Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they

produce.

Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red. In popular
culture and commerce, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet "dessert" bananas. By
contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. Many varieties of bananas
are perennial.

They are native to tropical Southeast Asia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New
Guinea.[1] Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics.[2] They are grown in at least 107 countries,
[3]
primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and as ornamental plants.

Although fruit of wild species (Musa balbisiana) have large, hard seeds, virtually all culinary bananas are
"seedless", have only tiny seeds. Bananas are classified either as dessert bananas (meaning they are
yellow and fully ripe when eaten) or as green cooking bananas.

Almost all export bananas are of the dessert types; about 10–15% of production is for export.

Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[4] more so than most other fruits, because of their high
potassium content, and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring
potassium.[5] Proponents of nuclear power sometimes refer to the banana equivalent dose of radiation to
support their arguments.[6]

Botany

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[7] Plants are normally tall and fairly
sturdy and are often mistaken for trees, but their main or upright stem is actually a pseudostem that grows
6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 24.9 ft) tall, growing from a corm. Each pseudostem can produce a single bunch of
bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots may develop from the base of the plant.

Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.
[8]
They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[9]

Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the banana heart.
(More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.)[10] The
inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly called petals) between rows of flowers. The
female flowers (that can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem from the rows of male
flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the
ovary.

Banana fruit develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers
(called hands) with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers,
or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). In common
usage, bunch applies to part of a tier containing 3-10 adjacent fruits.

Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or 'finger'), average 125 grams (0.28 lb),
of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter. There is an protective outer layer (a peel or
skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and
the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety splits easily lengthwise into
three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels.

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[11] In cultivated varieties, the seeds are
diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit.
Bananas grow pointing up, not hanging down.

Taxonomy

The genus Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from 1998),
assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberalesin the clade commelinids in the monocotyledonous flowering
plants. Some sources assert that the banana's genus, Musa, is named for Antonio Musa, physician to the
Emperor Augustus.[12] Others say that Linnaeus, who named the genus in 1750, simply adapted
an Arabicword for banana, mauz.[13] The word banana itself might have come from the Arabic banan,
which means "finger",[13] or perhaps from Wolof banana.[14] The genus contains many species; several
produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[15]

Musa paradisiaca is also the generic name for the common plantain, a coarser and starchier variant not to
be confused with Musa acuminataor the Cavendish variety.

Most production for local sale is of green cooking bananas and plantains, because ripe dessert bananas
are easily damaged in transport. Ripe bananas suffer a high rate of damage and loss, even when moving
only a short distance.

The commercial dessert cultivars most commonly eaten in temperate countries (species Musa
acuminata or the hybrid Musa × paradisiaca, a cultigen) are imported from the tropics.

Food and cooking

The fruit

Bananas are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and
ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both skin and
inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. Bananas' flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, to isoamyl
acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil.
 During the ripening process, bananas produce a plant hormone called ethylene, which indirectly
affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that
breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain
higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas
taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production
of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the
banana to soften as it ripens.[16][17]

Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous
rice wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes are popular
amongst backpackers and other travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the
expression Banana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater to this group of travelers. Banana
chips are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown
color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice
is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas fried with batter is a
popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United States as
banana fritters.

Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same
way as potatoes.

Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), the forerunner of the common domesticated banana,[18] are
sold in markets in Indonesia.

The flower

Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[19] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw
or steamed with dips or cooked in soups and curries. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with
artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.

The trunk

The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian
cuisine, and notably in the Burmese dish mohinga.

The leaves

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly
disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries. Especially
in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu in every occasion the food must be served in a banana leaf and
as a part of the food a banana is served. Steamed with dishes they impart a subtle sweet flavor. They
often serve as a wrapping for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices, protect food from burning and
add a subtle flavor.[20]

Potential health benefits

Along with other fruits and vegetables, consumption of bananas may be associated with a
reduced risk of colorectal cancer[21] and in women, breast cancer[22] and renal cell carcinoma.[23]

Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[24]

Bananas contain moderate amounts of vitamin B6, vitamin C, manganese and potassium,[25]
possibly contributing to electrolyte balance.

In India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for jaundice, sometimes
with the addition of honey, and for kidney stones.[26]

Banana, raw, edible parts

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)
Carbohydrates 22.84 g
Sugars 12.23 g
Dietary fiber 2.6 g
Fat 0.33 g
Protein 1.09 g
Vitamin A equiv. 3 μg (0%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.031 mg (2%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.073 mg (5%)
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.665 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg (7%)
Vitamin B6 0.367 mg (28%)
Folate (Vit. B9) 20 μg (5%)
Vitamin C 8.7 mg (15%)
Calcium 5 mg (1%)
Iron 0.26 mg (2%)
Magnesium 27 mg (7%)
Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)
Potassium 358 mg (8%)
Zinc 0.15 mg (1%)
One banana is 100–150 g.
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database

Fibre
Textiles

The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana
cultivation for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese
system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are
first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying
degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the
outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while the softest
innermost fibres are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process
requires many steps, all performed by hand.[27]

In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a
softening process, mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to
the Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by
traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified.

In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is made
into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.

Paper

Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is used in two different
senses: to refer to a paper made from the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or
paper made from banana fiber, obtained with an industrialized process from the stem and the non-usable
fruits. The paper itself can be either hand-made or in industrial processes.

Cultural roles

Symbols

Bananas are also humorously used as a phallic symbol due to similarities in size and shape. This
is typified by the artwork of the debut album of The Velvet Underground, which features a banana on the
front cover, yet on the original LP version, the design allowed the listener to 'peel' this banana to find a
pink phallus on the inside.

Religion

In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray form an important
part of traditional offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.
 In all the important festivals and occasions of Tamils the serving of bananas plays a prominent
part. The banana (Tamil:வாைழ or வாைழப்பழம்) is one of three fruits with this significance, the others
being mango and jack fruit.

East Africa

Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananas represent a major food source and a
major income source for smallhold farmers. In East African highlands bananas are of greatest importance
as a staple food crop. In countries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capita consumption has
been estimated at 45 kilograms (99 lb) per year, the highest in the world.

Other uses

Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive. Sap can be obtained
from the pseudostem, from the peelings, or from the flesh.

In regions where bananas are grown, the large leaves are sometimes used as umbrellas. The
pseudostems, being floatable, can be tied together to form a floatation device.[20]

Banana sap leaves indelible dark stains on clothes.

History

Early cultivation

Southeast Asian farmers first domesticated bananas. Recent archaeological and palaeo
environmental evidence at Kuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea
suggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE, and possibly to 8000 BCE.[1] It is
likely that other species were later and independently domesticated elsewhere in southeast Asia.
Southeast Asia is the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found
in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in the region.

Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[31] triggered an as yet
unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas
were known in Madagascar around that time.[32] The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates
to no earlier than late 6th century AD.[33] It is likely, however, that bananas were brought at least
to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of Malagasy colonization of the island
from South East Asia c400CE.[34]

The Buddhist story Vessantara_Jataka briefly mention about banana, the the king Vessantara
has found a banana tree (among some other fruit trees) in the jungle, that bear bananas of the size of an
elephants tusk.
 The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the Middle East on the eve of Islam.
There is some textual evidence that the prophet Muhammad was familiar with bananas. The spread of
Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as
poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts
from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the medieval
ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world.[30] In 650, Islamic
conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Nowadays, banana consumption increases significantly in
Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting.

Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West
Africa in the 16th century.[35] The word banana is of West African origin, from the Wolof language, and
passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese.[36]

Many wild banana species exist in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

Plantation cultivation

In the 15th and 16th century, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic
Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[37] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in
Europe, although they were available.[37] Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with detailed
descriptions in Around the World in Eighty Days (1872).

In the early 20th century, bananas formed the basis of large commercial empires, exemplified by
the United Fruit Company, which created immense plantations especially in Central andSouth America.
These were usually commercially exploitative, and the term "Banana republic" was coined for states like
Honduras and Guatemala, representing the fact that these companies and their political backers created
and abetted "servile dictatorships" whose primary motivation was to protect the companies.[38]

Modern cultivation

While the original bananas contained large seeds, triploid cultivars with tiny seeds are preferred
for human raw fruit consumption.[39] These are propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed
to produce 2 shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to
produce fruit in 6–8 months. The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the
individual stools or planting sites may move slightly from their original positions as
lateral rhizome formation dictates.

Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, which makes them sterile and unable to produce viable
seeds. Lacking seeds, propagation typically involves removing and transplanting part of the underground
stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical shoot that develops
from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However, small sympodial corms,
representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be left out of the ground for up to
2 weeks; they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk.

It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers
without root material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.

In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is
preferred since it ensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as suckers for
propagation, there is a risk of transmitting diseases (especially the devastatingPanama disease).

As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.

Cavendish

In global commerce, by far the most important cultivar is 'Cavendish', which accounts for the
majority of banana exports.[39] The Cavendish gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-
produced cultivar, Gros Michel, became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which
attacks the roots of the banana plant.[39]

Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Cavendish the main export
banana.

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still
grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Cavendish is in no danger of extinction, but
it may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear
if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs
are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[39]

Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination
country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color
normally associated with supermarket bananas is in fact a side effect of the artificial ripening
process.Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to
between 13.5 and 15 °C (56 and 59 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently
stalls, and turns the bananas gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in
the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected.

"Tree-ripened" Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a

brownish-yellow as they ripen further. Although both flavor and texture of tree-ripened bananas is
generally regarded as superior to any type of green-picked fruit, this reduces shelf life to only 7–10 days.
 Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", and may show up at the supermarket fully
green. "Guineo Verde", or green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before
becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are best suited to cooking, as seen in Mexican
culinary dishes.

A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property
is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the
skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionateester group. Banana-
plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that
this allows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum (tetrachromats and pentachromats) to
more easily detect ripened bananas.[40]

Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain
maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid
transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing
their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at
13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of
ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Unripe bananas can
not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the cold. Ripe bananas can be held for a few
days at home. They can be stored indefinitely frozen, then eaten like an ice pop or cooked as a banana
mush.

Recent studies have suggested that carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene
absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures.[41][42][43] This effect can be exploited by packing the
fruit in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium permanganate, on an
inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than
double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration.

Trade

Top banana producing nations - 2007

(in million metric tons)
India 21.77

China 8.04
 Philippines 7.48
Brazil 7.10

Ecuador 6.00

Indonesia 5.46

Tanzania 3.50
Costa Rica 2.08
Thailand 2.00
Mexico 1.96
Burundi 1.60
Guatemala 1.57

Vietnam 1.36

Kenya 1.19
Bangladesh 1.00
Honduras 0.91
Egypt 0.88

Papua New Guinea 0.87

Cameroon 0.86

Uganda 0.62
World total 72.5
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations[3]

Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing
countries. In most tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main
cultivars. Bananas are cooked in ways that are similar topotatoes. Both can be fried, boiled, baked, or
chipped and have similar taste and texture when served. One banana provides about the
same calories as one potato.[44]

In 2003, India led the world in banana production, representing approximately 23% of the
worldwide crop, mostly for domestic consumption. The four leading exporting countries
were Ecuador, Costa Rica, the Philippines, and Colombia, which together accounted for about two-thirds
of exports, each contributing more than 1 million tons. Ecuador alone provided more than 30% of global
banana exports, according to Food and Agriculture Organization statistics.

Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because
bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable food source during
the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the
next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical to global food security.

Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in the world. Most banana farmers receive
a low price for their produce as grocerycompanies pay discounted prices for buying in enormous quantity.
Price competition among grocers has reduced their margins, leading to lower prices for
growers. Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes grow their own bananas in Ecuador, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Guatemala, andHonduras. Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand significant
expertise. The majority of independent growers are large and wealthy landowners in these countries.
Producers have attempted to raise prices via marketing them as "fair trade" or Rainforest Alliance-
certified in some countries.

The banana has an extensive trade history beginning with the founding of the United Fruit Company (now
Chiquita) at the end of the 19th century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dominated the
export economies of Central America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75% of the
region's exports. As late as 1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the exports from the region.
Though the two were grown in similar regions, they tended not to be distributed together. The United Fruit
Company based its business almost entirely on the banana trade, because the coffee trade proved too
difficult to control. The term "banana republic" has been applied to most countries in Central America, but
from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica, Honduras, and Panama had economies dominated
by the banana trade.

The European Union has traditionally imported many of their bananas from former
European Caribbean colonies, paying guaranteed prices above global market rates. As of 2005, these
arrangements were in the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading powers,
principally the United States. The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean producers is
expected to favour the banana producers of Central America, in which American companies have an
economic interest.

The United States produces few bananas. A mere 14,000 tonnes (14,000 LT; 15,000 ST) were
grown in Hawaii in 2001.[45] Bananas were once grown in Florida and southern California.[46]

Pests, diseases, and natural disasters

While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish
(extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the
next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost
all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both
commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[47][48] Some commentators remarked that
those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different
that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana
on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[38]

Panama Disease

The Panama Disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters
the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums
that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to
lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on 'Gros
Michel', which was highly susceptible.[49] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel
because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required
for shipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.

According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants
are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining
hundreds of wild varieties for resistance.[49]

Tropical Race 4

TR4 is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of
fusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the
Americas; however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how Tropical Race
4 travels and is its most likely route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over
time, Cavendish is almost certain to disappear from commercial production by this disease. Unfortunately,
the only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance.

Black Sigatoka

Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka
(also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected
banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains,
impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for
energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making
them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the
current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In addition to the expense,
there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally justified. Several resistant
cultivars of banana have been developed, but none has yet received commercial acceptance due to taste
and texture issues.

In East Africa
 With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For
example, during the 1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 LT; 17 to 22 ST) of bananas per
hectare. Today, production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 LT; 6.6 ST)per hectare.

The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by
the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of
Uganda (NARO), such as FHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste
different from the Cabana banana, which has slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by
adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base of the plant, these new cultivars have substantially
increased yields in the areas where they have been tried.

The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller
Foundation and CGIAR have started trials for genetically modified bananas that are resistant to both
Black sigatoka and banana weevils. It is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder and subsistence
farmers.

Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)

This virus jumps from plant to plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in a "bunched"
appearance. Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruit, although mild strains exist which allow
some production. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease other than
BBTV. There is no cure; however, its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-cultured plants (in
vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and destroying infected plants.

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15. ^ Bailey, pp. 2076–2079.

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