IMPROVEQ LEAD-ACID

BATTERY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Stephen P. Sacarisen
Jehangir (J.P.) Parvereshi

Benchmarq Microelectronics, Inc.

2611 Westgrove, Suite 109
Carrollton, Texas 75086
Tel: (264) 407-0011 Fax: (214) 407-9845

ABSTRACT maximum charge time-out, maximum temperature, and

The consumer and industrial markets are experiencing
unprecedented demand for battery management technol-
ogy. Consumer appetite for the convenience of battery-
powered portable equipment such as cellular phones and
small form-factor cornputers is continuing to expand. The
industrial market is being besieged by governmental regu-
lations and consumer concerns on environmental pollution.
This has increased development emphasis on electric motor-
driven tools and vehicles. The secondary-battery industry is
under competitive pressure to produce a cell that weighs
almost nothing, takes up little space, and has ideal
charge/discharge performance. .Secondary battery tech-
nologies including lead-acid are being challenged to meet
the lighter weight, smaller size, and higher performance
requirements of these emerging market opportunities. Spe-
cifically, lead-acid battery technology is being improved by
several innovative techniques that are well published
[I ,2,3]. The battery charging and battery management
techniques must keep pace with these improvements and
meet or exceed consumer expectations.This paper describes
some techniques that enhance the charging and battery
management methods available for lead acid batteries.
INTRODUCTION
The ideal lead acid battery charger must perform two func-
tions: 1) charge the battery to full capacity and 2) maintain
the battery at full capacity. These two functions must be
performed regardless of the charge method. The charge
method is driven by application requirements, which typi-
cally fall into two one of categories: cyclic or float service.
Cyclic service occurs when the battery is regularly dis-
charged and charged such that the discharge time is
maximumi voltage. System reliability can be enhanced by
monitoring the battery charge acceptance (state-of-health).
Charge status information must also be flexible to match
the application requirement.
VOLTAGE RATE TERMINATION
Figure 1 shows the relationship of several battery charac-
teristics during constant-current charge. The increase in
cell voltage occurs prior to increases in cell pressure or
temperature. When the cell voltage changes from increas-
ing to decreasing slope, the recombination of oxygen gen-
erated at the positive plate and hydrogen generated at the
negative plate begins to take place. This results in
increases in cell pressure and temperature and indicates
the onset of fast charge inefficiency.
Figure 2 shows that the charge rate must be reduced to
achieve full capacity and remain below the gassing voltage.
The point of voltage increase to decrease slope is a lead-
acid battery charge characteristic and is a safe and reliable
charge termination. This termination compensates for
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approximately equal to the charge time. Examples are daily

discharge and overnight charge in portable equipment
(power toois, camcorders) and transportation (automotive,
electric vehicles). Unlike cyclic service, float service occurs
when the charge time is much greater than the discharge
o 25 50 75 100 125 150
time. Examples are system backup power in communications CHARGE RETURNED % OF PREVIOUS DISCHARGE
equipment (computer networks, telephones) and emergency
equipment (security lights, portable medical). Unlike cyclic
service, float service requires a dedicated charge algorithm. A
charge algorithm is a sequence of charge action states con- Figure 1 Typical Relationship of Cell Voltage,
I

trolled by a closed-loop feedback of battery parameters such Pressure, and Temperature During
as voltage, current, and temperature. The charge algorithm Constant-Current Charging4
should also provide fail-safe charge terminations such as
41

PERCENT OF PREVIOUS DISCHARGE CAPACITI R E N R N E D
Figure 2. Voltage Profile for Constant-Current
Charging4
battery voltage depression due to aging. An aged battery
often experiences voltage depression of up to 6% at the
end of its service life. Thus relying on the fixed voltage
threshold of a new battery may result in overcharging an
aged battery and undercharging a new battery. Voltage rate
termination prevents excessive pressure buildup that can
cause venting and drying of the electrolyte. It also limits the
rise in temperature that is detrimental to the battery separa-
tor and electrode current collector materials.
Figure 3 and Figure 4 are voltage-versus-time charging
datalogs of a Panasonic LCR 6V4P gel-cell after a deep
discharge. Figure 3 shows that by sampling the change in
cell voltage, the increasing to decreasing slope can be reli-
ably detected. An accumulation of samples can be use to
set the termination ‘threshold. In Figure 4, the initial voltage
rise at the start of the charging is due to the IR drop when
high cell impedance is subjected to high charge currents.
High internal impedance is common during deep dis-
charges due to a reduction in the electrolyte conductivity.
Cell impedance will also increase due lo sulfation on the
plates or normal aging. False charge termination is pre-
vented by a hold-off time period that disables normal termi-
nation.
BATTERY CONDIT10NING
The algorithm in Figure 5 is based on an industry-standard
test procedure for charge acceptance 151. The procedure
senses an increase in both current and voltage to indicate
positive charge acceptance (state-of-health). The
conditioning test procedure is as follows:
Test 1: Constant voltage charge for time period T1. If cell
current is greater than or equal to a minimum threshold
during the time period, proceed to Test 2.
Test 2: Constant current charge for time period T2. If cell
voltage is greater than or equal to a minimum threshold
during the time period, proceed with battery charging.

2.75 0.035

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2.65
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2.6
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9 2.55
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- 0

9
0 2.5 0.015 2
2.45
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2.4

2.35 0.005

2.3 0
10802 Ill02 11402 11702 12002 12302 12602 12902 13202 13502 13802 14102 14402 14702

Time, seconds

Figure 3. Typical Charge Profile for a Deeply

Discharged Battery

42
 .2

.1

9
2.45 0.9 a
=
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z 2.35
> 0.8
i

2.25
0.7
2.15
0.6
2.05

1.95 0.5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
Time, seconds

Figure 4. Typical Charge Profile for a Deeply

Discharged Battery

The test fails if the charge current is less than a minimum
current after time period T1 or if the cell voltage is less than
a minimum voltage after time period T2. A battery fault is
indicated and charge action is stopped. Should the cell
voltage decrease below the minimum value during charg-
Battery
ing, the controller will automatically reset to the condition-
ing test. Monitoring prevents overcharging of possible dam-
aged or reversed cells and can detect a shorted or open
cell during any charge action state.
AUTO-CYCLE CHARGE ALGORITHMS
The constant-current mode in Figure 6 regulates current
and monitors cell voltage for charge termination. The
pending state suspends charging when the battery is out-
side the recommended temperature charge range. The
bulk state regulates at maximum current (IMAX) until the cell
voltage (VCELL) exceeds the termination threshold. Bulk

TEST 1:

......................
PASS:
lsns >=

P
TEST 2: +- 15n5

............................................
......................
Vcell

e3
PASS:
Vcell >= Vmin Pending Bulk Maintenance ( Imin=lmax/20 )
Charge action state

Bulk Charge

Figure 5. Battery Conditioning State Diagram Figure 6. Clharging Profile for Constant-Current Mode

43
state is terminated by voltage threshold (VBLK),voltage rate
accumulation, or fail-safe termination. Termination occurs
when approximately 80% of the discharged capacity is
returned. The maintenance state replenishes the remaining
20% of capacity at a reduced current level. The reduced
current level is pulsed at a selected duty cycle rate. Con-
stant current mode is used in applications that need fast
bulk charge and adjustable maintenance current levels to
compensate for load and self-discharge. The constant-
current algorithm can be used for both cyclic and float
charging applications.
The constant-voltage mode in Figure 7 regulates voltage
and monitors cell current for charge termination. The condi-
tioning state validates the battery state-of-health. The bulk
state has constant-voltage regulation with current limited at
IMAX.When the cell voltage (VCELL)exceeds 94% of the
external set threshold (VBLK),the top-off state is indicated.
The top-off state indication is an approximate 80% capacity
gauge indicating the battery has been sufficiently charged.
Current limited charging continues until VCELL equals VBLK;
then voltage regulation begins at VBLK.The charge current
(ISNS)tapers off exponentially as the remaining 20% of
capacity is replenished. Top-off is terminated when ISNS
decreases below the minimum current (IMIN)threshold. The
maintenance state charge is a constant-voltagetemperature-
compensated float level (VFLT). VFLT maintains the full-
charged condition by compensating for self-discharge and
temperature effects. Constant-voltage mode is the most
commonly accepted method for charging lead-acid chemis-
try. The battery self-regulates the amount of current
depending on its state-of-charge as long as all voltages are
temperature-compensated. Constant voltage is used in
cyclic and float applications because the battery can be
kept fully charged by a float voltage above the electrome-
chanical equilibrium.
The constant-current pulse mode in Figure 8 uses cell volt-
age to control the transitions between maximum charge
................
lmax
Charge action state
igure 7. Charging Profile for Constant-Voltage Mode
44
and no charge. The bulk state regulates at maximum cur-
rent (IMAX)until the cell voltage (VCELL)exceeds the
termination threshold. Bulk charging is terminated by voltage
threshold VBLK, voltage rate accumulation, or fail-safe
termination maximum voltage or charge time-out. The bulk
state terminates into a no-charge maintenance state. The
algorithm returns to maximum current charge when VCELL
decays less than VFLT.The VBLK and VFLTthresholds can
be adjusted to hold the average cell voltage at the
electromechanical equilibrium. The current pulse mode
combines the advantages of fast charge and float voltage
charge maintenance. The algorithm reduces the charging
time during maintenance, which should reduce positive grid
corrosion and electrolyte drying. This mode offers charging
improvements in cyclic and float applications.
POWER CONVERSIONS
The battery management system must also address the
power conversion process that generates the voltage and
current sources to charge the battery. The power conver-
sion control circuit should provide flexibility to determine
the charger circuit topology that best suits the application.
The main power conversion methodologies used are:
H Linear for low-end systems where power dissipation is
not a concern. The gated and series pass regulator
should both be supported.
H Switch-mode where high efficiencies for power conver-
sion are required. The design should be able to oper-
ate in stand-alone asynchronous mode where the
frequency can be set to reduce EM1 concerns.
APPLICATION EXAMPLES
The following section describes two examples of imple-
menting the ideal lead acid battery management features
that are described in this paper. The first approach is a
microcontroller-basedsolution, and the second approach is
a single-chip fast-charge controller solution.
?
/.,?Y!d!? ‘0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................................... -
Vhtf
Pending Bulk Maintenance Bulk Maintenance -n
Charge action state Bulk/’
Figure 8. Charging Profile for Constant-Current Pulse
MICROCONTROLLER SOLUTION charger through different charge action states. The A-to-D
is a low-cost, high-resolution, single-slope type. It com-
The blockdiagram Of Figure shows a prises a ,comparator IC and an R-C ramp circuit and oper-
charger comprised of the following: ates in coniunction with the MCU. To achieve both voltage
8-bit MCU and curreni regulation, a current-mode power controller like
the Unitrode UC3843 is used for the PWM controller block.
PWM regulator
Analog-to-digital converter This MClJ application already has a high parts count with
the additional overhead of software development cost to
LED indicators implement different charge regimes including battery test
and conditioning.
In this application, the 87C751 timer and software imple-
ment a dedicated state-machine that transitions the

VDC MOSFET L
0 L o rrrr\
1
BAT+ 0

DC SOURCE

I
U
r

_____

Figure 9. Microcontroller Solution

VDC MOSFET L

0 d*m BAT+ 8
"p
DC SOURCE
BQ2031 , I
CURRENT

1 REFERFNcg CONTROL

r-
RSENSE
RAT-

Figure 10. ASIC Solution

45
ASIC SOLUTION
The schematic in Figure 10 shows the ASIC charger
solution implemented with a fast charge controller IC. This
controller contains the same functional blocks used in the
microcontroller solution. The ASIC solution features in-
clude:
PWM-based current and a voltage regulator to reduce
power circuitry design costs
Battery conditioning and bad cell detection algorithm to
increase reliability
Pulse current charge algorithm to increase battery life
ra Voltage change detection to compensate for aging and
increase battery life
These charge controller features have addressed some of
the existing charge method deficiencies and will provide a
simple single-chip fast-charge system solution. This ASIC
charge controller chip attempts to meets the flexibility, ease
of use and low cost requirements for most consumer and
industrial applications.
REFERENCES
1. Jay, Benny E., Datta, Ajoy, Mathews, Charles, Blanyer,
Richard, “Performance of the Horizon Advanced Lead-
Acid Battery,” Electrosource, Inc., (Paper read at the
Wescon Technical Conference, 1993.)
2. Moneypenny, Gerald, “High Energy Planar Batteries in
Portable Equipment Applications,” Portable Energy
Products, Incorporated. (Paper read at the Wescon
Technical Conference, 1993.)
3. Jurgens, Tristan, Nelson, Robert F., Ruderman,
Michael A. “A New High Rate, Fast Charge, Sealed,
Lead-Acid Battery,” Bolder Technologies Corporation,
(Paper read at the Wescon Technical Conference,
1994.)
4. Gates Energy Products, Sealed Rechargeable Bafferies
Application Manual.
5. “Surface Vehicle Standard,” SAE International, J537,
Rev. June 1992.

The management of lead acid batteries can improve sys-

tem reliability through monitoring battery state-of-health,
compensating for aging, and using proper charge termina-
tion techniques, thereby extending battery life. An ideal
lead acid charger, with the enhanced features described,
can be implemented with a microcontroller-based system
or an ASIC controller. ASIC solutions are ideal in situations
where time to market, cost, and size are important system
constraints. Using controllers with all of the necessary
charge termination schemes and battery monitoring meth-
ods allows a simple “plug and forget” solution that allows
system designers to concentrate efforts in other areas such
as product differentiation.

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