Mr Anthony Gatt

B.Psy (Hons) MA( Brit. Columb.)

Psychology Lectures
 Expectations
 Course Content – Lectures & Text Book
 Text Book
 Assessment – 50 item multiple choice (covering
material from both lectures and book)
 My e-mail: anthonyg@maltanet.net
Course Content
Introduction
 The Nature of Studying Psychology
 Different Professions in Psychology
 Different Perspectives in Psychology:
 Psychoanalytic Approach
 Behaviourism & The Social Learning Approach
 Humanistic- Phenomenological Approach

Understanding Oneself and Other Persons -

 Psychology of Personality
 Perception
 Emotional Intelligence
Course Content cont.
Keys to Success
 Motivation
 Communication
 Decision Making
Effective Groups and Organizations
 Group Dynamics
 Leadership
 Team work and Conflict
Effective Functioning in the Workplace
 Job Satisfaction
 Dealing with Stress
 Career Choice
 Ethics at Work
Text Book
 Dalton. M. Hoyle, D.G.
and Watts, M.W (2006)
Human Relations 3rd
Ed.
Psychology - definition
 The word ‘psychology’ literally means ‘study of the
mind’. It has been variously defined as ‘the science of
mental life’, ‘the science of behaviour’ etc.
 For our purposes we define psychology as:
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental
processes
OR
 The science of behaviour and mental processes that
seeks to describe and explain aspects of human
thought, feelings, perceptions and actions.
What are the goals of psychology?
To describe, explain, predict, and control behaviour and
mental processes
 Describe: tell what occurred
 Explain: tells why
 Predict: under what conditions is the behaviour /
event likely to occur
 Control: how is the principle applied or what change
in condition is necessary to prevent unwanted
occurrence or to bring about a desired outcome
Roots of Psychology
 4th & 5th centuries BC – Greek philosophers Socrates,
Plato and Artistotle posed fundamental questions
about the mind eg what is consciousness? Are people
capable of free choice?
 Hippocrates, ‘father of medicine’ – imp. observations
about how the brain controlled other organs
 Scientific Psychology born in the latter part of 19th
cent. – mind and behaviour subject of scientific
analysis
The Nature of Studying Psychology
 Study of Psychology - several viewpoints:
 Biological Perspective – events inside the body esp brain &
nervous system
 Behavioural Perspective – external activities that can be
observed
 Cognitive Perspective – incld. mental processes such as
perceiving, remembering, reasoning, deciding and problem
solving.
 Psychoanalytic Perspective – unconscious motives
stemming from sexual and aggressive impulses repressed in
childhood
 Phenomenological Perspective – person’s subjective
experiences; motivation toward self actualization
Perspectives in Psychology
 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
 Relates overt behaviour to electrical and chemical
events, particularly the brain and nervous system

 BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE
 John B. Watson 1878 – 1958
 Studies focused on behaviour rather then the brain
 Stimulus-response psychology
Perspectives in Psychology cont.
 COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
 Mental processes
 Perceiving; remembering; reasoning, deciding, problem
solving
 PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
 Sigmund Freud 1865 – 1939
 Action caused by processes that are unconscious
Perspectives in Psychology cont.
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL PERSPECIVE
 Called humanistic because they emphasize the drive
toward growth and self-actualization
 Subjective experience – inner life not behaviour
 We are not acted on by forces beyond our control, but
instead we are actors capable of controlling our destiny
 Responsibility and Choice
Different Professions in Psychology
 Counselling & Clinical Psychologist
 Settings: general hospitals; mental hospitals; polyclinics;
prisons; schools; organisations such as Caritas; Inspire;
Hospice Movement; Rehabilitation Centres; Private
Practice
 Organisational / Industrial Psychologist
 Settings: Private companies; human resource training
agencies; government and parastatal organisations
 Educational Psychologist
 Settings: Schools; Special Schools
Different Professions in Psychology
cont.
 Social Psychologist
 Setting: Market research organisations; adverstising; media
organisations
 Health Psychologist
 Setting: Hospitals; Health organisations such as Health
Promotion
 Other fields of Specialisation:
 Developmental Psychology
 Sports Psychology
 Environmental Psychology
 Forensic Psychology
 Cognitive Psychology
Major Schools of Psychology
 Psychoanalytic
 Behaviourism & Social Learning
 Humanistic - Phenomenological
Psychoanalytic School
 Sigmund Freud (1865 – 1939)
 Jew from Vienna
 Psychiatrist
 The Unconscious
 Structural Theory:
 Id, Ego, Superego
 Psychosexual Stages
 Defence Mechanisms
Psychoanalytic School:
Introduction
 Great importance to early childhood (by age 7
personality all set)
 A deterministic approach – early on personality is set
and little can be changed
 Gives importance to the unconscious
 Gives importance to sexuality
Psychoanalytic School:
The Unconscious
 For Freud consciousness is a thin slice of the total
mind, the tip of the iceberg. According to him, the
behaviour of people in most cases, is determined by
unconscious motivations and drives.
 Metaphor of ice-berg (1/9 conscious; 9/9 unconsious)
 Preconscious: eg: What did you eat yesterday; tip of the
tongue phenomenon
 Unconscious: repressed memories and thoughts; parts
of ourselves which have never come out.
 Proof of unconscious: Eg. Slips of the tongue
 Dreams as the Royal Road to the unconscious
Psychoanalytic School
Structural Theory
 Id
 Avoids pain, seeks pleasure
 Ruled by the Pleasure Principle
 Illogical and amoral –
 Instinctive: Libido; Mortido
 Largely unconscious
 Superego
 The person’s moral code
 Strives not for pleasure but perfection
 Represents traditional values and ideals of society
 Internalisation of parental demands and prohibitions
 Ego
 Controls the Id
 Ruled by the reality principle
 Realistic and logical
Psychoanalytic School
Structural Theory cont.
 The three components of personality are often in
oppostion: the ego postpones the gratification that
the id wants immediately and the superego battles
with both id and the ego because behaviour often falls
short of the moral code it represents
 In the well-integrated personality, the ego remains in
firm but flexible control – The Reality Principle
governs
Psychoanalytic School:
Defence Mechanisms
Theory of anxiety reduction
 EVENT
 perceived as THREAT
 Produces ANXIETY
 DEFENSE against threat or Repression of memory
 REDUCTION OF TENSION
 GRATIFICATION – Id is satisfied/feels better
Psychoanalytic School:
Defence Mechanisms
 When defending ourselves we can:
 Deny Reality
 Falsify Reality
 Distort Reality
 DMs can range from mild to extreme
 Sometimes needed
 DMs operate unconsiously
Psychoanalytic School:
Defence Mechanisms (Book Pg 46)
 Denial: a person refuses to believe something that creates anxiety or frustration.
 Repression: an individual cannot remember an unpleasant event.
 Rationalization: a person explains away a problem.
 Regression: a person retreats to an earlier, less mature behaviour pattern.
 Scapegoating: relieves anxiety by blaming other persons or groups for problems.
 Projection: individuals attribute unacceptable thoughts or feelings about themselves to
others.
 Displacement: an individual acts out anger toward a person who does not deserve it but
who is a “safe” target.
 Sublimation: an individual finds a socially acceptable way to act out feelings.
 Compensation: individuals attempt to relieve feelings of inadequacy or frustration by
excelling in other areas.
 Undoing: a person tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening
thought by engaging in contrary behaviour. For example, after thinking about being
violent with someone, one would then be overly nice or accommodating to them
 Reaction Formation: an individual converts unconscious wishes or impulses that are
perceived to be dangerous into their opposites; behavior that is completely the opposite
of what one really wants or feels
Psychoanalytic School:
Defence Mechanisms Exercise:
1. Someone with aggressive tendencies may choose to become
a movie critic and chooses kick boxing as a sport
2. Taking an instant dislike to someone you’ve just met and
realising later that the traits you found so distasteful in that
person are precisely those you dislike in yourself
3. A fired executive begins to act in an extremely helpless
fashion, requiring his wife and family to attend to all his
needs.
4. The guy is constantly late picking up his date may bring
her gifts to show that he’s not that bad after all
Psychoanalytic School:
What Defence Mechanisms is this?
5. Anne justifies cheating at school by saying that the
information she was tested on wasn’t important
anyway and that everyone cheats a little.
6. Mr Smith refuses to do anything about his unhealthy
homelife. He puts all his energy into becoming
successful in his business
7. A person is sad and lonely inside but acts like the life
of a party, always laughing and making jokes
8. A person maintains that the death of a loved on “just
didn’t happen”
Psychoanalytic School: How to
know what’s in the unconscious
 Introspection *
 Fee Association *
 Dream Interpretation *
 Transference & Counter-transference *
 Resistances
 Slips of the Tongue
 Mistakes & Losing Objects
 Jokes & Swearing
 False Perceptions
 Mishaps
 Projective Tests
* The first four points make part of pscyhoanalytic therapy known
as psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic School:
Psychosexual Stages
 Freud postulated the idea of infantile sexuality. He believed
that during the first few years of life, the individual
progresses through several developmental stages that affect
personality. During each stage, the pleasure-seeking
impulses of the id focus on a particular area of the body
and on activities connected with that area.
 Oral 1st year: mouth
 Anal 2nd year: anal region
 Phallic 3-6 years genital region
 Latency 7-12 years environment
 Genital 13 onwards adult sexual concerns
Behaviourism
 Reaction as a reaction to psychoanalytic school.
 The emphasis is on overt behaviour and learning
 Behaviour as a set of learnt responses
 All behaviour is the result of conditioning:
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
Behaviourism Founder –
John B Watson (1878-1958)
 Reacted against the tradition of his time: conscious
experience was the province of psychology.
 All behaviour is the result of conditioning. The
environment shapes our behaviour by reinforcing
specific habits.
 The conditioned response was viewed as the smallest
indivisible unit of behaviour.
 Psychological phenomena begin with a stimulus and
end with a response (Stimulus-Response Psychology)
John B Watson – 12 infants quote
 “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my
own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select – doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-
man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it,
but so have the advocates of the contrary and they
have been doing it for many thousands of years.”
[Behaviorism (1930), p. 82]
Behaviourism –
Classical Conditioning
 Russian Physiologist – Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936).
 Noticed that a dog began to salivate at the mere sight
of a food dish
 Pavlov decided to see whether the dog could be taught
to associated food with other things such as a light or a
tone.
 Experiment – Capsule attached to the dog’s salivary
glands to measure salivary flow. Dog is place in front
of a pan in which meat powder can be delivered
automatically
Pavlov Dog
Behaviourism –
Classical Conditioning
 Pre-conditioning
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) –(eg bell)  no response
 Unconditioned Stimulus (US)( eg Food)


 Unconditioned Response (UR) (eg Salivation)
 Conditioning
 Pairing of CS & US
 Post-Conditioning
 CS  CR
Behaviourism - Classical
Conditioning
 Pairing: is effected by the intensity of the CS & the timing
between CS and presentation of food (.5 scnd is excellent)
 Extinction: If the association is not reinforced, the
response will gradually diminish – extinction occurs
 Generalisation: When a conditioned response has been
associated with a particular stimulas, other similar stimuli
will evoke the same response. The more similar the new
stimuli are to the original CS, the more likely they are to
evoke a CR.
 Discrimination: Opposite to generalisation. A reaction to
a specific CS (eg specific sound). Brought about through
selective reinforcement and extinction.
Dilemma
 If we want to teach a dog a new trick, what
unconditioned stimulus would make a dog sit up or
roll over?
Behaviourism – Trial & Error Learning,
E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
 Started the study of operant conditioning by his
experimnets (1898): A hungry cat is placed in a cage
whose door is held fast by a simple latch, and a piece of
fish is placed just outside the cage....
 Law of Effect: The greater the satisfaction or
discomfort, the greater the strengthening or
weakening of the bond between stimulus and
response.
 Law of Exercise: The more frequently a patterned
stimulus-response connection is repeated, the stronger
it becomes.
Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner 1904-1991
 Experimental Variations: A hungry animal (rat or
pigeon) is placed in a skinner box. Left alone in the
box the rat can move about exploring. Every time the
rat presses the bar, a small pellet is released into the
dish – the food reinforces bar pressing and the rate of
pressing increases dramatically.
 Extinction: can occur if the food magazine is
disconnect so that pressing the bar no longer delivers
food.
 Discrimination: can occur by presenting food only if
the rat presses the bar while the light is on.
Skinner Box
Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
 Reinforcement is any stimulus that increases the likelihood that
a particular response will be repeated. The basic mechanism of
operant conditioning. Two kinds:
 Positive reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency
of a behaviour due to the addition of a stimulus immediately
following a response. Giving (or adding) food to a dog contingent
on its sitting
 Negative reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency
of a behaviour when the consequence is the removal of an
aversive stimulus. Turning off (or removing) an annoying song
when a child asks their parent is an example of negative
reinforcement (if this results in an increase in asking behaviour
of the child in the future). Another example is if a mouse presses
a button to avoid shock.
Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment
– Punishment is defined as any procedure that
decreases the likelihood that a response will occur by
following the response with an aversive consequence
or by imposing a penalty
Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
 A schedule is how often an how predictable
reinforcement occurs.
 Continuous reinforcement – every time the rat
presses the bar, food is released
 Partial reinforcement – once a behaviour is
established, it can be maintained when it is reinforced
only a fraction of the time – pigeon that learns to peck
for food – once the operant is established, the pigeon
continues to peck at a high rate even it receives only
occasional reinforcement
 The schedule of reinforcement
Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement – RATIO SCHEDULES
 Fixed ratio (FR) schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth
response
 Example: FR2 = every second response is reinforced
 Lab example: FR5 = rat reinforced with food after each 5 bar-
presses in a Sinner box
 Real-world example: FR10 = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for
each 10 cars sold on the lot.
 Variable ratio (VR) schedules deliver reinforcement after a
random number of responses (based upon a predetermined
average)
 Example: VR3 = on average, every third response is reinforced
 Lab example: VR10 = on average, a rat is reinforced for each 10 bar
presses
 Real world example: VR37/VR38 = a roulette player betting on
specific numbers will win on average once every 37 or 38 tries,
 Behaviourism – Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement – INTERVAL SCHEDULES
 Fixed interval (FI) schedules deliver reinforcement for the first
response after a fixed length of time since the last reinforcement, while
premature responses are not reinforced.
 Example: FI1" = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second
 Lab example: FI15" = rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds
passes since the last reinforcement
 Real world example: FI24 hour = calling a radio station is reinforced with a
chance to win a prize, but the person can only sign up once per day
 Variable interval (VI) schedules deliver reinforcement for the first
response after a random average length of time passes since the last
reinforcement
 Example: VI3" = reinforcement is provided for the first response after an
average of 3 seconds since the last reinforcement.
 Lab example: VI10" = a rat is reinforced for the first bar press after an
average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement
 Real world example: a predator can expect to come across a prey on a
variable interval schedule
Schedule of Reinforcement - A chart demonstrating the different
response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each
hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given.
Behaviourism – Learned
Helplessness (Seligman 1975)
 A condition were we give up on life or on a particular
experiences
 A series of experiments showed that dogs that are
placed in a shuttle box (with 2 compartments
separated by a barrier) quickly learn to jump to the
opposite compartment to escape a mild electric shock
delivered to their feet through a grid on the floor.
 If a light is turned on a few seconds before the grid is
electrified, the dogs can learn to avoid the shock
entirely by jumping to the safe compartment when
signaled by the light.
Behaviourism – Learned
Helplessness (Seligman 1975)
 However, if the dog has had a precious history of being
in another enclosure in which shocks were
unavoidable and inescapable, then it is very difficult
for the dog to learn the avoidance response in a new
situation when it is appropriate
Social Learning Theory
aka Vicarious Learning
 Concerned with human social interaction
 Has its origins in behaviouristic studies of animal
learning
 Focuses on the behaviour patterns that people develop
in response to environmental contingencies
 Some social behaviours may be rewarded while others
may produce unfavourable results
 People then select the more successful behaviour
patterns
Social Learning Theory
 Stress on importance of cognitive processes (unlike
strict behaviourism)
 Importance of vicarious learning ie learning by
observation (as opposed to direct experience eg child
who observes painful expressions of an older sibling in
the dentist’s chair will probably be fearful on his first
dental appointment
 Emphasis on role models in transmitting both
specific behaviours & emotional responses
Social Learning Theory
 Imitation of Aggression: Research by Bandura 1973
 Aggression, like any other response can be learned
through imitation. Either live or filmed models of
aggression increases the likelihood of aggression in
the viewer
 Experiment carried out by Nursery school children –
Bobo doll experiment
 Main results: Observation of live model results in the
imitation of more specific aggressive acts
Social Learning Theory
 Main results Bandura 1973
 Live Model c. 25 imitative aggressive responses
 Film Model c. 20 imitative aggressive responses
 Cartoon Model c. 8 imitative aggressive responses
 Nonaggresive Model c. 2 aggressive responses
 No model c. 4 aggressive responses
Social Learning theory
 Modelling has 3 specific effects:
1. Modelling Effect: copying an entirely new behaviour
2. Inhibitory/Disinhibitory Effect: If the model is
rewarded then the behaviour is performed; If the
model is punished then the behaviour is not
performed.
3. Response Facilitation eg: A smoker is dying for a
cigarette but he is in a formal meeting. He is not sure
whether it is possible or not to smoke in this
meeting. If the presidents starts smoking after a
while the smoker will start smoking himself
Humanistic or Phenomenological
School of Psychology
 During the first half of the 20th century, the
psychoanalytic and behaviouristic approaches were
dominant in psychology. In 1962, a group of
psychologists founded the Association of Humanistic
Psychology
 They offered Humanistic Psychology as a “third force”,
an explicit set of alternative assumptions and concerns
to those that characterized the other two approaches.
To define its mission, the Association adopted a set of
four princilpes:
Humanistic School of Psychology
1. The experiencing person is of primary interest.
Humans are simply objects of study. They must be
described and understood in terms of their own
subjective views of the world, their perceptions of
self, and their feelings of self-worth.
The central question each person must face is “Who
am I?” In order to learn how the individual attempts
to answer this question, the psychologist must
become a partner with the individual in the quest for
existential meaning.
Humanistic School of Psychology
2. Human Choice, creativity, and self-actualisation
are the preferred topics of investigation.
Humanistic psychologists reject the psychoanalytic
approach, believing that a psychology based on
crippled personalities could only produce a crippled
psychology. They also reject behaviourism, a
psychology devoid of consciousness derived primarily
form the study of lower organisms. People are not
simply motivated by basic drives like sex or aggression
or physiological needs like hunger and thirst. They
have a need to develop their potentials and
capabilities. Growth and self-actualisation should be
the criteria of psychological health, not merely ego
control or adjustment to the environment.
Humanistic School of Psychology
 Meaningfulness must precede objectivity in the
selection of research problems. The humanistic
psychologists believe that too often psychological research
is guided by the methods available rather than by the
importance of the problems to be investigated. They argue
that we should study important human and social
problems, even if that sometimes means adopting less
rigorous methods. And while psychologists should strive
to be objective in collecting and interpreting observations,
their choice of research topics can and should be guided by
values. In this sense, research is not value-free; values are
not something psychologists should pretend not to have or
feel they have to apologise for.
Humanistic School of Psychology
 Ultimate value is placed on the dignity of the
person. Persons are basically good. The objective of
psychology is to understand, not to predict or control
people. Even referring to them as “subjects” is
considered by many humanistic psychologists to
degrade their dignity as full partners in the quest for
understanding human personality
Humanistic School of Psychology
Carl Rogers 1902-1987
 Developed both theory and counselling approach
 Carl Rogers makes part of the Humanistic school. This
school is optimistic about the persons. In fact it does
not view people as:
 victims of the unconscious processes (psychoanalytic
school) OR
 robots (behaviouristic school)
Humanistic School of Psychology
Carl Rogers – Theory about human beings
 Carl Rogers perceives:
 Human beings are basically good/healthy individuals
 Perceives the potential for growing
 More interested in normal, rather than abnormal
 Views personality as interaction of nature and nurture
 Not everybody is growing
 When people become stuck, this is because their
striving to grow has been corrupted
 Conditions of Worth (Parents: “Masters in the art of
subtle and loving control”)
 Conditional vs Unconditional Positive Regard
Humanistic School of Psychology
Carl Rogers 1902-1987
 Person Centred Counselling (aka Client Centred
Counselling)
 Client Centred
 Removing Conditions of Worth
 Three necessary and sufficient conditions for
counselling:
 Empathy
 Unconditional Positive Regard
 Genuiness (Congruence) ie. Being real, sincere, not artificial,
transparent
Humanistic School of Psychology
Abraham Maslow 1908-1970
 Hierarchy of Needs (Theory of Motivation)
 Self Actualizing Persons
 Peak Experiences
Humanistic School – A Maslow
Hierarchy of Needs
Humanistic School – A. Maslow
Characteristics of Self-Actualisers
 Perceive reality efficiently & are able to tolerate uncertainty
 Accept themselves & others for what they are
 Spontaneous in thought and behaviour
 Problem-centred rather than self-centred
 Have a good sense of humour
 Highly creative
 Resistant to enculturation, although not purposely
unconventional
 Concerned with the welfare of humanity
 Capable of deep appreciation of the basic experiences of life
 Establish deep, satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few
rather than many people
 Able to look at life from an objective viewpoint
 Humanistic School – A. Maslow
Behaviours Leading to Self-Actualisation
 Experience life as a child does, with full absorption and
concentration
 Try something new rather than sticking to secure and safe ways
 Listen to your own feelings in evaluating experiences rather
than to the voice of tradition or authority or the majority
 Be honest; avoid pretences or “game-playing”
 Be prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with
those of most people
 Assume responsibility
 Work hard at whatever you decide to do
 Try to identify your defences and have the courage to give them
up
Exercise:
 What would you do if you knew you were going to die
in three days time?
 Think of three deeply satisfying experiences in your
life?
Humanistic School – A. Maslow
The nature of Peak Experiences
 Peak experiences are described by Maslow as especially
joyous and exciting moments in life, involving sudden
feelings of intense happiness and well-being, wonder
and awe, and possibly also involving an awareness of
transcendental unity or knowledge of higher truth (as
though perceiving the world from an altered, and often
vastly profound and awe-inspiring perspective). They
usually come on suddenly and are often inspired by
deep meditation, intense feelings of love, exposure to
great art or music, or the overwhelming beauty of
nature. Peak experiences can also be triggered
pharmacologically.
Psychology of Personality
What is Personality?
 Popular View:
 Evaluative: “He hasn’t got much personality” – basically
an impression of an individual. The person is or is not
someone we want to be with
 Descriptive: “He has an aggressive personality” –
referring to the most outstanding characteristic
What is Personality?
 Scientific View: Personality is the dynamic*
organisation* within the individual of the various
human domains that determine a person’s typical
behaviours, emotions, thoughts
 *Organisation: order and consistency – there usually is a
pattern in our personality (not haphazard) eg shy
person: – shy in large group; outgoing in small group;
not shy in family
 *Dynamic: within consistency there is change eg shy
person with a drive to succeed. Personality can change
but not radically
What is Personality?
Various Human Domains
 Affective: Area of feelings – as a rule one may tend to
feel some feelings more than others eg a melancholic
person can became sad easily.
 Cognitive: How one thinks including all thought
processes (Men vs. Females)
 Behavioural: How one acts eg How one talks – loud,
monotone, humorous, serious
 Physical: Physical characteristics have an effect on
personality eg shape of your body
 Spiritual: Abstract aspect of the person: eg the kind of
meaning one gives to life
Personality – Nature vs Nurture Debate
(or Hereditary vs. Environmental)
 Theorists differ over whether inherited and inborn
characteristics or factors in the environment have the
more important influence on a person’s behaviour.
 Disagreement about relative importance of both
factors.
 Infact Development & Personality is an interaction of
the two:
 eg puberty roughly between 9 & 16yrs – timing affected
by environmental factors such as diet
 Eg temperamental patterns may be inherited but can be
modified by parents’ style of care-giving
Examples of environmental, interactional,
and genetic traits are:
Predominantly
Interactional Predominantly Genetic
Environmental
Specific language Height Blood type
Specific religion Weight Eye color
Skin color
Nature side of the argument:
Inborn biases and constraints
 Infants are “programmed” in some way to pay
attention to certain information or to respond in
particular ways to objects
 Eg early language development (Slobin, 1985) – in trying
to make sense our of flow if sounds – there is a tendency
to for child to pick up first and last word in a sequence of
words.
 Eg (Haith) study of infants’ perceptual skills – built in
rules babies look by: attention to shifts between dark
and light & movement following
Nature side of the argument:
Maturation
 Through genetic programming nature may determine
development after birth. Arnold Gesell: Maturation –
genetically programmed sequential patterns of
change:
 Changes in body size & shape
 Changes in hormones at puberty
 Changes in muscles and bones
 Changes in nervous system
All programmed genetically
Nature side of the argument:
Maturation cont.
 Timing of pubertal changes differ but the basic
sequence is the same. Instructions of sequences are
part of specific hereditary information. Maturationally
determined development occurs regardless to practice
and training, although experience may have some
effect. Minimal environmental support is required
 Eg: adequate diet; opportunity for movement and
experimentations
 Eg: Greenough: one of the protein required for
development of visual system us controlled by a gene
triggered by visual experience
Nature side of the argument:
Behaviour Genetics
 The study of genetic contributions to individual
behaviour
 Two research techniques:
 The study of identical & fraternal twins
 The study of adopted children
 Nature side of the argument:
Behaviour Genetics
 Bouchard & McGae correlational study of twins IQ
 Correlational studies: Correlations range from 0 to +1 or -1.
The closer to 1 the stronger the correlation of IQs: How
similar are the IQs of two members of a twin pair
*Identical twins reared together: .85
*Identical twins reared apart: .67 (enviro role)
*Fraternal twins reared together .58
*Siblings Reared apart (including fraternal twins) .24
Nature side of the argument:
Behaviour Genetics
 Scarr & Weinberg correlational study of adopted
children IQ.
 Correlation between adopted children’s IQ and
parents IQ
*The natural mother’s IQ .33
*The natural father’s IQ .43
*The adoptive mother’s IQ .21
*The adoptive father’s IQ .27
Nature side of the argument:
Behaviour Genetics
 The results tell of these two studies tell that there is a
substantial genetic component when we measure with
an IQ test.
 Behaviour Genetics also influence pathological
behaviour (alcoholism, schizophrenia, excessive
aggressiveness, anorexia) and children’s temperament,
emotionality (tendency to get distressed or upset
easily, activity (vigorous, rapid behaviour) and
sociability (prefer presence of others to being alone)
Definition of Human Relations
 Human Relations is the study of relationships
among people.
Importance of Human Relations
 To Organizations
 Human relations leads to more productive
organizations.
 To Individuals
 Effective human relations skills may be the
greatest contributor to the success or failure of
your career.
Exercise
 Mention some human relationship skills?
 Where are they used in an organisation?
 Special Functions within the
Business Organization
Function Human Relations Skills Needed
Marketing & Sales Understand goals of organisation
Communicate with clients & customers
Coordinate work with others in organisation
Production Use teamwork effectively to meet production &
delivery deadlines & maintain quality. Use other
skills such as motivations, goal setting, job
performance problem solving & decision making
Finance Make decisions, listen & communicate effectively
Human Resources Handle confidential information & legal & ethical
matters
Accounting Use effective oral & written communication
Perception – Objectives for this topic
(Chapter 2 in book)
 Define perception.
 Explain why people may have different perceptions of the
same events, objects, persons, or situations.
 Use your understanding of perception to improve
communication.
 Use the Johari Window to analyze your relationships with
others.
 Explain the importance of a good self-image.
 Recognize and understand your different life and work
roles.
 Recognize perceptual defense mechanisms, what can
trigger them, and how they hinder relationships.
 Explain how perceptions can affect employee/supervisor
relationships.
Definition of Perception
 Perception is the process by which you acquire
mental images of your environment.
 Through perception you organize, interpret, and
give meaning to sensations or messages that you
receive with your senses (sight, smell, touch,
taste, hearing).
What do you see?
What do you see?
Factors that Can Affect
Perceptions
 Culture
 Heredity
 Needs
 Peer pressures
 Interests
 Values
 Snap judgments
 Expectations
Factors that Influence
Perception
 Halo effect
 Reverse or tarnished halo effect
 Conditions and characteristics
 Time and place
 Emotional state
 Age
 Frequency
Importance of Perceptions
 Prevent or resolve problems
 Improve communication
 Self-disclosure
 Feedback
Johari Window Model
FEEDBACK
Known to Self Not Known to Self

Known
to Arena or area
EXPOSURE

Others Blind area

of free activity

Not
Known Hidden or
Unknown area
To avoided area
Others
Self Disclosure
 Disclosures should be done carefully in the
workplace.
 Is revealing personal information harmful to
careers?
 Can sharing intimate feelings and information
can detract from your professional image.
 Should you share confidences and problems with
people at work.
Developing Positive Thinking
 Change your thought processes.
 Engage in positive self-talk.
 Use visualization.
 Evaluate your attitude.
 ABC model of rational thinking about an event
 (Albert Ellis)
 Activating Event
 Belief
 Emotional Consequence
The Grieving Process
 Difficult events can trigger a natural grieving
process:
 Denial
 Anger
 Bargaining
 Grieving
 Acceptance
Facing Anxiety: Perceptual
Defense Mechanisms
 Denial  Projection
 Repression  Displacement
 Rationalization  Sublimation
 Regression  Compensation
 Scapegoating
Perceptions of Superiors
 Keep an open mind and avoid prejudging a new boss.
 View bosses as humans with their own feelings and
jobs to do. They could have their own fears:
 Looking bad with their bosses or others
 Not being respected or appreciated
 Appearing inadequate, perhaps because of outdated
skills or sharp aggressive subordinates
 Being rejected as leader
 Use upward management to improve relationships:
 IE managing your boss to achieve your objectives
Motivation Maximising Productivity
(Chapter 3) – Objective for this topic
 Explain why motivation is important to organizations
and individuals and understand the basic motivational
behavior model.
 Identify two basic categories of individual needs and
explain the differences between needs and wants.
 Identify the major theorists and describe their
contributions to the study of human motivation.
 Discuss positive versus negative behaviors to fulfill
needs and identify the motivational source fields in
individuals.
 Discuss motivational techniques that are increasingly
important in motivating employees.
Motivation - Defintion
 Motivation is the emotional stimulus that causes us
to act—a need or a drive that energizes certain
behaviors.
 If we understand what motivates us, we are more
likely to achieve our personal and professional goals.
Basic Behaviour Model
NEED

TENSION

ACTION

RELIEF
Categories of Needs
 Primary
 Basic physiological needs for food,
water, air, sleep, shelter, (for individual
survival) and sex/reproduction (for
survival of the societal group)
Secondary
 Complex psychological needs for
security, affiliation or love, respect,
autonomy.
What motivates people at work?
Motivational Theorists: Maslow
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Physiological needs
 Safety and security needs
 Social needs
 Esteem needs
 Self-actualization needs
Motivational Theorists:
Herzberg Two Factor Theory
 Hygiene factors or Maintenance Factors (maintain
reasonable satisfaction among employees)
 Company policies
 Procedures
 Working Conditions & Job Security
 Salary & Employee Benefits
 Relations with Supervisors, Peers & Subordinates
 Motivational factors (Build high levels of
motivation & job satisfaction)
 Achievment
 Advancement
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 Work itself
Motivational Theorists:
McClelland Acquired Needs Theory
 Need for achievement
 Seek & assume responsibility
 Take calculated risks
 Set challenging but realistic goals
 Develop plans to achieve goals
 Seek & Use feedback in their actions
 Need for affiliation
 Seek & find friendly relations
 Are not overly concerned with ‘getting ahead’
 Seek jobs that are ‘people intensive’
 Require high degrees of interpersonal action
 Need for power
 Seek positions of influence
 Enjoy jobs with high degrees of authority & power
 Are concerned with reaching top-level, decision making positions
 Need autonomy
Motivational Theorists: Vroom
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Views motivation as a process of choices
 Behaviors stem from expecting certain results
New Methods of Motivation
 Unconventional and cost-effective rewards
 Technology
 Flexibility
 Training
 Attention and recognition
Basic Model of Motivation
Need

Frustration

Fulfillment Nonfulfillment

Positive Negative
Behavior Behavior
Example
 As a student you may really want a “A” in your
assignment that took you a great deal of time and
effort to prepare. The high grade is needed to improve
your overall semester grade for the course.
Unbelievably , you get you assignment back with a
grade of “C” boldy appearing at the top of the page
Application of motivation
Theories
 Consider alternative ways to fulfill needs and
wants.
 Avoid negative behaviors that can limit future
opportunities.
 Consider which behaviors might benefit you in
the long run.
Motivational Source Field
SOURCES OF FOLLOWER DEGREE OF POSSIBLE
MOTIVATION LEADER INFLUENCE

Outside HIGH
Forces

Inside MEDIUM
Forces

Early LOW
Forces
Methods of enhancing
motivation
 Sell; don’t tell.
 Let your followers make their own decisions.
 Delegate; don’t dump.
 Set goals with your followers.
 Listen to your followers and let them know
you are listening.
 Follow through.
Methods of enhancing
motivation cont/
 Don’t change course midstream.
 Build in a monitoring system.
 Give criticism gracefully.
 Have a plan for employees’ future.
 Avoid hasty judgments about work style.
 Use rewards and incentives.
 Encourage camaraderie and friendship.
Motivating Generations
 Traditionalists
 Baby boomers
 Generation X
 Generation Y
New Methods for Motivating
Workers
 Education and training
 Job enrichment and job expansion
 Choices, freedom, and flexibility
 Encouragement and praise
 Leisure time
Communication (chapter 4)
Objectives
 Define communication and explain its role in human
relations.
 Discuss the communication process and the importance
of feedback.
 Identify barriers to communication and learn how
listening skills can be improved.
 List ways to improve your spoken communication.
 Identify the qualities of strong written communication.
 Discuss forms of nonverbal communication and why it is
important.
 Explain the importance of time, timing, context, and
medium of a message.
 Discuss common forms of electronic communication.
Communication - Definition
 Communication is the process by which we
exchange information through a common system
of symbols, signs, or behavior.
 The four basic communication skills: listening,
speaking, writing, reading
 Communication is the most important element
of human relations. Being able to interact
effectively with people will enhance your work
experience and theirs.
Communication Process
Barriers to Communication
• Sensory organs  Changes
• Semantics  Poor organization
• Emotions of ideas
• Role  Information
expectations overload
 Poor listening
• Personality and
appearance
• Prejudice
Types of listening
 Pseudolistening – as if listening
 Compulsive talkers – listen only while they catch their
breath (when uneasy & not accepted)
 Selective listening – select something
 Insulated listening – avoid something (eg hints about you)
 Defensive listening – interprets message as an attack
 Ambushing – listening to collect information to then attack
 Insensitive listeners – don’t receive message accurately
 Active sensitive listening
 Empathy – Deepest form of listening
Listening - Empathy
 Empathy, which literally translates as in feeling, is the
capability to share another being's feelings/emotions
 Basic Formula: You feel... Because
Listening Barriers
 Lack of interest in the subject/speaker
 Outside noises, distractions, fatigue
 Limited vocabulary
 Poor delivery of message
 Thinking ahead to a response
 Lack of knowledge
 Prejudices, or hearing what we want to hear
Other reasons why we don’t
listen
 Message overload
 Preconceptions
 Rapid thought (we can understand 600 wpm but talk fast
only 100-140 wpm)
 Physical noise
 Hearing problems
 Faulty assumptions – eg thinking that what the person is
saying is not important, or you think you’ve heard it all
before.
 Talking has more apparent advantages: control, esteem of
others
 We’re not trained to listen well
How to improve listening skills:
Active Listening
 Don’t anticipate or plan rebuttals.
 Avoid prejudging the speaker.
 Eliminate distractions.
 Ask for clarifications.
 Be ready to give feedback.
 Watch for nonverbal communication.
 Avoid unnecessary note taking.
 Listen for major ideas.
 Be sincere and attentive.
Aspects of Spoken
Communication
 Voice
 Word Choice
 “I” Phrases
 Following Up
 Willingness to Speak Up
 Choosing the Right Level
 Keeping a Secret
How to improve spoken
communication
 Listen to the message in the words and feelings.
 Don’t let your own ideas get in the way.
 Question assumptions.
 Tell the truth.
 Think before speaking.
 Now is the best time to get it right.
Feedback
Effective Feedback Is…
 Timely
 Often
 Precise
Giving effective feedback
 Start with Positive
 Use And not But
 Identify specific behaviour
 Own the feedback
 Offer alternative
 Basic formula:
 When you... I feel...
Ways of obtaining feedback
 Ask questions to determine if the receiver has
understood.
 Ask the receiver to restate what you have said.
 Watch for nonverbal signs of understanding or
confusion.
 Request a written response to a written request.
 Follow up with your request.
How to improve written
communication
 Keep sentence length between 15 and 20 words.
 Reduce wordiness. Keep it short and simple.
 Organize your thoughts. Create an outline and
rough draft if needed.
 Use the appropriate style and tone for your
audience.
 Have a clearly stated purpose.
The 4 ‘C’s to communication
 Complete—Include all necessary facts and
answer all questions.
 Concise—Delete unnecessarily long words,
make paragraphs short and easy to read.
 Correct—Be accurate and neat and use correct
grammar.
 Clear—Make sure your writing is easy to
understand and appropriate for your audience.
Human relations practices in
e-mail communication
 Be courteous, brief, and specific. Use only one
subject per e-mail.
 Don’t write something you wouldn’t want to be
made public.
 Read the message for clarity before sending it.
 Don’t immediately send or respond to an angry
message.
 Don’t send jokes or chain letters without
permission.
Nonverbal Communication
 Nonverbal communication = Communication
without words
 Meaning conveyed through
 Body language and gestures
 Tone of voice
 Positioning, posture, and haste
Nonverbal Transmitters
 Posture while sitting and standing
 Facial expressions
 Eye contact
 Voice
 Body movements
 Personal space
 Seating
Enhancing non-verbal
communication
 Recognize nonverbal communication clues and possible
meanings.
 Use nonverbal communication purposefully to achieve a
desired result.
 Consider nonverbal communication in conjunction with
the verbal message.
 Avoid closeness or touching that could be
misinterpreted.
 Recognize that nonverbal communication varies from
culture to culture.
Other factors that affect
communication
 Time
 Timing
 Context
 Medium
 Humor
Assertiveness Rights
 To act in your own best interests as long as it does not deny the
rights of others
 To express your feelings
 To stand up for yourself
 To express your opinions
 Not to offer reasons or excuses for your opinions, beliefs or
behaviour
 To say NO – and not feel guilty
 To make requests of other people as long as you recognise their
right to refuse
 To change your beliefs and behaviours
 To make mistakes and take responsibility for them
 To choose NOT to be assertive
 To be you
Creative Problem Solving
(Chapter 5) - Objectives
 Define a problem and list the steps in problem solving.
 Discuss various tools that can be used in decision
making.
 Discuss the role of creativity in problem solving and list
the basic steps in the creative process.
 Name the sources of creativity in organizations and
describe ways to facilitate creativity in organizations.
 Discuss the blocks to creativity and how to overcome
them.
 Identify ways that you can improve your creativity.
Definition of a Problem
 A problem is a disturbance or unsettled matter that
requires a solution if the organization or person is to
function effectively.
 A problem is “a puzzle looking for an answer.”
Three types of problems
 Occurring now--must be addressed now
 Expected in the future--plans must be made for
dealing with them in the future
 Urgent and foreseen in the future--action must
be taken immediately to prevent their developing
Steps in Problem Solving
 Identify and define the problem.
 Generate ideas; use brainstorming to generate
alternative solutions. When brainstorming do
censor your ideas or be critical of them as they
arise. List as many ideas as possible.
 After exhausting the list of ideas - evaluate
alternatives for practicality.
 Select a solution.
 Implement the solution.
 Evaluate results. Follow up and modify actions.
Pitfalls in Problem Solving
 Overanalyzing
 Not taking necessary action
 Acting too quickly
 Erring in judgment or execution
 Not having a backup plan
 Not involving others in the problem-solving
process
 Perceiving the problem incorrectly
Tools for Decision Making
 Decision tree
 Cost-benefit analysis
 ABC analysis
 PERT chart (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
 Quality circle - committee of 6 to 15 employees
 Six Sigma – disciplined data driven method on which to
base decisions
 Six Thinking Hats (View next slide)
 The 80-20 Rule – economists point out that only a few
problems (20%) are vital and many (80%) are trivial
Six thinking Hats – Edward Debono
Six thinking Hats
 White Hat – Facts and Information
 Red Hat – Feelings & Emotions
 Green Hat – New Ideas
 Black Hat – Critical Judgement
 Yellow Hat – Positive
 Blue Hat – The Big Picture (Coordinator /
Facilitator)
Use Individual Decision
Making…
 When time is short
 When the decision is relatively unimportant
 When the leader has all data needed to make the
decision
 When one or two group members will dominate the
discussion
 When destructive conflict is likely to erupt
 When people feel they attend too many meetings
 When the decision-making data are confidential
 When group members aren’t qualified to decide
 When the leader is dominant
 When the decision doesn’t affect the group directly
Group Decision Making
 In general, groups make better decisions than individuals
due to the increased input and suggestions.
 Risks of group decision making include wasting time and
groupthink.
 The goal of group decision making and problem solving
is consensus—to develop a solution that all members
can support, even if it is not each member’s first choice.
 A “win-win” situation occurs when negotiation between
group members leads people on both sides of an issue to
feel they have achieved their goal.
 When creativity is needed
 When necessary data rests within the group
 When understanding and acceptance of the solution by
group members is important
 When the problem is complex and requires a broad range
of knowledge
 When the manager wants subordinates to be a part of the
process, or wants to build confidence
 When more risk taking is needed
 When better group behavior is desirable
 When the group is ultimately responsible for the decision
 When the leader wants to get feedback
Use Group Decision Making…
 When creativity is needed
 When necessary data rests within the group
 When understanding and acceptance of the solution by
group members is important
 When the problem is complex and requires a broad range
of knowledge
 When the manager wants subordinates to be a part of the
process, or wants to build confidence
 When more risk taking is needed
 When better group behavior is desirable
 When the group is ultimately responsible for the decision
 When the leader wants to get feedback
Definition of Creativity
 Creativity is the thinking process that solves a
problem or achieves a goal in an original and
useful way.
 Creativity is the ability to come up with new and
unique solutions to problems.
Traits of Creative People
 Sensitivity to problems and deficiencies
 Flexibility and openness to new ideas
 Self-confidence and willingness to take risks
 Ability to connect seemingly unrelated ideas
 Upbringing that nurtured creativity
 Divergent thinking
 Unconventional; not worried about approval of society
 Introspective and/or spontaneous
 Resourcefulness, persistence, intellectual interests
Stages of Creativity
 Preparation – acquiring skills, background
information & resources, sensing & defining a problem
 Concentration – focusing intensely on the problem;
trial & error phase that includes false starts & frustration
 Incubation – Withdrawing from the problem
 Illumination – The Aha! stage
 Verification or Elaboration – Testing out the idea,
evaluating, developing, implementing
Quote
Thomas Edison:
“Creation is 1% inspiration
& 99% perspiration
Promoting Creative Ideas
 Champion your idea.
 Be enthusiastic and willing to take reasonable
risks.
 Be persistent; don’t get discouraged.
 Sell your ideas using communication and
networking skills.
 Share information and share credit.
Stimulating Creativity Among
Employees
 Suspend judgment.
 Tolerate a reasonable amount of failure.
 Supervise carefully.
 Offer constructive criticism.
 Tolerate some different behavior.
 Overcome myths about creativity eg that creative
people work alone; creativity is only important in
arts; creative thinking is risky and leads to
unnecessary change.
Steps Toward a Creative
Workplace
 Help people see the purpose of what they do.
 Expect a lot.
 Tell employees what you expect, not how to do it.
 Realize that people are different.
 Be really available.
 Get the word out in 24 hours or less.
 Provide the proper tools.
 Say thanks and have fun.
Thought Processes that Block
Creativity
 Failure to isolate the true source of a problem
 Information overload
 Failure to use all senses
Emotional Blocks to Creativity
 Fear of taking a risk or making a mistake
 Being overly critical
 Inability to tolerate ambiguity
 Inability to unlock the unconscious mind
 Fear of change
 Ego
 Inability to be realistic and practical
Other Block to Creativity
 Cultural blocks
 Taboos against day-dreaming, intuition, and humor
 Environmental blocks
 Lack of trust and cooperation among colleagues and
superiors
Ways to Improve Creativity
 Believe that you have the ability to be creative.
 Listen to your hunches.
 Write down your ideas.
 Learn about and participate in new, unfamiliar
things.
 Avoid rigid patterns of doing things.
 Observe similarities, differences, and unique
features in things.
Ways to Improve Creativity
 Engage in hobbies; play games, work puzzles,
exercise.
 Challenge and scrutinize your own beliefs.
 Maintain a sense of humor.
 Be a risk taker.
 Be positive.
 Follow through; turn your ideas into action.
Group Dynamics
(Chapter 7) Objectives
 Understand the characteristics of a group.
 Explain the importance of studying groups and
why people join groups.
 Distinguish among types of groups.
 Discuss the different types of leaders.
 Recognize factors that influence group
effectiveness.
 Identify the pitfalls of groups and discuss various
group roles.
 Discuss the importance of groups in the future.
Definition of a Group
 A group consists of two or more
individuals who
 Are aware of one another
 Interact with one another on a regular basis
 Perceive themselves to be a group
 Group interaction can occur face-to-face or
via communications technology.
 Groups take many forms and evolve from
many sources.
 The purpose of a group is to satisfy
organizational or individual needs.
 Chapter 7
Slide
161

Groups Affect Productivity

A positively
Positive Good
Morale Performance
motivated
group can
increase
productivity
High .
Productivity

HUMAN RELATIONS by Dalton, Hoyle & Watts

 Chapter 7
Slide
162

Groups Affect Productivity

A poorly
Negative Poor
Morale Performance
motivated
group can
decrease
productivity
Low .
Productivity

HUMAN RELATIONS by Dalton, Hoyle & Watts

Basic Group Processes in Groups
 Becoming a member of a group
 Interdependence – cooperation vs competition
 Achieving task and maintaining relationships
 The acquisition of group norms
Structural Aspects of Groups
 Role differentiations
 Leadership
 Communication networks
Group Development
 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
Importance of Work Groups
 Small groups satisfy needs within individuals and
are good for them.
 Groups can promote creativity and innovation
and solve problems.
 Groups can make better decisions than
individuals.
 Group decisions are more willingly carried out
because group members are committed to them.
Importance of Work Groups
 Group members can control and discipline their
members more effectively than the formal
system.
 Small groups lessen the impersonality of large
organizations, allowing better communication
and sense of belonging.
 Groups are a natural part of an organization.
They cannot be prevented.
Reasons Individuals Join Groups
 Social Connection (Affiliation)
 Power (Security)
 Self-Esteem (Ego)
 Goal Accomplishment (Strategy)
Types of Groups
 Primary Groups
 Consists of family members and close
friends
 Secondary Groups
 Made up of work groups and social
groups
Formal Groups
 Formal groups are designed by the
organization to fulfill specific tasks or
accomplish certain organizational
objectives.
 Types of formal groups
 Functional groups
 Task groups
 Committees
 Ongoing committees
 Ad hoc committees
A Formal Group…
 Has recognized authority
 Has a mission or direction
 Has organized structure
 Has organizational legitimacy
Informal Groups
 Informal groups are created by group members
because the formal group seldom satisfies all of
their needs.
 Peer groups form spontaneously when members
with similar interests, politics, hobbies, or
religions get together.
 Informal peer groups can satisfy members’ needs
for organizational information, informal job
training, and status.
An Informal Group…
 Has little or no authority
 May have a mission
 Has no organizational legitimacy
 Is considered a shadow organization
A Formal Leader
 Is the boss
 Is appointed to the position
 Has legitimate power
 Is officially designated
 Has authority with responsibility
 Has a mission
An Informal Leader
 Also known as emergent leader
 Is a recognizable force
 Is unofficially designated
 Emerges because of being
 Respected, likable, knowledgeable,
technically competent, a senior team
member, strong physically, or older
Factors that Influence Group
Effectiveness
 Behavior of members
 Synergy
 Cohesiveness
 Group norms
 Size of the group
 Status of group members
 Nature of the task to be accomplished by the
group
Group Norms
 Group norms are shared values about the kinds
of behaviors that are acceptable or unacceptable
to the group and that each member is expected
to follow.
 Critical norms are essential to the survival and
effectiveness of the group.
 Peripheral norms are not perceived as
damaging to the group and its members.
 Noncompliance with group norms may provide
sanctions.
Common Sanctions Provoked by
Deviance from Group Norms
 Ostracism
 Verbal criticisms
 Open ridicule
 Malicious gossip
 Harassment
 Intimidation
Characteristics of Small Groups—
Fewer than 5 members
 Fewer people to share responsibilities
 More personal discussion
 More participation
 More convenient for frequent interaction
 Increased tension among group members
 Greater sense of satisfaction
 Greater cohesion
Characteristics of Large Groups—
More than 7 members
 Fewer opportunities to participate
 Members feel inhibited
 Domination by aggressive members
 Tendency for “cliques” to form
 More diverse opinions shared
 Greater likelihood of absenteeism/turnover
 Coordination of activities is more difficult
 Less cohesion; team effect is lost
Pitfalls of Group Decision
Making
 Wasting time
 Groupthink
 Role ambiguity
Group Member Roles
 Information Seeker
 Information Giver
 Coordinator
 Gatekeeper
 Harmonizer
 Observer
 Follower
 Blocker
 Avoider
 Dominator
Groups in the Future
 Groups will shift toward a Communities of
Practice (COPS) approach
 Knowledge workers will continue to be one of the
most influential and highly respected work
groups.
 As the workplace evolves, people will naturally
band together to increase their effectiveness.
 Systems and tools will change, but groups will
remain a vital part of our environment.
Groupware
 Groupware is computer software that has
been developed to facilitate the use of
groups.
 Designed to improve meeting capabilities,
global group interactions, and knowledge
worker exchanges
 Includes e-mail, newsgroups, videophones,
chat groups, screen sharing, and collaborative
writing
Team Work & Conflict
(Chapter 8) Objectives
 Define a team.
 Understand the concept of teambuilding.
 Identify the types of teams in use today and the
stages of team development.
 Name the elements necessary to build an
effective team.
 Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of teamwork
and how to be an effective team member.
 Know when the team approach is appropriate.
 Explain team conflict and how it can be resolved.
Everybody, Somebody, Anybody &
Nobody
This is a little story about four people named Everybody,
Somebody, Anybody, and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done and Everybody was
sure that Somebody would do it.
Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it.
Somebody got angry about that because it was Everybody's
job.
Everybody thought that Anybody could do it, but Nobody
realized that Everybody wouldn't do it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody
did what Anybody could have done
Definition of a Team
 A team is an identifiable group of people who:
 are working together toward a common goal.
 are dependent upon each other to realize that goal.
 Teamwork is the work performed
 by the combined effort of several disciplines.
 for maximum effectiveness in achieving common
goals.
 Companies are increasingly using teams to speed up cycle
time in product development and get a better product out
to customers faster.
Team Concepts
 Teambuilding is a series of activities designed to
 Help teams solve problems.
 Help teams accomplish work goals.
 Help teams function more effectively through
teamwork.
 Synergy is the cooperative action to achieve an effect that
is greater than the sum of the individual contributions.
 The team concept involves teambuilding and teams
bonding together for effective teamwork in achieving
common goals and objectives.
Types of Teams
 Project teams
 Self-directed work teams
 Continuous improvement teams
 Functional work teams
 Cross-functional teams
Results of Teamwork
 Teams that allow workers real participation
in decision making
 Produce better quality products.
 Improve efficiency.
 Increase productivity.
 Yield more satisfied employees.
 Increase job satisfaction and loyalty.
Stages of Team Development
 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
Elements Needed to Build an
Effective Team
 Vision
 Interdependence
 Leadership
 Coordination
 Adaptability
Responsibilities of a Team
Leader
 Assign the right people to the right task.
 Make expectations clear and encourage
participation.
 See the big picture and plan effectively.
 Involve “rookies” for a fresh outlook.
 Provide encouragement, motivation, rewards and
acknowledgement.
 Remove roadblocks and obstacles.
 Teach, assist, answer questions.
 Keep things on track and moving forward.
A Good Team Member…
 Thinks “we/us/our” vs. “I/me/mine.”
 Is flexible.
 Is willing to share information, ideas, and
recognition.
 Gets along well with others.
 Exhibits interest and enthusiasm.
 Remains loyal to team purpose and team
members.
Communication and
Networking
 Open communication enhances
creativity and camaraderie among team
members and adds to the bottom line of
improved productivity.
 Emphasis on internal communications and
networking
 Leads to an enormous information base.
 Fosters new ideas.
 Stimulates innovation and creativity.
Is My Team Using Human Relations
Skills?
 Are we supportive of one another?
 Do we share appropriately how we feel about
important things?
 Do we share information and ideas?
 Are we effective listeners?
 Do we handle confrontation or problems
within the team fairly?
 De we resolve issues well?
Tips for Virtual Teams
 Hold a face-to-face meeting early to confirm goals,
approaches, and rules.
 Save time by determining which tasks can be done
by individuals and which should be done by the
team.
 Assign tasks and roles according to members’ skills.
 Hold face-to-face meetings as needed.
 Divide up and assign leadership roles.
 Select and use groupware features as a team and
agree on team netiquette.
Benefits of Teamwork
 Increased commitment and ownership of goals
 Higher sustained effort toward goal
accomplishment
 Improved self-confidence and sense of well-
being
 Increased levels of motivation, enthusiasm, and
job satisfaction
 Improved decision making and problem solving
Benefits of Teamwork
 Greater emotional support
 Greater endurance and energy levels
 Greater reservoir of ideas and information
 Increased sharing of individual skills
 Increased productivity
 Improved quality and quantity output
 Improved loyalty to goals and objectives
Drawbacks of Teamwork
 Fear of individual anonymity
 Restricted opportunity for personal career
advancement
 Loss of power and authority
 Need to be generalists vs. specialists
 Team commitments overshadow personal desires
Drawbacks of Teamwork
 Current leadership may not be geared to team
concepts
 Duplication of effort
 Time wasted in team interaction
 Conflicting and infighting
 Diminished opportunity to stand out or obtain
individual rewards and recognition
Being an Effective Team
Member
 Know your role and team goals.
 Be aware of your strengths and weaknesses.
 Be a willing team player.
 Understand how your assignments contribute to
team productivity.
 Cooperate with other team members.
 Use open communication and human relations
skills to enhance team harmony.
Being an Effective Team
Member
 Support other team members by giving them
encouragement and assistance.
 Share praise.
 Do not take personal credit for a team
accomplishment.
 Try to turn team conflict into a positive
experience.
Teams May not Fit All Situations
 Not every organization is suited to teamwork.
 Structures and operating styles may not lend themselves
to teams.
 It takes time for management to be fully supportive and
have a clear mission to sustain the team approach.
 Individual effort may be more effective in resolving
certain issues.
 It may be difficult for individuals to give up individual
recognition and commit to helping others succeed.
A High Performing Team…
 Is made up of talented people with the right skills
and temperament.
 Has strong leadership who protects and sponsors its
members.
 Has members who work together well.
 Believes its mission is vital.
 Views itself as a “winning underdog.”
 Has or creates competition or “an enemy.”
 Concentrates fully on its mission.
A High Performing Team…
 Is optimistic.
 Believes no one is too important to do any task.
 Obtains needed resources and is free from
unnecessary details.
 Feels that the work itself is the reward.
 Makes membership exclusive; sees itself as an
“island with a bridge to the mainland.”
 Is productive.
 Works in a comfortable, supportive atmosphere.
Team Conflict
 Conflict is disagreement between individuals or
groups about goals.
 Competition is a healthy struggle toward goal
accomplishment without interference.
 Conflict can be healthy and positive if handled
properly.
 Conflict is inevitable. Lack of conflict may mean
members are reluctant to share ideas.
 Excessive conflict leads to disruption and lack of
creativity.
Causes of Conflict
 Incompatibility
 Organizational reliance
 Goal ambiguity
 Labor-management disputes
 Unclear roles
Techniques for Handling
Conflict
 Conflict resolution—the active
management of conflict through defining and
solving issues between individuals, groups, or
organizations
 Techniques for Handling Conflict
 Avoidance
 Smoothing
 Compromising
 Forcing
 Confrontation
Conflict Management Styles
OTHER

Accommodation Co-operative Integration

Non-assertive Compromise Assertive

SELF

Avoidance Non co-operative Competition

 A word on assertiveness
 Assertion:
 Stating what you want: directly, openly, appropriately
 Standing for your right, confidently and without fear
 Respecting other people’s rights
 Aggression
 Trying to get what you want using whatever means
 Fighting, threatening, manipulating
 Neglecting other people’s rights or needs
 Non-assertion (Submission)
 Hoping to get what you want without taking initiative
 Surrendering your rights out of timidity
 Keeping your feelings inside and getting angry at yourself
Expressing Assertiveness:
 Know what you want to say
 Say what you want: directly, specifically, immediately
 Assert your preferences appropriately
 Stand up for your rights: make complaints, refuse requests,
express personal opinions
 Express positive feelings: affection, appreciation,
compliments
 Take the initiative: make requests, ask for help, initiate
conversation
 Accompany with adapted non-verbal and paralinguistic
expressions: direct eye-contact, relaxed, confident posture
 Avoid laughing nervously, avoid whining
Some Assertiveness Techniques
 Broken Record
 Calm repetition, saying what you want over and over
again. Being persistent in your statements without
having to rehearse beforehand your arguments or your
expression of anger
 Fogging
 Accepting criticism by calmly acknowledging to your
critic that probably there may be some truth in their
statement, yet allows you to remain your own judge in
what you do. That is, instead of getting defensive or
counteracting with your own criticism, agree in
principle to the truth expressed but insist on what you
decide to
Some assertiveness techniques cont.
 Free information and Self Disclosure
 Acknowledging cues other people give you about
themselves and their interests. Then you respond freely
by expressing what you think and how you feel about the
information given. You may even want to change subject
 Negative Assertion
 Reacting to hostile or constructive criticism about you
negative qualities by agreeing sympathetically and by
accepting your faults with apologising. That is when
others try to manipulate your through their criticism to
make you feel guilty, do not seek forgiveness of your
fault nor deny it through defensivess and counter
criticism
Some assertiveness
techniques cont.
 Negative Inquiry
 Coping with criticism by prompting the critic to be more
assertive and less manipulative towards you
Leadership
(Chapter 11) Objectives
 Define leadership and identify the difference between a
leader and a manager.
 Discuss the leadership theories that have developed
throughout history.
 Identify the three leadership styles.
 Describe the skills required of leaders at different levels
in an organization.
 Name the methods of developing leadership skills.
 Identify and discuss the basic elements of effective
leadership.
 Differentiate between transactional and transformational
leadership, and describe the leaders of the next
generation.
Leadership
 The success or failure of organizations depends
on the quality of their leaders.
 Leaders are responsible for the effectiveness of
organizations.
 Leaders provide a guiding purpose, something
greatly needed in today’s world.
 Current concerns about the integrity of our
institutions emphasize the need for better
leadership in religion, government, Wall Street,
and business.
Management
 Management is the use of resources,
including human resources, to accomplish a
goal.
 A person can be a manager without being an
effective leader if he/she lacks the ability to
inspire and influence others.
 Influence is the ability to change the
attitude or behavior of an individual or
group. This ability is the result of power.
New Roles for Managers
 Today’s managers must be effective
leaders.
 New management styles encourage
 Creativity
 Risk taking
 Healthy conflict
 Learning from errors
 Human relations skills
 Technology skills
Typical Levels of Management
Executives Top Management

Mid-Level Management
Managers

First-Level Supervision
Supervisors

Workers
Leadership Theories
 The “great man theory”—the belief that
certain people are born to become leaders
and will eventually emerge in that role.
 Today, we know people learn to be leaders
through study, observation, and hard work.
 Modern theories fall into three categories:
 Trait theories
 Behavioral theories
 Situational theories
Trait Theories
 Studied physical, personality, and
intelligence traits of prominent
leaders to determine what they
had in common
 Found no conclusive results
 Led to the belief that the success of
leaders is based on behavior rather
than traits
Behavioural Theories
 Aimed to identify behavioral
patterns or styles of leadership
 Measured typical leader behaviors
 Control and authority
 Flexibility
 Concerns for goal accomplishment
 Concerns for employees
McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
 Theory X says…
 People inherently avoid responsibility
and dislike work.
 Leadership should be strict and
controlling.
 Theory Y says…
 People are eager to work and capable of
doing a good job.
 Leadership should be supportive and
participative.
Managerial Grid® Theory—
Blake and Mouton
 A grid is used to plot the degree to
which leaders
 Show concern for people.
 Show concern for production
(getting the job done).
 The coordinates indicate a
leadership style.
Situational Theories
 Leadership style must be adapted
to fit the situation and varies with
the “readiness” of subordinates.
 3 Dimensions of Situational
Leadership®
 Follower readiness
 Task behavior
 Relationship behavior
Leadership Styles
A leadership style is a particular pattern
of behavior exhibited by the leader.
 Autocratic style
 Authoritarian and directive
 Democratic style
 Participative; preferred by modern
workplace
 Free-rein/laissez faire style
 Integrative; employees lead themselves
Leadership Skills
 Technical skills
 Skills required to perform a
particular task
 Conceptual skills
 Administrative, problem solving,
and “big picture” skills
 Human relations skills
 Ability to deal effectively with
people: effective in communication,
listening, empathy, inspiring
Compatible Leaders
Followers Leaders
 Assertive/  Democratic
cooperative or free-rein
 Aggressive/  Autocratic
hostile
 Insecure  Autocratic
 Individualist  Free-rein
Leadership Learning
 Try to understand problems from
management’s point of view.
 Approach a project/problem as an
opportunity to learn and grow.
 Be committed to a project and show
commitment to your team members.
 If you believe a project is doomed to failure;
do not sit silently. Discuss this with your
supervisor.
Functional Abilities of a
Leader--PODSCORB
 Planning
 Organizing
 Directing
 Staffing
 Coordinating
 Reporting
 Budgeting
Leadership Characteristics
 Communicates well
 Comfortable making decisions
 Willing to take risks
 Motivates people
 Delegates tasks
 A guiding vision
 Passion
 Integrity
 Gains the trust of others
 Curious and daring
Brainstorm Exercise
Qualities of an effective leader
Attitudes and Behaviours of
Leaders
 Positive • Responsible
thinking
• Ethical
 Dedicated
• Self-denying
 Open-minded
• Competent
 Enthusiastic
 Spontaneous • Wise
 Courageous • Energetic
 Empathetic • Considerate
 Flexible • Fair
Leadership Categories
 Transactional leadership
 Encompasses leadership theories
 Leaders determine what followers need to
achieve goals, classify needs, and help followers
gain confidence
 Transformational leadership
 Motivates followers to do more by raising the
perceived value of the task
 Transcends self-interest for the sake of the group
goal
 Raises followers’ need level to self-actualization
Transformational Leadership
Skills
 Anticipatory skills
 Visioning skills
 Value-congruence skills
 Empowerment skills
 Self-understanding
New Leader Characteristics
 Broad education and lifelong learning
 Boundless enthusiasm
 Belief in people and teamwork
 Willingness to take risks and ready for change
 Devoted to long-term growth over short-term profits
 Committed to excellence
 Integrity, ethics, respect for self and others
 Wisdom; giving followers a chance to look good
Dealing with Stress
(Chap 17) Objectives
 Define work-life balance and describe the benefits to
both employer and employee.
 Identify some of the physical and mental effects of stress
and learn ways to minimize these effects.
 Understand the effects of substance abuse on job
performance and how companies try to minimize these
effects.
 Describe several methods of effective time management.
 Discuss the importance of maintaining proper health
practices.
Work-Life Benefits
 Work-life benefits are benefits that
employers offer to help employees gain some
measure of balance between work and home.
 In 2003-2004, 50% of employers increased the
number of work-life benefits they offered.
 Work-life benefits help companies
 Raise morale.
 Enhance recruitment efforts.
 Stay competitive.
 Increase their image in the industry.
Factors Affecting Work-Life
Benefits
 Demographics
 More working parents in the workforce
 More older workers in the workforce
 Technology advancements
 Location and time flexibility
 The meaning of work
 Paid work
 Home work
 Gift work
 Study work
Stress
 Stress is a physical response to
environmental pressures.
 Physical and psychological challenges
trigger a stress reaction.
 With the rapid pace and pressures of daily
life and work, we are constantly under stress
and have little time to reenergize.
Stress Overload
 Excess stress may result in physical or mental
disorders and unhealthy behaviors.
 A healthy lifestyle can help you deal with stress and
other health-related matters.
 Types of stressors:
 Emotional Stressors—worries, conflicts,
rushing
 Physical stressors—poor nutrition, allergies
 Chemical stressors—caffeine, cigarette smoke
Symptoms of Job Stress
 Increased absenteeism
 Reduced civility
 Physical ailments
 Sleep dysfunction
 Reduced human interaction
Substance Abuse
 Stress overload can lead to unhealthy
behaviors, such as substance abuse.
 Substance abuse is the misuse of alcohol,
illegal drugs, or prescription drugs.
 Costs U.S. businesses approximately $81
billion dollars each year in:
 Decreased productivity
 Absenteeism
 Theft
 Industrial accidents
 Excessive benefits use
Maintaining Your Health
 Eat a balanced diet and manage weight.
 Limit alcohol and caffeine consumption.
 Stop smoking.
 Get regular exercise.
 Use relaxation techniques.
 Enjoy leisure time and stress-free activities.
 Reduce stressful thoughts, attitudes, and
behaviors.
 Cultivate healthy attitudes and behaviors.
Leave Stress at the Office
 Try to end the day as smoothly as possible. Start
unwinding before you leave.
 Make a list of what needs to be done the next day.
 Maintain a positive perspective.
 Use your commute to unwind.
 Arrange for quiet time after work.
 Do not make dinner an ordeal with fancy meals.
Turn off the TV and limit work-related conversation.
 Do not overschedule leisure hours.
 Chapter 17
Slide
247

Commonly Abused Substances

 Alcohol  Club drugs
 Cocaine  Inhalants
 Marijuana  Hallucinogens
 Sedatives  Narcotics
 Tranquilizers  Anabolic
 Amphetamines steroids

HUMAN RELATIONS by Dalton, Hoyle & Watts

Fighting Substance Abuse at Work
 Employers try to curtail substance
abuse through:
 Drug testing
 Pre-employment testing
 Expected interval testing
 Random interval testing
 “For cause” testing
 Treatment follow-up testing
 Employee Assistance Programs
 Employee education
Coming to Terms with Substance
Abuse
 Substance abuse damages
 Relationships
 Finances
 Work
 Health
 If you recognize a problem, take action.
 Use your company’s confidential employee
assistance program.
 Check the phone book for treatment and
counseling centers in your area.
Dealing with Suspected Substance
Abuse in Employees
 Judge on performance and do not accuse employees.
 Do not accept excuses for prolonged performance
problems or absenteeism. Document all poor
performance.
 Help employees get treated if asked.
 Do not preach or moralize. Offer assistance with tact
and diplomacy.
 Do not allow impaired employees to operate
equipment.
 Refuse to enable or cover up for them.
 If performance does not improve, begin disciplinary
action--up to and including discharge.
Symptoms of Poor Time
Management
 Indecision
 Rushing and lateness (“white rabbit habit”)
 Stress illnesses
 Irritability and anger
Managing Time
 Assess your time management habits.
 Use a time log.
 Make a time management action plan.
 Desired result
 Change required
 Target Date
 Actions Required
 Key People Involved
 Evaluate/modify
 Minimize time wasters.
Identifying Time Wasters
 Lack of planning
 Drop-in visitors
 Telephone “tag”
 Procrastination
 Ineffective meetings
Managing Meetings
 Provide an advance agenda with timed subjects.
 Invite only those people who are needed.
 Start on time.
 Set clear goals/purposes for the meeting.
 Set time limits on the meeting and topics.
 Prevent hidden agendas or disruptions by strictly
adhering to your planned agenda.
 Record and assign action items during the meeting.
 Distribute meeting minutes within 48 hours.
 Schedule an action item follow-up.
Identify Personality
Characteristics
 Workaholics--consumed by their jobs and derive
little pleasure from other activities.
 Likely candidates for heart attacks, depression,
hypertension, insomnia, and physical ailments.
 Type A Personalities--highly competitive, aggressive,
achievement-oriented, and impatient.
 More likely to experience stress symptoms and
twice as prone to cardiovascular diseases.
 Type B personalities--more relaxed, easy-going, and
even-paced in their approach to life in general.
 Identify patterns in your personality and strive to
reduce any Type A tendencies.
The Career Wheel – Career
Goals
 Labour Market
 Skills
 Interests
 Values
 Personal Style
 Significant Others
 Educational Backgroud
 Work & Leisure Experience
Labour Market Trends
 Aging Population – Welfare Gap
 Poverty vs. Wealth Difference
 Less job security – contract work
 More immigrants
 Downsizing/Government cutbacks
 Globalization
 Manufacturing moving into 3rd world
 Layoffs
 Continuing Education
Managing Your Career
 Pursue skills and knowledge; do not wait for your
employer to train you.
 Recognize trends in job growth and decline.
 Adjust to new work environments and systems.
 Develop job-seeking skills.
 Identify your skills and values.
 Identify your personal strengths and potential
obstacles.
Learning about Job Openings
 Networking • Temporary agencies
 Direct approach • Job fairs
 The Internet • Summer
 Newspaper want ads jobs/internships
 Job hot lines • School placement
 Employment office
agencies
Evaluating Prospects
Identify and compare job parameters:
 Salary
 Location
 Hours
 People/groups
 Outdoors/indoors
 Size of company
 Dress code/culture
 Supervision/flexibility
Self-Awareness Exercises
 5 Lives exercise
 Projective Drawing – Ideal Work Environment
Starting off Right in a New Job
 Show a positive attitude and project a positive, competent
image.
 Be on time for work. Follow rules and be dependable.
 Accept constructive criticism and show appreciation for
support and feedback.
 Show initiative. Exceed your employer’s expectations.
 Try to solve problems before asking for help. Admit mistakes
and learn from them.
 Be a team player and be willing to help. Treat others with
respect and courtesy.
 Avoid gossip and negativity.
 Volunteer for projects and committees if your work is
completed.
 Don’t try to change things right away. Focus on listening and
learning.
Preparing for an Interview
 Prepare thoughtful, honest answers to common
interview questions.
 Prepare to ask questions about the company and
position.
 Verify the time, date, location, and name of
interviewer.
 Research as much information about the company
as possible.
 Be sure that you know how to get to the location.
 Be prepared for different interview forms.
 Know your salary requirements and local salary
ranges.
 Practice with a friend, and get honest feedback.
 Videotape yourself and evaluate your performance.
Tips for Successful Interviews
 Never speak badly about a previous employer.
 Explain any negative work experiences in an
unemotional manner, emphasizing what you
learned and how you improved.
 Ask several questions about the job or company.
 Do not bring up salary first. If asked about
salary requirements, discuss appropriate ranges.
 Remain enthusiastic even if you feel the
position isn’t for you.
 Ask for the job and ask when a decision will be
made.
 Be prepared to take pre-employment tests.
Inappropriate Interview
Questions
 Questions related to the following topics are
inappropriate in an interview:
 Age Marital status
 Children Criminal record
 National origin Religion
 Disability
 These usually indicate an inexperienced
interviewer but may indicate discrimination.
 Don’t refuse to answer questions. Work to draw
the conversation back to your skills and
experience, or ask how the information is
relevant to the position.