Ap Lect 9 Visualaids 091110

Airport- Visual Aids
CE 60069 Planning and Design Airports

Introduction
Pilots- ground reference for navigation and approaching an airport
Airport- Visual Aids - need visual aids in good and bad weather conditions
-adequate contrast in the field of view
-- day time under good weather condition- requirements are met
automatically
-- runway appears long narrow strip with straight sides and can be
easily identified if its outlines are properly marked.
Introduction…contd
Experience has demonstrated that the horizon, runway

edges, runway threshold and centerline of runway are the
most important elements for the pilots to see.
To enhance the visual information during the day, the
runway is painted with a standard marking pattern.
During night and even during day if visibility becomes very
poor, markings may not be helpful and lighting is needed.
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Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids
Aircraft Landing Operation

a transient body suspended in a 3-D grid approaching a fixed
2-D grid
3-D- horizontal, vertical, parallel to end of runway for landing
(pitch, yaw and roll)
Pilot need translation information- aircraft alignment, height,
distance; rotation information regarding pitch, yaw and roll;
information on rate of descent, rate of closure with desired
path
speed:135 kmph
Glide path, height and distance and time relationships
Height Information
Alignment Guidance
Best source of height- instrumentation in the aircraft(
pilot- to know where their aircraft with respect to lateral
availability of instrument landing system on the
displacement from the centerline of runway
ground)
-runway appears as long narrow strip
No instrument landing system- two types of ground based
--predominant alignment guidance comes from long. Lines( centerline,
edge of runway) visual aids defining the desired glide path
- techniques such as painting/marking, lighting- helpful a) Visual approach slope indicator
b) Precision approach path indicator
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Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

Basic visual approach slope indicators - consist of two sets of lights.
- aid in defining the desired glide path in relatively good
weather conditions, an optical reference device located One set marks the start of the runway, while the other is set up some
on the ground adjacent to the sides of the runway has seven meters (twenty feet) along the runway.
been developed. Each set of lights is designed so that the lights appear as either white or
red, depending on the angle at which the lights are viewed.
Each group of lights, transverse to the direction of
When the pilot is approaching the lights at the proper angle, meaning
runway, is referred as a ‘bar’, irrespective of the fact he is on the glide slope the first set of lights appears white and the
that it may be on one side or on both sides of the runway. second set appears red.
A bar is made up of one, two or three light units referred When both sets appear white, he is flying too high, and when both
to as ‘boxes’. For example, VASI 12 is a two bar system appear red he is flying too low. This is the most common type of visual
approach slope indicator system
consisting of twelve boxes.
Visual Glide Slope Indicators Precision Approach Path

VASI – Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Indicator (PAPI) –
 Provides obstacle clearance within 4 nm of the runway
threshold within 10º of centerline light system positioned

 Red over white- right beside the runway that
 Red over red- low consists of two, three, or
four boxes of lights that
provide a visual
indication of a fixed-wing
aircraft’s position on the
glide path for the
associated runway
TOO LOW ON GLIDESLOPE TOO HIGH

Lighting and Signage
3
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

Precision Approach Path Indicator(PAPI) - consist of four sets of lights in a line perpendicular to the runway.
-system gives more precise indication to the pilots of the approach -work in about the same way as basic visual approach slope indicators,
path of the aircraft and utilizes only one bar as opposed to two or but the added lights serve to show the pilot how far off the glide slope
three bars of VASI. the aircraft is.
- consists of a unit with four lights on either side of the runway. -When the farthest two sets of lights appear red and the closest sets
-Utilizing the colour scheme, as indicated, the pilot is able to appear white, the plane is right on the glide slope.
ascertain five approach angles relative to the proper glide slope -When the farthest three sets of lights appear red the plane is slightly
compared with the three with the VASI system. below the glide slope, whereas when the closest three sets of lights
appear white the plane is slightly above the glide slope.
Precision Approach Path Indicator….contd

Visual Glide Slope Indicators
Four red lights indicate that the plane is far below glide • PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator
slope, and four white lights indicate that the plane is far
above glide slope. Most large airports utilize this system.
HIGH Slightly ON Slightly LOW

HIGH GLIDESLOPE LOW
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Precision Approach Path Indicator….contd
-One problem of the VASI system - lack of an immediate transfer

from one colour to another, resulting in shades of colour.
- PAPI system solves this problem by providing an instant
transition from one colour to another as a reaction to the
descent path of the aircraft.
-Besides, use of one bar only results in greater economy in
maintenance and operation and eliminates the need for the
pilots to look at two bars to obtain glide slope indications.
Precision Instrument approach Path Indicator

How much pilot can see on ground

Visual Glide Slope Indicators
Cockpit cutoff angle; Pitch angle
• Other Indicators
Tri-Color VASI
Pulsating VASI

Sin = h/VR
5
How much pilot can see on ground
Cockpit cutoff angle, : - angle between the longitudinal

axis of the fuselage and an inclined portion of plane below which
the view of pilot is blocked by some part of the aircraft Pitch
angle, : angle of the fuselage
H = VR cos  – h cot ( - )
sin  = h/VR
VR = visual range
H = horizontal segment of visual range
h = height of glide slope above the runway
 = angle formed by VR with horizontal
During dark nights and under poor

visibility conditions, markings are Airport lighting
not of much help and hence some
-approach lighting
lighting arrangements are needed
for night time aircraft operation. -Runway threshold
Like in the case of marking,
lighting should also be provided on
-Runway edge
runways, taxiways and apron. -Runway centreline and touch down zone
-Runway approach slope indicators
-Rotating beacon
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Approach Lighting Categories
• ALSF I and II – approach lighting system with

sequential flashing single and three intensity
lighting system (typically 2,400 ft. or longer)
• MALSF - medium intensity approach lighting system
with flashing (1,400 ft.)
• ODALS - Omnidirectional approach lighting systems
• SSALR – simplified short approach lighting system
high-intensity lighting system (2,400 ft.)
• MALSR - medium intensity system (2,400 ft.)
• MALS - medium intensity system (1,400 ft.)
http://binrock.net/permanent/2007/0629_night_flying/runway_lighting.jpg

High intensity lights
Approach lighting – system -visual range of 2000 to 2500 ft
Configurations
Simple approach lighting system

will consist of a row of lights on
the extended centre line of the
runway extending, where
physically practicable, over a
distance of 420 m from the
threshold with a row of lights
forming a crossbar 18 m or 30m in
length at a distance of 300 m
from the threshold. Approach Lighting
ICAO- CAT-I
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Approach Lighting
Approach Lighting
ICAO category II and category III approach lighting systems
Approach Lighting system Configurations

ICAO category II and category III approach lighting systems
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Approach Lighting
Approach Lighting system Configurations

Approach Lighting
Sample View from Cockpit (1000 ft)
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High Speed Exits Threshold lighting

- during final stage of approach pilot must take decision to complete
landing
-Identification of threshold ia a major factor- to land/not to land
-special lighting consideration- green color across the width of the runway
--semi flush type
-Opposite to landing –red color- end of runway

Runway Lighting
-pilot must complete a touch down and rollout on the

runway
--runway visual aids- designed to give pilot information on
alignment, lateral displacement, roll and distance
-- lights should be arranged to form a visual pattern that
pilot can easily interpret
-Flood lighting--preferred landing direction-- runway
edge light----runway centreline and touch down zone
lights
Threshold lighting
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Runway Edge Light

Runway lighting
ICAO annexure 14
Centreline Classified – HIRL, MIRL and LIRL
Edge Elevated (30 inch) /semi-flush type

-located at 10 ft from full strength pavement
Touch down
Long.spacing- 200 ft (max)
Colour-white, except last 2000 ft of instrument runway in the
direction of aircraft operations- yellow(caution zone)
Airport lighting
High intensity Runway edge light Runway edge and threshold lights for a displaced threshold
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Runway centreline and touch down zone lights
Close to runway– runway edge light out of peripheral vision

Black hole effect
To reduce it- runway centreline and touch down zone lighting
Required- ILS CAT-II and III, CAT-I ( <2400 ft VR)
Touchdown light-white- three bulb bar on either side of centreline-
extended to 3000ft from runway threshold
Spacing-100 ft, 36 ft on either side of runway centreline
Centreline lights- 50 ft spacing
Colour-white except last 3000 ft ( 1000 ft red; 2000 ft red and white-
alternate)
Runway edge and threshold lights for a displaced threshold
Runway Touchdown zone lights

Runway centreline lights
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Runway Touchdown zone lights Runway Light Fixtures (RLF)
Taxiway Lighting
To maneuver to terminal building/apron/hanger
Large airport- taxiway system complex- lights needed
Points to remember
Avoid confusion with runways and taxiways
Adequate visual guidance along taxiway must be provided
Specific taxiways must be readily identified
Intersection- taxiways and runways –clearly marked
Complete route from runway to apron and vice-versa must be easily
identified
To locate 1220-1500 ft before turnoff
Taxiway Lighting
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Taxiway Lighting- spacing

Location of entrance and exit taxiway lights
Taxiway edge lights Runway guard lights

-blue clour; 200 ft internal on either side of taxiway
-- located at 10 ft from full strength pavement
Located on taxi ways at intersections of runways to
-Centreline lighting alert pilots – entering onto active runway
-- superior to edge lighting
Across the width of taxiway- 2ft from entrance to a
-Spacing of light 50 ft runway
-To Hold in taxiway - yellow light in transverse direction
Coloured yellow for aircraft facing the runway
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Runway guard lights Runway stop bar lighting
Installed on taxiway intersection with runway

Stop lights to pilot
Not to enter runway
Red coloured
Apron Lighting
Apron areas need to be properly lighted to help pilots guide aircraft Airport lighting
under adverse weather conditions
Deicing sections near runways or aprons have to be properly lighted

to avoid ground collisions
http://www.airportlighting.com.au/images/runpapi.jpg
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Airport lighting
Airport lighting
Rotating beacons
Pilots identify airports at night by looking for

Flashing beacon
rotating beacons.
Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and green lights.
Military airports flash two white lights followed by a green light. low airport
intensity
rotating
elevated
beacon
taxiway
Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports use different sequences.

If the rotating beacon is turned on during the day, it usually indicates airport rotating beacon
that IFR conditions prevail, but this isn't always the case.
low intensity elevated taxiway
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Airport lighting
Collision Avoidance
Precision Approach Path Indicator Sequence Flashing Lights • Operation Lights On

– Landing light ON
• During takeoff, landing
and
• When operating within 10
miles of any airport
– Purpose is to enhance see
and avoid concept
Threshold Runway End Lighting

Multi function approach and lighting
threshold lighting

Airport Lighting
17
Airport Marking
Precision runway marking

Non-Precision Instrument
Precision Instrument
• Precision Instrument • Non-Precision Instrument
– Runway Numbers – Runway Numbers
– Centerline – Centerline
– Threshold Markings – Threshold Markings
– Touchdown Zone (500 ft.) – 1000 Foot (Aiming Point)
– 1000 Foot (Aiming Point) Markings
Markings
– Side Stripes
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Airport Marking
To aid the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways and taxiways,
• Visual Runway pavements are marked with lines and numbers. White is used for all
– Runway Numbers markings on runways and yellow is used on taxiways and aprons.
– Centerline Runway Markings
Runway markings consist of
1. Threshold marking, 2.Touchdown zone marking, 3.Centerline
marking, 4. Side strip marking, 5. Runway number

Airport Marking
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsinki-Vantaan_kiitotie_33.jpg
19
Touchdown zone markings

Threshold marking
-consists of two groups of (four or six?) longitudinal stripes,
each 150ft long, 12ft wide and spaced at 3ft apart, are located -consist of groups of one, two and three rectangular bars symmetrically
symmetrical about the runway centerline. arranged in pairs about the runway centerline.
-center spacing between each group of 4 lines is 16ft. -These marks begin at 500ft from threshold and end at 3000ft. Bars are
-For runways less than 150ft wide, the length of the stripes 75ft long, 6ft wide with 5ft spacing between them and are
remains the same, but the width and spacing of the stripes are longitudinally spaced at 500ft along the runway.
proportionally changed. - inner stripes are placed 36ft on either side of the runway centerline.
For runways less than 150ft wide, the width and spacing of stripes are
proportionally reduced
Touchdown zone markings
-On shorter runways, the pairs of markings, which would extend to

within 900ft of the runway midpoint, are eliminated.
-For runways 4000ft or longer, the 2nd three stripes marking is
replaced by a solid stripe on each side with length of 60ft and
width 30ft spaced 72ft apart symmetrically about the runway
centerline( Fixed Distance Marker (sometimes Aiming Point)
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Centerline markings Side stripes,

-located on the centerline of the runway and consist of a line of
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. -Continuous 3ft wide line, provide contrast with he
surroundings and delineate the edges of full strength
-The stripes are 120ft long with a gap of 80ft. Adjustments to
length and gap where necessary to accommodate the runway pavement.
length are made near the runway midpoint.
-The minimum width of the stripes is 12inches for visual runways,
18inches for non-precision instrument runways and 36inches for
precision instrument runways
Displaced Threshold
At some airports, it is desirable or necessary to displace the runway
threshold on permanent basis.
Displaced threshold is one which has been moved a certain distance
from the end of the runway.
Most often this is necessary to clear obstruction in the flight path on
landing.
The displacement reduces the length of landing but take-off can
take entire length of the runway.
Runway displaced threshold marking
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Runway number
consists of numbers and letters
-These are 60ft long and depending on the number
and letter, vary from 5ft width for number 1 to 23ft
for number 7.
-Spacing between two numbers is kept at 15ft
Each runway in an airport is allocated a number consisting

of two numbers – one for each end of the runway. These
are not arbitrary numbers but are allotted based on
certain rules.
The number allotted to a particular end of a runway
indicates its whole circle bearing (Azimuth) in the
direction of landing with the last figure dropped
N
09L 27R
09C 27C
09R 27L
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For example,
for a runway which is at right angles to the magnetic north, the
eastern end will have a number of 27 while the western end will
be allotted the number 09.
In case of two parallel runways, in addition to the numbers, a
letter ‘L’ or ‘R’ will also be used depending on whether the
runway is on the left or to the right, with respect to the
direction of landing.
In case of three parallel runways, the letter ‘C’ is used to
indicate the central runway.
Displaced threshold marking
Centerline marking
Taxiway marking
- single 6inch wide line running along the central line in straight
stretches. On curves, the line continues from the straight portion of the
taxiway at a constant distance from the outside edge of the taxiway.
- centerline marking, edge marking, holding line
At a taxiway-taxiway intersection, which is designed for aircraft to
marking and shoulder marking
travel straight through the intersection, the centerline marking
continues straight through the intersection.
At intersections where there is an operational need to hold the aircraft,
a dashed holding line is placed perpendicular to and across the
centerline of both the taxiways.
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-At the intersection of a taxiway with a runway end, the centerline of Edge marking
the taxiway terminates at the edge of the runway
When the edge of the full strength pavement of the taxiway is
-At the intersection between a taxiway and a runway, where the not readily apparent, or when taxiway must be outlined as it is
taxiway serves as an exit from the runway, the taxiway marking is established on a large paved area such as apron, the edge of the
usually extended onto the runway into the vicinity of the runway taxiway is marked with two continuous 6in strips 6in apart.
centerline marking.
Shoulder
-The taxiway centerline marking is extended parallel to the runway
centerline marking upto a distance of 200ft beyond the point of When the taxiway shoulder has the same appearance as that of
tangency. the structural pavement, it is marked similar to runway shoulder
with the difference that the lines are perpendicular to the edge.
-For a taxiway crossing a runway, the taxiway centerline marking may
continue across the runway, but it must be interrupted for runway
markings
Taxiway Shoulder marking
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Runway Holding Position Markings

painted marking is
found on taxiways at Taxiw ay Ending Marker
runway intersections
and indicates where an
aircraft is to stop. The
solid lines are on the
side where the aircraft
is to hold and the
dashed lines are always
on the side toward the
runway. Do not cross
the markings until
cleared
Th e purpose of the taxiw ay ending m arker is to prevent
pilots from taxiing off the end of the pavement at locations
w here pilots are not expecting the taxiw ay to end. 21
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Airport Signs
• Mandatory Instruction
Sings
Signage – Entrance to runway,
critical area or
prohibited area
– Red with white letters or
numbers
Airport Signs Airport Signs
• Location Signs • Direction Sign

– Identify Taxiway or – Indicate directions of
runway where you are taxiways leading out of
currently located an intersection
– Identify runway – Yellow background,
boundary or ILS critical Black writing
area for area exiting – Arrows
runway
– Black background with
yellow writing and
border
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Airport Signs Airport Signs
• Destination Signs • Runway Distance Remaining

– Indicate general – Distance remaining
direction to location on information to pilots
airport during takeoff and
– FBO, Military or landing
international areas – Located on sides of
– Yellow background, runway
black writing, arrow – Thousands of feet
– Turbojet aircraft
– Black with White writing
Transportation Engineering-II Transportation Engineering-II
Taxiways- ILS Critical Area Mandatory Instruction
• White Letters, Red Background

• Installed to prevent interference with the operation of the
• Typically installed at taxiway/runway intersections
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
• Co-located with Hold Short Lines
• Hold short of this line only when instructed to do so by ATC.
Lighting and Signage Lighting and Signage Runway Holding Position Sign
27
Mandatory Instruction Mandatory Instruction
• Runway Holding Position Sign • ILS Critical Area

– Installed at the approach end of runway – Adjacent to ILS Critical Area
pavement marking
• Runway Approach Zone Sign
• Do Not Enter
Lighting and Signage Lighting and Signage
Destination Destination
• Yellow Letters, Black Background • Black Letters, Yellow Background
• Used to identify location on airport • Always have an arrow showing the route to that destination
• “Yellow ON Black…That’s Where Your At! • Indicate direction to a location on an airport
Destination for different taxiing Destination for common taxiing

route to two runways route to two runways
Lighting and Signage Lighting and Signage
28
Airport Signs
Sign size and location
Location distances for holding position markings
Signage configuration at taxiway intersection
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Typical layout of airfield signage
30

Ap Lect 9 Visualaids 091110

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Airport- Visual Aids

CE 60069 Planning and Design Airports

Pilots- ground reference for navigation and approaching an airport

Airport- Visual Aids

Experience has demonstrated that the horizon, runway

Aircraft Landing Operation

Glide path, height and distance and time relationships

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Visual Glide Slope Indicators Precision Approach Path

threshold within 10º of centerline light system positioned

TOO LOW ON GLIDESLOPE TOO HIGH

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Precision Approach Path Indicator….contd

HIGH Slightly ON Slightly LOW

Lighting and Signage

Precision Approach Path Indicator….contd

-One problem of the VASI system - lack of an immediate transfer

Precision Instrument approach Path Indicator

Airport- Visual Aids

How much pilot can see on ground

Lighting and Signage

How much pilot can see on ground

Cockpit cutoff angle, : - angle between the longitudinal

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

During dark nights and under poor

Approach Lighting Categories

• ALSF I and II – approach lighting system with

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Simple approach lighting system

ICAO category II and category III approach lighting systems

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Approach Lighting system Configurations

Approach Lighting system Configurations

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

High Speed Exits Threshold lighting

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

-pilot must complete a touch down and rollout on the

Runway Edge Light

Edge Elevated (30 inch) /semi-flush type

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Runway centreline and touch down zone lights

Close to runway– runway edge light out of peripheral vision

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Runway Touchdown zone lights

Runway Touchdown zone lights Runway Light Fixtures (RLF)

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Taxiway Lighting- spacing

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Taxiway edge lights Runway guard lights

Runway guard lights Runway stop bar lighting

Installed on taxiway intersection with runway

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Deicing sections near runways or aprons have to be properly lighted

Airport- Visual Aids Airport- Visual Aids

Pilots identify airports at night by looking for

Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports use different sequences.

low intensity elevated taxiway

Precision Approach Path Indicator Sequence Flashing Lights • Operation Lights On

Threshold Runway End Lighting