they are recognised at the outset and accommodated. The
following main types of impact may need special attention in the preparation of a master plan and in the development of market
management policies and procedures:
● additional traffic congestion if road and junction improvements, parking or traffic management measures are not implemented;
● potential flooding and water table problems, caused by increased surface water run-off from a completely paved market site, if a
comprehensive drainage system and outfall is not implemented;
● glare and noise impact on the surrounding land uses, particularly if insulation, screening and tree planting proposals are not carefully
integrated into the development programme;
● inadequate management provision for environmental matters and for the recurrent maintenance of buildings and equipment, including
lack of emergency and safety plans, poor handling of fuels, high energy use and refrigeration misuse; and
● poorly implemented solid-waste management measures, resulting in a build up of refuse and attendant rodent or insect infestation.
Project risks
There are always risks attached to any market development and these will influence its detailed formulation and design. The usual matters
which must be resolved before a project can progress, are that the selected site or extended site must be secured, funding must be available,
agreement must be reached on institutional issues and methods of management, and basic surveys, planning and feasibility studies must
undertaken. To find a sustainable development solution it may be necessary to review a local authority's whole budget management
approach, particularly if it is intended that a market is to be managed as an autonomous operation.
The issue of site availability is often one of the main constraints, where the use of compulsory acquisition powers is not possible, and the
delays that it may cause should never be underestimated. It is very important that the ownership of title to the land is clarified and that the
relevant planning and building consent permissions from urban or rural authorities are obtained.
Medium-term risks, which can cause major problems in the effective operation of a new market or reorganization of an existing market,
include delays in appointment of a market manager and other staff, a lack of suitable training courses, and lack of working capital for

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operation, staff salaries and recurrent maintenance. The main long-term risk is that the turnover targets for the market have been too
optimistic, casting doubts about a market's overall viability.
Project design should recognise these risks and be developed so as to minimise, or at least reduce, them to an acceptable level. Some risks
will remain, particularly if some of the project's components are not implemented or are delayed. This may occur if initial finance and
technical assistance is not available. Some risks cannot be eliminated because they depend on how the potential users of the market react to
the introduction of new methods and charges. The only way this risk can be minimised is if the trader's associations are involved from the
outset in the design and formulation of the project. In developing a "robust" project design, adequate survey and effective long-term
monitoring is also essential.
Implementation and financing arrangements Another essential step in formulating a project is to establish how it will be implemented. There
are two facets to implementation: financial and practical.
Financial: It is obvious that a guaranteed source of funding must be secured. External grants may be possible, but the small scale of many
market development projects, especially those involving the improvement of an existing market, may make them unattractive to potential
donors or banks. Ultimately, a project may be self-financing from fees and charges, including annual auctions of rental space.
However, the initial capital requirement is the main problem. All possible sources of funding should be explored, including:
a) special government grants, such as those available for small business promotion and environmental improvements;
b) a joint-venture with private enterprise, which might include the present traders at a market (as individuals or groups);
c) leasing the whole or part of the site to private entrepreneurs, but still maintaining some control over licensing arrangements; and
d) cost-sharing, with a donor, other government departments or private enterprise, for example as part of a general area upgrading project.
An interesting variant of this was used in Samarinda in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, where a private developer used a cross-subsidy scheme
to finance construction of booths for street traders with revenue from leasing out shops to merchants. Cost sharing can take the form of
capital contributions or other forms of equity, such as the provision of land.
Practical:
Methods of implementing a project should be thought about right from the outset as the approach adopted will influence the length of time
that will be required for undertaking the works (and possibly have an impact on the traders' income).
A formal contractual arrangement with one or more private contractors is likely to be the most rapid approach. However, this may not be
possible in remote rural conditions or it may conflict with the social objectives of a project. In Bangladesh, for example, the Intensive Rural
Works Programme used landless labourers, marginal farmers and women's groups to implement rural market improvements.
An alternative approach, which also reduces the capital funding requirements, is the use of self-help schemes, involving the traders
themselves. The most feasible option is a "sites and services" approach, where only quite rudimentary infrastructure is provided and the
traders are expected to finish off the construction.

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Annexes
Annex A. Market survey questionnaire

The following questionnaire is based on a guide prepared for rural markets (FAO, 1978) adjusted to make it applicable to the range
of markets considered in this manual. Much of the information can be collected by direct observation and by questioning the
market staff. However, for more complex situations, and to provide quantitative data, the use of sample questionnaires and traffic
counts, described in Chapter 3 and Annex B. will also need to considered.
A.1 Market identification
Name and exact location of market: map reference, street, district, etc.
A.2 Responsible agencies
Name of the agency or body (e.g. municipality, local government, etc.) immediately responsible for management of the market. If
more than one agency is involved in different aspects of market operations (such as ownership, supervision, taxation, management,
operation, etc.) the name should be given of each agency and its responsibilities,
A.3 Frequency of operation
Whether the market opens daily, twice a week, once a week, etc.
A.4 Catchment area
The area served or covered by the market. How this is defined will depend on the role of the market and whether it is providing an
outlet for the sale of produce to traders as well as consumers (see A5 below).
a. Names of the villages or urban areas served (i.e. consumer sales) and their total population;
b. Names of the villages or areas sending produce to the market;
c. Total cultivated area (hectares) in these villages, and, if possible the total production by major commodities; and
d. Total population, divided by gender, and number of farm households involved with sending produce to the market.
A.5 Role of the market
The overall role of the market and its significance (if any) in farmers' marketing activities. These characteristics should be
expressed in the following manner:
a. basic role, i.e. rural or urban, role in assembly or wholesaling, etc.;
b. estimated total sales (in value and in quantity) of agricultural produce at the market, i.e. sales per day on an average day and on a
peak day, and sales per year;
c. estimated total sales (in value) of daily necessities bought by the farmers using the market (if relevant), i.e. sales per day on an
average day, and a peak day, and sales per year;
d. estimated number of people who visit the market (divided into consumers, farmers, etc.) on an average day, on a peak day, and
in a year, and the distance travelled by people visiting the market, i.e. average, most distant, etc.; and
e. estimated marketable surplus of the major agricultural crops (in value and quantity) from the market's catchment area and its
estimated percentage share, i.e. the marketable surplus passing through the surveyed market against other markets or alternative
channels (e.g. auto-consumption by producers themselves, sales to supermarkets, direct supplies to institutions, etc.).
A.6 Physical facilities
Physical facilities and equipment available for the market operations and the extent of the utilization of such facilities - such as
utilization rate in terms of the capacity or the number of persons utilizing the facilities on an average day. The data would include:
a. market area (in square metres) and a map, or at least a simple sketch layout of the market;
b. details of buildings (structure and floor space in square metres), such as offices, market sheds, latrines, storage;
c. marketing equipment (size and quantity), such as weighing scales, moisture meters; and
d. other facilities, such as the provision of drinking water, paved market yard, animal loading platforms, electricity, telephone, etc.
This information could be tabulated as follows;
Facilities Size or capacity (number Construction (timber, Utilization rate (% of
and/or m²) steel or concrete?) capacity used on an
average day)
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Market yard (paved area)

Roads and parking
Offices/administration buildings
Traders' sheds or stalls:
fruit and vegetables
grains
meat
fish
poultry
household goods
clothing, etc.
Open sales areas
fruit and vegetables
grains
charcoal
other
Other facilities;
drinking water
weighing scales
moisture meters,
grading equipment
refrigerators
freezers
banana ripening rooms
loading platform
cow shed/holding pens
canteen
latrines
storage areas, etc.
Market area (overall)
A.7 Market Staff Number of market staff and other market functionaries (full time and part time) and their functions;
Market staff Number Full time or part Main job Source of salary
time
Manager or market master

Secretary
Accounts clerks
Supervisors
Grading technicians
Commission agents
Weighing men
Toll collectors
Porters Labourers/Cleaners
Other
A. 8 Market fees and other charges

a. What is the mechanism for the collection of market fees and other charges/ceases, including rents:
● who pays - buyer or seller?

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● on what basis - per head, per shop, by unit weight or by value?

● how much is it in value (per head, per unit weight, etc.)?
● how is it collected - at the gate, by the collector in the market yard, or at the time of settling the account?
● who collects it market staff, traders contracted collectors?
Fees Who pays? On what How much? How is it Who collects it?
basis? collected?
Market fee
Grading fee
Weighing fee
Animal holding fee
Storage fee, etc.
b. What is the total amount of market fees and charges collected:

● total collection on an average market day;
● total collection on a peak market day; and
● total annual collection for the most recent year.
c. How are the market fees and charges utilized:

Whether kept in a special or general account, paid into local revenue office, paid to private traders, unaccounted etc.; and
whether used specifically for market operation, market investment, general revenue of the local government, or revenue of the
collector, etc.
A.9 Trading practices
Details of trading practices:
a. price-setting: how is the price set for the major commodities traded at the market (closed or open bidding, individual bargaining,
etc.)?
Fees Average day Peak day Annual total Account held in Use of fees
Market fee
Grading fee
Weighing fee
Animal holding fee
Storage fee, etc.
Total Amount
b. weighing and measurement: how is weighing and measurement done and by whom (buyer, seller, market staff, or paid weighing
man on a fee basis, etc.)?
c. payment procedures: how is payment for the commodities sold made (on-the-spot in cash, cash through the market office,
coupon to be cashed later, etc.)?
A.10 Price Variations
The purpose of collecting information on prices is to provide information for the financial analysis of a project. Questions on price
variations should be limited to one or two selected major commodities, such as the main fruits and vegetables and, if applicable, to
eggs and livestock. The prices on the same day or at least in the same week should be compared, specifying the quality of the
produce and the unit used. Preferably a day in the peak season should be selected.
a. seasonal price variation: monthly price variation of the selected major commodities sold at the market:
Month Main vegetable Fruit Potatoes Eggs Livestock Other
January
February
March, etc.

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b. price variations between neighbouring markets: compare the prices at the surveyed "base market" with two or three similar
neighbouring markets:
Distance in km. Vegetables per unit Fruit per unit Potato, etc. per unit
Base Market
Market A
Market B
Market C
c. price margins: a rural or urban retail market is linked with a larger secondary (assembly or wholesale) market. Compare the
prices at the "base market" with the connecting secondary market:
Main vegetable Fruit Potato Other
Price at the base market
Name of the secondary market
Price at the secondary market
Distance in km. from the base market
A.11 Supporting services

Define supporting services available for the retailers or farmers, either at the market or from nearby extension service offices. a.
price information at the market (not general price information announced by mass media) expressed as follows:
● availability of prices for the farmers at the market: on which day (e.g. price on the market day, price on the previous market
day, or prices of how many days ago), for which commodities and from which markets (base market, other neighbouring
markets or secondary market)?
● how are the prices are collected (by telephone, by telegram, by messenger, by letter, by personal contact, etc.)?
● how are the prices disseminated to the farmers in the market (such as bulletin board, loudspeakers, personal contact, etc.)?
b. grading, cleaning, drying and storage services available on or nearby the market area:
Services Commodities (1) Fees (2) Who provides the service? Is the service compulsory?
Grading
Cleaning
Drying
Storage
Note:
1. Commodities for which the services are available
2. Per unit. Specify unit
c. extension services available within or nearby the market:
● the place where the services are given (in the market yard, near the market yard, at the office of the extension agency, etc.);
● name of the bodies who provide such services;
● how the services are communicated or provided, (by poster, through loudspeakers, by organizing special meeting, by
informal personal contacts, etc.);
● how frequently such services are provided, (every market day, once a week, once every two weeks, occasionally when need
arises, etc.); and
● the number of people using the services.
Services Place Number of of Responsible Means of Opening times and

visitors on market agency publicity of frequency of service
day service

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Farming extension
Cooperatives
Family planning
Marketing extension
A.12 Future plans

Obtain details of existing development plans to be implemented within the next five years, giving a brief description of the main
proposals, under the following headings;
● physical improvement;
● market rules and regulations;
● market staff and market functionaries;
● trading practices;
● market fees; and
● supporting services.
A.13 Existing problems

Identify existing problems limiting efficiency in the use the market. The questions should be put to market staff, traders and
farmers::
● physical infrastructure problems;
● difficulties in operating market rules and regulations;
● market staffing problems;
● problems in trading practices and pricing efficiency;
● problems in collecting market fees and other charges;
● limitations of existing supporting services; and
● other features.
A.14 Market improvements

● physical improvement requirements;
● revisions needed to market rules and regulations;
● changes to market staff and market functionaries;
● changes to trading practices and pricing efficiencies;
● changes to market fees and other charges/ceases and their uses;
● improvements required to supporting services; and
● other features of the market needing improvement.
A.15 Paying for market improvements

As a final question ask whether the farmers and traders will be willing to pay for improving the market or will expect the costs to
borne by local or central government.
Annex B. Roadside survey methodology

Often the only available estimates of throughput at markets are from indirect data sources, which is frequently found to be
inadequate. It may be necessary, therefore, to undertake detailed surveys of actual daily produce flows at a market (preferably for
a whole week during the peak season), including art assessment of produce origin and destination, the types of vehicles using the
market and the variations in trade between different days of the week. The purpose of the following note is to provide a basis for
undertaking such detailed surveys.
Survey methodology
The methodology adopted in detailed roadside surveys should be based around using a standard survey form, which is shown in
Box 13. A pilot survey should be run for one day, from which should be determined the number of enumerators and their position
within the market. A complex market, for example. might require a total of 5 to 10 enumerators each day, whilst a simple street
market could be handled by one or a pair of enumerators. The standard survey form can be used both by enumerators stationed at
approach roads to a market, recording vehicle entry and exit, and by enumerators within a market who may be interviewing truck
drivers and traders. The two data sets can be linked in the office by using the vehicle registration numbers.
BOX 13

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Standard form for a roadside survey of commodity flows
Note: each row in the form is to be used for a single set of observations i.e. an entry or exit of a vehicle (representing a "record" in
a database or a "row" in a spreadsheet)
Name of market
Name of reporter
In or out
Date
Survey location
Sheet no.
Refer- ence Time of Vehicle type Vehicle load Main commodities on Origin or Farmer's Driver?
code entry or exit and reg. no. (tons) vehicle (by % of load) Trader or
destination
The method of analysis of the survey should be to enter each row of data from the survey forms (i.e. vehicle movement on a single
day) as a separate "record" in a computerized programme. All coding of the data should be undertaken in the office. It is critical
that a standardised approach is taken to estimating and defining the loads on vehicles, i.e. an overall tonnage for each vehicle type
and standard weights per bag or bundle, depending on the type of produce.
Data can be analysed using a standard statistical package and then exported to a spreadsheet package for the presentation of tables
and charts. For a simple survey, or if data base/statistical packages are not available, it is possible to use only a spreadsheet
package. In this case, all the data for the market for each day of the survey should be entered as a "row" into a single daily master
spreadsheet. These data would then be sorted in a defined sequence, usually starting with incoming and outgoing traffic as the
"initial sort" (termed as the "primary key").
Survey results
The type of results that can be derived from an analysis of the survey data are shown in the following tables (Tables a to e). For
example, the survey results can be used to derive average daily throughputs based on the incoming volumes to the market. This
information is usually recorded during the survey by two methods: an overall estimate of vehicle load and a detailed estimate by
type of crop and package (i.e. sacks of rice, bunches of bananas, baskets of tomatoes, etc.). The two methods should give very
similar results. However, there can be a discrepancy between the figures for incoming volumes and those for the outgoing produce.
This difference is a normally a reflection of the difficulty of recording the many small loads taken out of retail markets by porters
and individual consumers. To obtain a more reliable picture of outgoing loads an intensive survey would be required.
Ideally, to estimate the annual throughput of a market requires that the survey should be run at other periods to determine more
precisely the seasonal variations (i.e peak and off-peak). If this is not possible, then assumptions will need to be made about the
period over which the peak throughput will last (e.g. one or two months a year) and what relationship there is between the peak and
off-peak throughputs. This type of adjustment will be most important for markets dealing directly with producers, particularly rural
assembly markets.
(a) Volume and turnover of produce (average over survey days)
Type of incoming produce (tons) Volume US$'000 Turnover
1. Tomato
2. Potato, etc.
Total
(b) Origin and destination of produce (average over survey days)

Origin/destination of produce Incoming vehicles: Outgoing vehicles:
by region tons No. % tons No. %
1. Within urban area
2. From/to Region A
2. From/to Region B. etc.

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Total
(c) Time analysis of all vehicles using a market

Time of day (in hourly Vehicles bringing produce (daily average): Hourly Average:
bands) Vehicle entry: Vehicle exit: No. of vehicles % of total
Hourly Cumul. Hourly Cumul.
midnight - 5 am
5- 6am
6- 7am
7- 8am. etc.
(d) Analysis of types of vehicles using the markets

Type of vehicle Number of vehicles (all survey days): Average daily:
Bringing Taking Empty Total vehicles Total vehicles % total
produce produce. vehicles
1. Trucks
2. Lorries
3. Pickups
4. Handcarts
5. Private cars
5. Buses, etc.
Total
(e) Estimated annual market throughput (tons)

Type of produce Peak daily Average daily Annual total
1. Bulbs, roots & tubers

2. Sweet bananas
3. Cooking bananas
4. Green, leafy vegetables
5. Tomatoes, chillies, etc.
6. Citrus fruit
7. Other tropical fruit, etc.
Total Horticultural crops
continue

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Annex C .Model market regulations

The following comprehensive set of regulations are based on a number of sources, the main ones
being the model regulations prepared by FAO for markets in the Eastern Caribbean (de Balogh,
1988) and the standard conditions used by the City of Westminster, London for controlling licensed
street traders. The regulations will need to be reviewed by the users of this Manual to select what is
appropriate in the prevailing conditions so that a relevant and enforceable set of regulations can be
drawn up.
Legislation 1. These regulations are made by the "Council"
or "Authority" (insert name) pursuant to (insert
the name of the enabling Act and any relevant
section) and prescribe the standard conditions
applicable to public markets and street trading.
Definitions 2. In the Regulations, unless the context

otherwise requires, the following meanings shall
apply:
2a. "Street/market trading" shall have the
meaning ascribed in the enabling legislation
(insert name of enabling legislation).
2b. "Council" or "Market Authority" means the
relevant (insert name) Council or Authority.
2c. "Licensed trader" means any person licensed
under the Act for market or street trading.
2d. "Advertisement" means any word, letter,
model, sign, hoarding, placard, board, notice,
whether illuminated or not, and employed wholly
or partly for the purpose of, advertising.
2e. "Assistant" means a person employed by and
acting under the direction of a trader to assist in
the business of the stall and whose name/address
has been notified to the Council or Authority.
2f. "Awning" means a sheet of canvas or other
material, used as a protection against the weather,
and which projects as an extension of the roof
beyond the structure of the stall.
2g."Goods" means any goods, wares or
merchandise for sale or display at a stall.
2h. "Licensed pitch" means a pitch authorised as
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a place at which market or street trading may be

engaged in by a trader, including any temporary
alternative place approved by a duly authorised
officer of the Council or Authority.
2i. "Pitch limits" means the authorised ground
markings defining the area within which a street
or market trading stall is to be contained.
2j. "Refuse" includes any waste material.
2k. "Stall" means any structure occupying a
licensed pitch and used by a trader for display of
goods, in connection with his or her business,
including all goods offered for sale and any
additional structure or equipment used as part of
the stall or business. On "isolated pitches" this
also includes all rubbish created as a result of the
business.
2l. "Premises" means any shop, or other premises
immediately behind the licensed pitch or stall.
2m. "Trader" means a person in whose name a
current licence is held and who is authorised to
sell from a licensed stall or pitch. (Ideally, all
traders should be licensed so that regulations
can be fully enforced, but the minimum level of
licensing should be for all traders in meat, fish,
poultry, dairy products and mushrooms).

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General 3. The grant of a trading licence shall not be

deemed to give any approval or consent which
may be needed under By-laws, enactment or
regulations other than the enabling Act.
4. The marginal notes inserted in these
Regulations are inserted for the purpose of
convenience only and shall not in any way affect
the meaning or construction thereof. 5. These
conditions may be dispensed with or modified by
the Council or Authority in any individual case
by means of a licence variation in accordance
with the statutory requirements.
6. Where in these conditions there is reference to
the consent or agreement of the Council or
Authority such consent or agreement may be
given on such terms and conditions and subject
to such restrictions as may be so specified.
7. If a trader wishes any of the terms of a licence
to be varied an application must be made in
writing to the Council or Authority.

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Market control 8. The administration of the market is carried out

by the Council or Market Authority through the
Supervisor or other person in charge.
9. The responsibility of operation of the market
rests with the Market Master.
10. All staff of the market work under the
immediate direction of the Market Master.
11. Every user shall respect the regulations
publicly displayed in the market. It shall be the
duty of the Market Master or any other
officer-in-charge to prosecute any person
breaking the rules.
12. Every user shall obey the orders and
directions of the Market Master or his/her
Assistant and shall not in any way obstruct or
hinder market personnel in the performance or
their duties.
13. Attention shall be called to the Market Master
of any person found breaking the present rules.
For a first offence a verbal warning shall be
given. For a second offence a written warning
shall be issued. For a third offence a fine will be
automatically imposed.
14. The Council or Market Authority has the
right to change the users from one stall to another
at any time according to the requirements for the
proper functioning of the market.
15. Only persons having genuine business in the
market shall be admitted. The Council or Market
Authority has the right to refuse admission of
unauthorised persons or vehicles into the market.
16. No person shall sell or expose for sale any
goods, wares or merchandise in any part of the
market other than in the areas assigned by the
Market Personnel for that purpose .
17. The Market Master shall allocate stalls and
space, according to the availability of space, the
pattern of vending and the type of products sold.

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Market fees 18. All traders must pay the appropriate fees
established by the competent authority and obtain
a receipt (the trader should be referred to a
current schedule of fees, which should be
annexed to the regulations).
Leases 19. Certain types of stalls shall be leased for a

period not exceeding one year, on the basis of a
standard form of contract between the market
traders and the Council or Market Authority.
Such a contract is renewable every year, under
agreed conditions. Rental for stalls should be
paid in advance per week or month as agreed. 20.
Defaults in payment shall cause immediate
termination of the lease contracts.
21. No lessee or occupant of any stall shall assign
his lease or sub-let his stall without the written
permission of the Council or Market Authority.

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Owner's risk 22. All goods taken into the market shall remain
at the sole risk of the owners and the Council or
Market Authority shall not. under any circum
stances, be liable for any loss or damage thereto.
23. If any loss or damage is occasioned by the
act, neglect or default of any market staff they
alone shall be liable for any such loss or damage.
Use of market 24. The passage ways in the market area should
be properly marked, and kept free from obstacles.
No vendors shall cause any encroachment to the
tree passage ways of the market area.
25. No tables, boxes or other obstruction shall be
placed in front of or around the stalls.
26. In cases where individual market users wish
to erect specific complementary structures at
their own cost, they shall require the written
approval of the Council or Market Authority.
27. The use of market premises for other than
licensed purposes shall be discouraged.

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Trading 28. Every person renting a stall or shop per week

or month for the sale of any commodity shall use
the entire premises for the specified purpose.
29. Every person selling at a stall shall remain at
or near the stall while attending to business.
30. Products sold in the market shall be of an
acceptable quality, be handled with care and have
an indication of prices in appropriate units. The
Council or Authority reserves the right to reject
poor quality produce.
31. All products exposed for sale shall be sold to
any person tendering the asking price without
any unreasonable or unnecessary delay.

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Conduct 32 Traders and their assistants shall ensure the

general public are treated fairly and honestly.
33. Traders shall ensure that their staff are com
petent, courteous and helpful to the public.
34. Traders shall give every assistance to Council
or Authority officers in carrying out their duties.
35. No person shall sit or lie on the pavement or
any bench or stall in the market, or cause any
obstruction to the free passage of others in the
market.
36. No person shall cause any disturbance or use
abusive language in any section of the market.
37. No person shall smoke in the sections
designated as "No Smoking" in the market.
38. No person shall be admitted into the market
in an intoxicated state.
39. No alcoholic drinks shall be sold within the
market, with the exception of sections provided
for that purpose. Corresponding provisions shall
be made in the lease contract.

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Assistants 40. Traders shall, if required, notify the Council

or Market Authority in writing of the name of
any assistant which they employ on the stall;
details of any changes; or other relevant
information regarding assistants.
Weights 41. All scales used by vendors shall be accurate

and show the correct weight. Periodic checks
shall be made by the market staff (or
corresponding government service) and defective
scales removed.
42. In the market office a control scale shall be
made available for the users to effect checks.
Days and times 43. Trading may only take place on the days and
during times specified by the Market Master:
specify time and days by market location
specify time on public holidays - to be fixed by
the appropriate authority and made public well
in advance by the Council or Authority.
44. Traders shall commence trading, with their
stall being in position and all goods contained
within the pitch area, by the specified times.
45. If the pitch is not utilised by the licensed
trader by the above time without the prior
approval of the Council or Market Authority or
their representative, the Market Master may at
his/her discretion re-let the pitch for that day.
46. Where valid reasons exist the Council or
Market Authority shall vary opening and closing
hours according to local needs.
47. The opening of the market shall be notified
by the sounding of a signal. The Market Master
will be responsible to ensure that the signal is
sounded. A signal will also be given half an hour

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before the market's closing time.

48. Half an hour before opening of the market,
the Market Master or other person-in-charge
shall inspect the market and ensure proper
conditions of operation and, in case of finding
defects, shall take the necessary action.
49. After the closure of the market, the Market
Master or other person-in- charge shall carry out
an inspection, reporting all defects encountered
in the market and take the necessary measures.
50. No person except the market staff, and
officials connected with market activities, may
remain on the premises after closure. All other
persons will require authorisation from the
Market Master.

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Position 51 The trader shall trade only from the position

which is indicated on the licence and only those
goods specified on the licence may be sold at the
licensed pitch or stall.
Pitch size 52. The trading area shall not exceed the
dimensions specified on the licence and any pitch
limits marked on the ground during trading hours
except during immediate re- stocking.
Licence plate 53. Traders shall at all times display a plate

supplied by the Council or Market Authority
indicating the licensed pitch number of the stall.
This plate shall be kept prominently and
permanently exhibited on the stall together with
the name, or business name of the trader.
Advertising 54. No unauthorised advertisement or handbill

shall be displayed on the licensed pitch which
relates to any goods, commodities or services
other than those offered for sale or provided on
that pitch.

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Receptacles 55. Where appropriate, only those receptacles or

containers approved by the Council or Market
Authority shall be used by the trader.
Refuse 56. The users shall keep the stalls and adjacent
areas clean during operation of the market. All
refuse arising as a result of the trader's activities
shall be placed in suitable covered containers
provided by the trader, unless otherwise provided
by the Council or Authority, and shall be kept
exclusively for that purpose. Such containers
shall be kept as clean as is reasonably possible.
57. Refuse containers shall at set times be
emptied into any vehicle, container or compactor
provi ded by the Council or Authority for that
purpose.
58. Products that show signs of decomposition
should be disposed of by the Council or
Authority in collaboration with the Public Health
Authority.
First aid 59. A first-aid kit shall be placed in the Market

Master's office.

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Fire safety 60. The Council or Market Authority shall ensure

that fire safety measures and rules are imple
mented, and that extinguishers and hydrants are
properly installed, maintained and marked.
61. No person shall make any fire, or cook food
in the market, except within the area provided for
that purpose. Heat producing equipment (e.g.
braziers) shall be so placed within the trading
area as to provide maximum safety to the public.
The position of such equipment in relation to
other goods or materials shall be agreed with the
Council or Market Authority.
Services 62. The only connection between stalls on the

footpath and other stalls or premises shall be for
the purposes of electric lighting or other agreed
services. Any such connections shall be readily
detachable and detailed arrangements agreed
with the Council or Market Authority.

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Electricity 63. Electric power supplies including lights and

refrigeration units or other electrical equipment,
shall be not be installed without appropriate
consent from the Council or Market Authority.
64 The Market Master shall specify the areas
where lights shall be kept on during the night.
65. All electrical cables that are suspended over
the public footpath shall have a minimum
clearance of 2.6 metres from the footpath surface
and 5 metres from the surface of the carriageway.
66. Where mobile electrical generators are

employed they shall be positioned so that: they
do not present a danger to the passing public;
they do not present a fire or similar hazard risk to
the stall or goods displayed thereon; they do not
cause any nuisance to market users from noise or
fumes; and that any inflammable fuel for the
generator shall be stored away from the stall in a
container approved by the Fire Brigade. 67. All
electrical wiring/components shall comply with
the basic specification of the statutory authority
and be earthed/insulated accordingly. Electrical
power scales and tills and testing of electrical
goods.

Ch11a
Head room 68. The distance above ground level of any part
of a roof, awning, stall support or goods
suspended from any of these, shall (unless a
dispensation has been granted by the Council or
Authority) be a minimum height of 2 metres and
a maximum height of 2.8 metres. The roof
awning or any other projection shall be contained
within the pitch area unless agreed by the
Council or Authority, in which case such
awnings shall have a maximum forward
projection over the footpath of I metre and no
awning shall come within I metre of any road
kerb. Display limits
69. All goods, containers (except refuse
containers used solely or the purpose) or other
articles shall be contained within the licensed
pitch area and height and shall not project
beyond. Stall removal
70. Mobile stalls shall conform with the
standards set down by the Council or Market
Authority and be easily and immediately
removable.
71. Traders or their assistants shall remove the
stall and goods for so long as may be necessary
in the event of an emergency or in exercise of the
Council or Authority's powers and duties; if
required to do so by a police officer or a duly
authorised officer of the Council or Authority.
72. Temporary stalls and goods belonging to
street traders shall be removed from public
highways to the place of storage, as stated on the
application form, or such other alternative place
subsequently agreed by the Council or Authority
in writing, within one and a half hours of the time
prescribed on the licence as the end of the trading
day.

Ch11a
Loading 73. Loading and unloading of goods shall be

done at fixed hours and through the entrances
designated for such purposes by the Council or
Market Authority. It shall be carried out as
quickly as possible and the vehicle removed
immediately on completion. This condition shall
not apply when waiting restrictions are in force.
Parking 74. Except for the purpose of loading and

unloading goods, a licensed trader shall only
leave his/her vehicle in an approved parking
spaces. Where such provision is made for
parking vehicles, they shall be parked in an
orderly manner in the space marked for that
purpose.

Ch11a
Vehicles 75. No vehicles shall block or obstruct any of the

entrances or other working areas of the market.
76. Engines of stationary vehicles shall not be
kept running.
77. No vehicle shall be repaired or washed within
the market compound.
78. No person shall ride bicycles or motorbikes
in the market, except in the areas designated for
that purpose. Hand-carts shall be operated with
care by authorised persons only, and in an
orderly manner.
Maintenance 79. Tenants shall keep and maintain the interior

of the leased premises, doors, windows, floors
and ceilings in good condition and repair.
Damage 80. No person shall break, pull down, or

otherwise destroy the market structures or
equipment.
81. Traders must not intentionally allow the use
of pitches to cause damage to roads or footpaths.
82. No person shall use any axe, cleaver,
chopper, knife or other instrument on any marble
or concrete slab of the market stall or part
thereof, but shall use the wooden chopping block
and cutting boards provided for this purpose.
83. The occupant of every stall shall be
responsible and accountable for any damage
done to the slate, marble, concrete or other parts
of the stall or to the fixtures and fittings thereof.

Ch11a
84. The cost of any damage shall be determined

between the Market Master and stall occupant
and such amount be paid in full by the occupant.
Meat and fish 85. All meat, edible offal and blood products
shall be examined by the Public/Veterinary
Health Authorities before being offered for sale.
The Council or Market Authority shall make
adequate arrangements for ensuring final
inspection of the meat products prior to sale.
86. All meat entering the market must be
properly covered to avoid contamination.
87. Stalls, hooks, cutting boards and instruments
shall be kept clean and in good repair.
88. Fresh fish shall be sold properly iced.
89. Major waste of grease, bones, guts and scales
in the meat and fish sections shall be properly
disposed of and put in the containers provided by
the Council or Market Authority.

Ch11a
Health permit 90. The operators and all assistants handling

meat and fish shall have a valid Food Handlers'
Permit issued by the Health Authorities.
Live animals 91. No person shall bring any live animal into the
market area, unless this is in the space/location
provided by the Council or Market Authority.
92. No animal shall be killed in the market
precinct, unless this is using the facilities
provided by the Council or Market Authority.
Charcoal 93. Charcoal shall be sold in specific areas and

the vendors shall keep the respective areas clean.
Storage 94. Traders shall notify in writing the Council or

Authority of any change of address at which the
stall or perishable goods are stored. Such notice
shall be given within 7 days of the change.
95. Where the Council or Market Authority
provides storage within the market, the storeroom
will be open for one hour after the market is
opened. and one hour after closing time. For
additional opening hours convenient
arrangements shall be made with the Market
Master

Ch11a
Liability 96. The Council or Market Authority is not liable

for any claims made by third parties against the
actions or omissions of traders in the market.
(Ideally, traders should take out third party
insurance cover with a liability level of at
least100 times the average annual salary level
prevailing in the country in question).

Ch12
Further reading
Contents - Previous
Marketing, general
Association Française des Chambres de Commerce. (1991). Guide des marches. Association Française des Chambres de
Commerce, Paris.
Abbot, J. C. et al. (1986). Marketing improvement in the developing world, FAO Economic and Social Development Series No.
37, FAO, Rome.
Abbot, J. C. & Makeham, J. (1979). Agricultural economics and marketing in the tropics, Longman, Intermediate Tropical
Agriculture Series, Harlow, England.
C.T.I.F.L. (1986). Fruits et legumes. in Dossiers professionnels, June 1986, Centre Technique Inter-professionnel des Fruits et
Legumes, Paris.
FAO. (1989). Horticultural marketing: a resource and training manual for extension officers. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin
No. 76, FAO, Rome.
Planning context
Berry, J. L. (1967). Geography of market centers and retail distribution. Prentice Hall.
Cullen, G. (1961). The concise townscape. The Architectural Press, London.
FAO. (1976). Rural markets: a critical link for small farmer development. Report on joint FAO/DSE planning meeting, FAO,
Bangkok.
Gibberd, F. (1953). Town design. The Architectural Press, London.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The death & life of great American cities. Random House, New York.
Rai, S. L. (Ed.). (1991). Agricultural marketing: rural markets special. Vol. XXXIV, No. 3. Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, Delhi.
Surveys and projections
Kumar, K. (1993). Rapid appraisal methods. World Bank Regional & Sectoral Studies. Washington DC.
Magrath, P. (1992). Methodologies for studying agricultural markets in developing countries. Marketing Series, Vol. 2. Natural
Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent.
Monmonier, M. (1993). Mapping it out: expository cartography for the humanities and social sciences. University of Chicago
Press.
Design and construction
Aloi, R. ( 1959). Mercati e negozi. Ulrico Hoepli. Editore Milan, Italy.
Benzley, E. (1960). Design & detail of the space between buildings. The Architectural Press, London.
Cartwright R. M. (1980). The design of urban space. The Architectural Press, London.
C.T.I.F.L. ( 1984). Les marches de detail: alimentaire. Centre Technique Interprofessionnel des Fruits et Legumes, Paris.
Downing, M. F. (1977). Landscape construction. E. and F. N. Spon Ltd., London.
FAO. (1991). Wholesale markets: planning and design manual. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 90, FAO, Rome.
Hudson, N. W. (1975). Field engineering for agricultural development. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Koenigsberger, O. et al. (1973). Manual of tropical housing and building: part I climatic design. Longman, London.
Project formulation
Price Gittinger, J. (1972). Economic analysis of agricultural Projects. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore..
UNDP. ( 1992). Handbook and guidelines for environmental management and sustainable development. Environment & Natural
Resources Group, United Nations Development Programme, New York.
FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
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Ch12
FAO AGRICULTURAL SERVICES BULLETINS

1 Farm planning in the early stages of development, 1968(E Rep. 1982 - F S)
2 Planning for action in agricultural development, 1969 (E F S)
3 Karakul processing, 1969 (E)
4 Bread from composite flour, 1969 ( E. F S)
5 Sun-drying of fruits and vegetables, 1969 (E F S)
6 Cashew nut processing, 1969 (E F S)
7 Technology for the production of protein foods from cottonseed flour, 1971 (E F S)
8 Cassava processing, 1971 (New edition, 1977, available in E, F and S in the FAO Plant Production and
Protection Series, No. 3)
9 Worldwide list of food technology institutions, 1971 (E/F/S*)

10 Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from
groundnuts, 1971 (E F S)
11 Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from soybean, 1971 (E F S)
12 A guide for instructors in organizing and conducting agricultural engineering training courses, 1971 (E F S)
12 Sup. 1 Elements of agricultural machinery, Vol. 1, 1977 (E S)

12 Sup. 2 Elements of agricultural machinery, Vol. 2, 1977 (E S)
13 Fruit juice processing, 1973 (E S)
14 Environmental aspects of natural resource management - agriculture and soils, 1972 (E F S)
15 Manual on sericulture: Vol. l - Mulberry cultivation, 1976 (E F) Vol. 2 - Silkworm rearing, 1973 (E F) Vol. 3 -
Silk reeling, 1972 (E F)
16 The use of aircraft in agriculture, 1972 (New edition, 1974, available in E, F and S in the FAO Agriculture
Series, No. 2)
17 Airtight grain storage, 1973 (E F S)

18 Rice testing methods and equipment, 1973 (C E)
19 Cold storage - design and operation, 1973 (E F S)
19/2 Design and operation of cold stores in developing countries, 1984 (Ar E F S)
20 Processing of natural rubber, 1973 (E)

21 Rev. 1 Agricultural residues: world directory of institutions, 1978 (E/F/S)
21 Rev. 2 Agricultural residues: world directory of institutions, 1982 (E/F/S)
22 Rice milling equipment operation and maintenance, 1974 (C E)
23 Rice drying (E**)
24 Worldwide list of textile research institutes, 1974 (E/F/S)
25 Molasses utilization, 1975 (E F S)
26 Tea processing, 1974 (E)
27 Some aspects of earth-moving machines as used in agriculture, 1975 (E)
28 Mechanization of irrigated crop production, 1977 (E)

Ch12
29 Non-mulberry silks, 1979 (E)

30 Machinery servicing organizations, 1977 (E)
31 Rice-husk conversion to energy, 1978 (E)
32 Animal blood processing and utilization, 1982 (C E S)
33 Agricultural residues: compendium of technologies, 1978 (E/F/S)
33 Rev. 1 Agricultural residues: compendium of technologies, 1982 (E/F/S)
34 Farm management data collection and analysis, 1977 (E F S)
35 Bibliography of agricultural residues, 1978 (E/F/S)
36 China: rural processing technology, 1979 (E)
37 Illustrated glossary of rice-processing machines, 1979 (Multil)
38 Pesticide application equipment and techniques, 1979 (E)
39 Small-scale cane sugar processing and residue utilization, 1980 (E F S)
40 On-farm maize drying and storage in the humid tropics, 1980 (C E)
41 Farm management research for small farmer development, 1980 (C E F S)
42 China: sericulture, 1980 (E)
43 Food loss prevention in perishable crops, 1981 (E F S)
44 Replacement parts for agricultural machinery, 1981 (E F)
45 Agricultural mechanization in development: guidelines for strategy formulation, 1981 (E F)
46 Energy cropping versus food production, 1981 (E F S)

47 Agricultural residues: bibliography 1975-81 and quantitative survey, 1982 (E/F/S)
48 Plastic greenhouses for warm climates, 1982 (E)

49 China: grain storage structures, 1982 (E)
50 China: post-harvest grain technology, 1982 (E)
51 The private marketing entrepreneur and rural development, 1982 (E F S)
52 Aeration of grain in subtropical climates, 1982 (E)
53 Processing and storage of foodgrains by rural families, 1983 (E F S)
54 Biomass energy profiles, 1983 (E F)
55 Handling, grading and disposal of wool, 1983 (Ar E F S)
56 Rice parboiling, 1984 (E F)
57 Market information services, 1983 (E F S)
58 Marketing improvement in the developing world, 1984 (E)
59 Traditional post-harvest technology of perishable tropical staples, 1984 (E F S)
60 The resting of jute, 1985 (E F)

61 Producer-gas technology for rural applications, 1985 (E F)
62 Standardized designs for grain stores in hot dry climates, 1985 (E F)
63 Farm management glossary, 1985 (E/F/S)
64 Manual on the establishment, operation and management of cereal banks, 1985 (E F)
65 Farm management input to rural financial systems development, 1985 (E F S)
66 Construction of cribs for drying and storage of maize, 1985 (E F)

67 Hides and skins improvement in developing countries, 1985 (C E F)

Ch12
68 Tropical and sub-tropical apiculture, 1986 (E)

68/2 Honeybee mites and their control - a selected annotated bibliography, 1986 (E)
68/3 Honey and beeswax control, 1990 (E S)

68/4 Beekeeping in Asia, 1986 (E)
68/5 Honeybee diseases and enemies in Asia: a practical guide, 1987 (E)
68/6 Beekeeping in Africa, 1990 (E)
69 Construction and operation of small solid-wall bins, 1987 (E)
70 Paddy drying manual, 1987 (E)
71 Agricultural engineering in development: guidelines for establishment of village workshops, 1988 (C E F)
72/1 Agricultural engineering in development - The organization and management of replacement parts for
agricultural machinery, Vol. 1, 1988 (E)
72/2 Agricultural engineering in development - The organization and management of replacement parts for
agricultural machinery, Vol. 2, 1988 (E)
73/1 Mulberry cultivation, 1988 (E)

73/2 Silkworm rearing, 1988 (E)
73/3 Silkworm egg production, 1989 (E)
73/4 Silkworm diseases, 1991 (E)
74 Agricultural engineering in development: warehouse technique, 1989 (E F S)
75 Rural use of lignocellulosic residues, 1989 (E)

76 Horticultural marketing - a resource and training manual for extension officers, 1989 (E F S)
77 Economics of animal by-products utilization, 1989 (E)

78 Crop insurance, 1989 (E S)
79 Handbook of rural technology for the processing of animal by-products, 1989 (E)
80 Sericulture training manual, 1990 (E)

81 Elaboración de aceitunas de mesa, 1991 (S)
82 Agricultural engineering in development: design and construction guidelines for village stores, 1990 (E F S)
83 Agricultural engineering in development: tillage for crop production in areas of low rainfall, 1990 (E)
84 Agricultural engineering in development: selection of mechanization inputs, 1990 (E F S)
85 Agricultural engineering in development: guidelines for mechanization systems and machinery rehabilitation
programmes, 1990 (E)
86 Strategies for crop insurance planning, 1991 (E S)

Ch12
87 Guide pour l'établissement, les operations et la gestion des barques de céréales, 1991 (F)
88/1 Agricultural engineering in development - Basic blacksmithing: a training manual, 1991 (E S)
88/2 Agricultural engineering in development - Intermediate blacksmithing: a training manual, 1991 (E F S )
88/3 Agricultural engineering in development - Advanced blacksmithing: a training manual, 1991 (E F)
89 Post-harvest and processing technologies of African staple foods: a technical compendium, 1991 (E)
90 Wholesale markets - Planning and design manual, 1991 (E)

91 Agricultural engineering in development: guidelines for rebuilding replacement parts and assemblies, 1992 (E
S)
92 Agricultural engineering in development: human resource development - training and education programmes,
1992 (E F S)
93 Agricultural engineering in development: post-harvest operations and management of foodgrains, 1994 (E F S)
94 Minor oil crops: Part I - Edible oils Part II - Non-edible oils Part III - Essential oils, 1992 (E)
95 Biogas processes for sustainable development, 1992 (E F)

96 Small-scale processing of microbial pesticides, 1992 (E)
97 Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from soybeans, 1992 (E F)
98 Small-, medium- and large-scale starch processing, 1992 (E F)

99/1 Agricultural engineering in development: mechanization strategy formulation - Vol. 1, Concepts and principles,
1992 (E F S)
100 Glossary of terms for agricultural insurance and rural finance, 1992 (E F S)
101 Date palm products, 1993 (E)
102 Experiencias de mercadeo de pequeños agricultures en el marco de proyactos de desarrollo rural integrado,
1992 (S)
103 Banking for the environment, 1993 (E S)

104 Agricultural engineering in development: agricultural tyres, 1993 (E)
105 Apicultura practice en America Latina, 1993 (S)
106 Promoting private sector involvement in agricultural marketing in Africa, 1993 (E F)
107 La comercialización de alimentos en los grandes centres urbanos de America Latina, 1993 (S)
108 Plant tissue culture: an alternative for production of useful metabolites, 1993 (E)

Ch12
109 Grain storage techniques - Evolution and trends in developing countries, 1994 (E)
110 Testing and evaluation of agricultural machinery and equipment - Principles and practices, 1994 (E S)
111 Low-cost, urban food distribution systems in Latin America, 1994 (E S)

112/1 Pesticide application equipment for use in agriculture - Vol. 1, Manually carried equipment, 1994 (E)
112/2 Pesticide application equipment for use in agriculture - Vol. 2, Mechanically-powered equipment, 1995 (E)
113 Maintenance and operation of bulk grain stores, 1994 (E)

114 Seed marketing, 1994 (E)
115 La selección, prueba y evaluación de maquinas y equipos agricolas, 1995 (E F S)
116 Safeguarding deposits - Learning from experience, 1995 (E)

117 Quality assurance for small-scale rural food industries, 1995 (E)
118 Pollination of cultivated plants in the tropics, 1995 (E)
119 Fruit and vegetable processing, 1995 (E)
120 Inventory credit - An approach to developing agricultural markets, 1995 (E)
121 Retail markets planning guide, 1995 (E)
Availability September 1995

Ar - Arabic
C- Chinese
E- English
F- French
P- Portuguese
S- Spanish
Multil – Multilingual
*Out of print
**In preparation
The FAO Technical Papers are available through the authorized FAO Sales Agents or directly from Distribution and Sales
Section, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
Contents - Previous

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FAO Document 1995

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begin

Retail markets planning guide

Chapter 1. Retail markets

Chapter 2. Planning context

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Chapter 3. Surveys and projections

Chapter 4. The market master plan

Chapter 5. The design of market buildings and infrastructure

Chapter 6. Mobile facilities and equipment

Chapter 7. Management and regulation of markets

Chapter 8. Formulating a simple market project

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4. FORMULATING THE PROJECT

● designed according to the expected level of sales; and

● adapted to the best preservation of the product being sold.

Contents - Previous - Next

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Chapter 1. Retail markets

What are retail markets?

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● freshly slaughtered meat;

● fresh and dried fish; dry foods, including grains;

● cooked food ("street food");

● household, non-perishable consumer goods and utensils;

● cloth and clothing; and, most commonly

● a heterogeneous market, trading in a wide range of goods.

by time of operation (and services that are offered):

● by government or parastatal organizations;

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Justification for market developments

● poor condition of roads and paving;

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Benefits of market development

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● lack of public toilet facilities, including hand washing facilities;

● inadequate market cleaning provision and solid-waste disposal practices; and

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Contents - Previous - Next

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Chapter 2. Planning context

A brief history of settlement growth

Markets in rural areas

● markets in newly planned rural settlements; and

Central place theory

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Source: FAO Project No.TCP/BGD/4511

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Coordination of markets & other infrastructure improvements

Retail markets in urban areas

● markets needed for new urban fringe and suburban areas.

Urban master plans and planning controls

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Urban catchment areas

City centre/main covered market 300,000 16.0

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● the size of the potential catchment area;

● the purchasing power of local consumers;

● whether most families have refrigerators;