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PROJECT ON COMPUTER NETWORKING AND TYPES

MADE BY- CLINTON VAZ (47)

VINAY VERMA (48),
VIVEK VERMA (49),
Y.JITENDRA (50).
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Sr no Contents
01 Introduction

02 Uses

03 Advantages and Disadvantages of

Computer Networks

04 Importance of Computer Networking

05 Types of networking

06 Network topology

07 Classification of Networking

08 Network Cables and Cabling

09 Slides
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INTRODUCTION
What is Networking?
Networking means connection of computers to each other which
are capable for sharing resources and different application.
Information can be shared between computers using transmission
media. Networking is the practice of linking two or more
computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data built
with a mix of computer hardware and computer software. The
purpose of a network is to share resources. The aim of computer
networks is not only to exchange data but also to understand and
use the data received from entities network.
Networking allows to share hardware such as printers , scanner,
telephone,ets. Same information can be shared between
computers in a same organization. Data can be transferred in
electronic manner through network. Network distributes
messages by storing them in an appropriate box. Using
networking user can store data on a single machine called as
server to which all computers are connected. Also user build
decentralized network that means each other and every computer
can store data and share data. Network can be build as per user
requirement.
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Uses of computer networks

Uses of Networks for Companies
If your business has more than one computer, chances are you
could benefit from networking them. A local area network (LAN)
connects your company's computers, allowing them to share and
exchange a variety of information. While one computer can be
useful on its own, several networked computers can
They are as follows
Resource Sharing:
Many organizations have large number of substantial computers
in operation often located far apart. Let us consider an example, a
company having many factories situated at different locations.
A computer at each location (that is in each factory) keeps the
track of inventories, monitor productivity and do the local pay roll.
Initially each of these computers may have worked in isolation
from each other, but at some point, the management may have
decided to connect these computers to be able to extract and
correlate the information of the entire company.

The issue here is resource sharing. Its goal is to make all the
programs, equipments, especially data available to anyone on
the network irrespective of the location of the resource and the
user.

High Reliability:
The second goal or use of networking in companies is to high
reliability by having alternative sources of supply. For example all
the files can be replicated on two or more machines, so that in
case one of them is not available (due to hardware failure), other
copies can be used. This feature is used in financial institutions.
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Saving Money:
The third goal is to save money. Small computers often have
better price/performance ratio than the larger ones. Mainframe
(room-size) computers are roughly ten faster than
the personal computers, but are a thousand times costly. This
imbalance caused the system designers to design a system
consisting of personal computers, one per user, with data kept on
one or more shared file server machines. In this model the user
are called the clients and this whole arrangement is known as
the client-server model.

In client-server model, the communication generally takes the

form of a request message from a client to the receiver asking for
some work to be done. Server does the work and sends back the
reply.

Scalability:
Another goal is scalability. Scalability is the ability to increase the
system performance gradually as the workload grows, by just
adding more processors.

Uses of Networks to People

1.Access to Remote Information:

Access to remote information occurs in many forms. One of the

areas where it is happening is access to the financial institutions.
Many people pay their bills, manage bank accounts and handle
investments electronically. Home shopping is also becoming
popular these days.
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Another application that falls under this category is the access to

information systems like World Wide Web which contains
information about art, business, history, government, geography,
economics and several other topics.

All the above applications involve the interaction between the user

and a remote database.

2.Person to Person Communication:

Electronic Mail popularly known as email is widely used by

millions of people to send text messages, photographs audio as
well as video to other people or group of people. This application
belongs to person to person communication category.

Videoconferencing is also becoming popular these days. This

technology makes it possible to have virtual meetings among far
flung people. It is also a type of person to person communication.
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3.Interactive Entertainment:

These days we can see many live programmes and shows. The
best thing is that we can interact with them by participating in the
quizzes and the contests organized by them.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networks

A computer network is basically a connection of computers
and resources like printers, scanners, etc. Here are some of
the advantages and disadvantages of computer networks.
Advantages
Communication: Even outside of the internet, those on the
network can communicate with each other via electronic mail
over the network system. When connected to the internet,
network users can communicate with people around the
world via the network.
Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one
computer on a network which can easily share files, the issue of
storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A standalone
computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many
computers are on a network, memory of different computers can
be used in such case. One can also design a storage server on
the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many softwares available
in the market which are costly and take time for installation.
Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be
stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by
the different workstations

File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that

is allows file sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at
one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on
the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves
the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to
another, by using a storage device. In addition to that, many
people can access or update the information stored in
a database, making it up-to-date and accurate.
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Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit

of a computer network. For example, if there are four people in a
family, each having their own computer, they will require four
modems (for the Internet connection) and four printers, if they
want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network,
on the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision
of resource sharing. In this way, all the four computers can be
inter connected, using a network, and just one modem and printer
can efficiently provide the services to all four members. The
facility of shared folders can also be availed by family members.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

Following are some of the major disadvantages of computer
networks.

Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer

networks is the security issues involved. If a computer is a
standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of
data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a
computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different
tools. In case of big organizations, various network security
softwares are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and
classified data.

Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in

a network gets affected by computer virus, there is a possible
threat of other systems getting affected too. Viruses get spread on
a network easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations.
Such spread can be dangerous if the computers have important
database which can get corrupted by the virus.

Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network

can be high depending on the number of computers to be
connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc., can
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add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network.

He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each
of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt.

Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File

Server of a computer network breaks down, the system becomes
useless. In case of big networks, the File Server should be a
powerful computer, which often makes it expensive.

A person should get well acquainted with the advantages and

disadvantages of computer networks, before setting one up for his
personal or office use. A knowledge of the pros and cons of
computer networks can help him in designing a useful system for
himself
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Importance of Computer Networking

Computer Networks are useful in for instance a bank or

office as they need to be able to have a shared area where
data collected by some of them will be able to be used by the
other workers. Networks are also important in schools with
lots of computer rooms as it means the children can log on
to any computer and have their own protected folder. Also it
means that they can put their computer work into the shared
area so that the teacher can mark it without having a massive
pile of papers or books.

File Sharing
Computers connected to a network can share files and
documents with each other. Personal computers connected to a
business network can choose which files and folders are available
to share on the network.
Printers
Computers can print pages to another computer with a printer on
the network. Additionally, printers can be connected using a print
server, which allows direct printing from all computers.
Sharing Media
Sharing media between computers is easy when connected to a
network. Like file sharing, computers can stream musing, videos
and movies from one computer to the next.
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Media Center Server

A media center server can store your entire entertainment library
on a centralized hub to give quick access to your media from
every computer on your network.
Video Games
Console and PC gamers benefit from networking also. You can
easily set up multiplayer death matches and even host your own
gameserver.

INTRODUCTION TO TYPES OF NETWORKING

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One way to categorize the different types of computer network

designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the
networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some
kind of area network. Common examples of area network types
are:
 LAN - Local Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server
Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or
sometimes Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 DAN - Desk Area Network
LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks,
while the others have gradually emerged over many years of
technology evolution.

Note that these network types are a separate concept from

network topologies such as bus, ring and star.
LAN -  local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability
to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as
in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for
sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications.
A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or
other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive
hardware such as Ethernetcables, network adapters, and hubs.
Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options
also exist.
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Specialized operating system software may be used to configure

a local area network. For example, most flavors of Microsoft
Windows provide a software package called Internet Connection
Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources .
It is owned and managed by one person only.

Local Area Network

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WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The

Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A
network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP
networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN
address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs
(like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but
rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame
Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

WAN - Wide Area Network

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN usually consists of a number of interconnected LANs and

WANs, but will not extend beyond the boundaries of a town, city,
or metropolitan area. These A MAN usually consists of a number
of interconnected LANs and WANs

MAN technology has developed significantly in recent years with

smaller networks within a MAN often interconnected wirelessly
using radio, microwave or infra-red laser links

Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest type of network, a PAN simply involves connecting

one person's computer to a number of devices or peripherals.
Usually, all devices, such as printers, PDAs, and telephones, are
within a few feet of the computer. A PAN can also refer to a
connection to the internet.
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Campus network

Campus network
A campus network is a computer network made up of an
interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited
geographical area. The networking equipments (switches,
routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper
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plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned (by the

campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government
etc.).
In the case of a university campus-based campus network, the
network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including;
academic departments, the university library and student
residence halls.

d.
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Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types
mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these
others:

 Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based

on WiFi wireless network technology
 Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a
physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such
as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single
entity such as a government body or large corporation.
 Campus Area Network - a network spanning multiple LANs
but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local
business campus.
 Storage Area Network - connects servers to data storage
devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.
 System Area Network - links high-performance computers
with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also
known as Cluster Area Network.
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LAN, WAN and Home Networking

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet

WAN via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) using a broadband
modem. The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and
all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-
called private) IP addresses. All computers on the home LAN can
communicate directly with each other but must go through a
central gateway, typically a broadband router, to reach the ISP.
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Network topology
In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of
connected devices.
Network topology is defined as the interconnection of the
various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
network. Network Topologies can be physical or logical.
Physical Topology means the physical design of a network
including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical
topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as
opposed to its physical design.
Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a
network. This shape does not correspond to the actual physical
design of the devices on the computer network. The computers
on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not
necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the
graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical
connections between nodes. The study of network topology
uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may
differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.
A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that
exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any
given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more
nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in
a graph results in a geometric shape that may be used to
describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the
mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network
determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and
logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular
network.
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Basic topology types

The study of network topology recognizes six basic topologies:

 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology
 Mesh topology
 Hybrid topology

Bus topology

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine

is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is
connected to the single bus cable through some kind of
connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable
to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus
cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all
machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC
address or IP address on the network that is the intended
recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended
address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively,
if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted.
Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather
inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies.
However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by
the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only
one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the
network cable breaks, the entire network will be down.
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Linear bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the
network are connected to a common transmission medium which
has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also
commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) – all data that
is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over
this common transmission medium and is able to be received by
all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously
(disregarding propagation delays).
Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium
are normally terminated with a device called a terminator that
exhibits the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium
and which dissipates or absorbs the energy that remains in the
signal to prevent the signal from being reflected or propagated
back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction,
which would cause interference with and degradation of the
signals on the transmission medium (See Electrical termination).
Distributed bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the
network are connected to a common transmission medium which
has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches
to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical
distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as
the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common
transmission medium).
Notes:
1.) All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are
normally terminated with a device called a 'terminator').
2.) The physical linear bus topology is sometimes considered to
be a special case of the physical distributed bus topology – i.e., a
distributed bus with no branching segments.
3.) The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly
referred to as a physical tree topology – however, although the
physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree
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topology, it differs from the physical tree topology in that there is

no central node to which any other nodes are connected, since
this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.

Star topology
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is
connected to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the
star topology connects each node to the hub with a point-to-point
connection. All traffic that transverses the network passes through
the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The
star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and
implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of
adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star
topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure.

 A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes

categorized as a special instance of the physical star topology
– therefore, the simplest type of network that is based upon the
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physical star topology would consist of one node with a single

point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of which node
is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary.

 After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note 1.)

above, the next simplest type of network that is based upon the
physical star topology would consist of one central node – the
'hub' – with two separate point-to-point links to two peripheral
nodes – the 'spokes'.

 Although most networks that are based upon the physical

star topology are commonly implemented using a special
device such as a hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the
'hub' of the star), it is also possible to implement a network that
is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or
even a simple common connection point as the 'hub' or central
node – however, since many illustrations of the physical star
network topology depict the central node as one of these
special devices, some confusion is possible, since this practice
may lead to the misconception that a physical star network
requires the central node to be one of these special devices,
which is not true because a simple network consisting of three
computers connected as in note 2.) above also has the
topology of the physical star.

 Star networks may also be described as either broadcast

multi-access or non broadcast multi-access (NBMA),
depending on whether the technology of the network either
automatically propagates a signal at the hub to all spokes, or
only addresses individual spokes with each communication.
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Ring topology

In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each

computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring.
Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for
identification purposes. The signal passes through each machine
or computer connected to the ring in one direction. Ring
topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to
control access to the network. By utilizing this scheme, only one
machine can transmit on the network at a time. The machines or
computers connected to the ring act as signal boosters or
repeaters which strengthen the signals that transverse the
network. The primary disadvantage of ring topology is the failure
of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.

Mesh topology

The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the

exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that
communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including
all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
Fully connected mesh topology
The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2
Fully connected
Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is
generally too costly and complex for practical networks,
although the topology is used when there are only a small
number of nodes to be interconnected.
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Partially connected
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of
the network are connected to more than one other node in
the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible
to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is
provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology
without the expense and complexity required for a
connection between every node in the network.
Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the
physical partially connected mesh topology, all of the data
that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the
shortest path (or an approximation of the shortest path)
between nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in
one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative
path to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the
network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to
determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

Network classification
The following list presents categories used for classifying
networks.
Connection method
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware
and software technology that is used to interconnect the individual
devices in the network, such as optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless
LAN, Home PNA, Power line communication or G.hn.
Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently
deployed devices include hubs, switches, bridges and/or routers.
Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without
wiring. These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a
transmission medium. ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home
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wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a

high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.
Wired technologies

 Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for

telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone
wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into
pairs and are used for both voice and data transmission. The
use of two wires twisted together helps to
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The
transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to
100 million bits per second.

 Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems,

office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks.
The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with
insulating layer typically of a flexible material with a high
dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive
layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and
distortion. Transmission speed range from 200 million to more
than 500 million bits per second.

 Optical fiber cable consists of one or more filaments of glass

fiber wrapped in protective layers. It transmits light which can
travel over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not
affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may
reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of
fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables
and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair wire]Wireless
technologies

 Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-

based transmitter and receiver. The equipment look similar to
satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz
range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path
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between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles apart.

Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings,
towers, hills, and mountain peaks.

 Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave

radio as their telecommunications medium which are not
deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles (for geosynchronous
satellites) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are
capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio

communications technologies. The systems are divided to
different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one
area to the next area.

 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-

frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-
frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread
spectrum technology to enable communication between
multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-
standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE

 Infrared communication , which can transmit signals

between devices within small distances not more than 10
meters peer to peer or ( face to face ) without any body in the
line of transmitting.
Scale
Networks are often classified as local area network (LAN), wide
area network (WAN), metropolitan area network (MAN), personal
area network (PAN), virtual private network (VPN), campus area
network (CAN), storage area network (SAN), and others,
depending on their scale, scope and purpose, e.g., controller area
network (CAN) usage, trust level, and access right often differ
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between these types of networks. LANs tend to be designed for

internal use by an organization's internal systems and employees
in individual physical locations, such as a building, while WANs
may connect physically separate parts of an organization and
may include connections to third parties.
Functional relationship (network architecture)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional
relationships which exist among the elements of the network,
e.g., active networking, client–server and peer-to-
peer (workgroup) architecture.
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Network Cables
and Cabling
Network cable is used to connect and transfer data between
computers and a network. There are different types
of networkcable, and the appropriate type to use will depend on
the structure and topology of your network. Different types of
cable are as follows;

Category 5 cable
Category 5 cable is a twisted pair high signal integrity cable type
often referred to as Cat5 or Cat-5. Most Category-5 cables
are unshielded, relying on the twisted pair design for noise
rejection. Category 5 has been superseded by the Category
5e specification. This type of cable is used in structured
cabling for computer networks such as Ethernet and ATM, and is
also used to carry many other signals such as telephony
and video.
Connectors and other information
The cable exists in both stranded and solid conductor forms. The
stranded form is more flexible and withstands more bending
without breaking and is suited for reliable connections
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with insulation piercing connectors, but makes unreliable

connections in insulation-displacement connectors. The solid form
is less expensive and makes reliable connections into insulation
displacement connectors, but makes unreliable connections in
insulation piercing connectors. Taking these things into account,
building wiring (for example, the wiring inside the wall that
connects a wall socket to a central patch panel) is solid core,
while patch cables (for example, the movable cable that plugs into
the wall socket on one end and a computer on the other) are
stranded. Outer insulation is typically PVC or LSOH.
Cable types, connector types and cabling topologies are defined
by TIA/EIA-568-B. Nearly always, 8P8C modular connectors,
often incorrectly referred to as "RJ-45", are used for connecting
category 5 cable. The specific category of cable in use can be
identified by the printing on the side of the cable.[3]
The cable is terminated in either the T568A scheme or the T568B
scheme. Canada and Australia use the T568A standard, and the
United States commonly uses T568B scheme. It really doesn't
make any difference which is used as long as you use only one of
the standards so all connections are the same at your location to
avoid confusion and potential problems. Mixed cable types should
not be connected in series as the impedance per pair differs
slightly and may cause signal degradation. The article Ethernet
over twisted pair describes how the cable is used for Ethernet,
including special"cross over" cables.
Conductors required
10BASE-T (IEEE) and 100BASE-TX (IEEE) Ethernet connections
require two cable pairs. 1000BASE-T (IEEE) and 1000BASE-TX
(TIA/EIA-854, requiring category 6 cabling) Ethernet connections
require four cable pairs. Four pair cable is by far most commonly
available type.
 38

Characteristics

Electrical characteristics for Cat.5e UTP

Property Nomina Toleran Unit ref

l Value ce

[5]
Characteristic impedance @ 100 ± 15 Ω
100 MHz

[5]
Nominal characteristic impedan 100 ±5 Ω
ce @ 100 MHz

[5]
DC-Loop resistance ≤ 0.188 Ω/m

[5]
Propagation speed 0.64 c

[5]
Propagation delay 4.80- ns/
5.30 m

[5]
Delay skew < 100 MHz < 0.20 ns/
m

[5]
Capacitance at 800 Hz 52 pF/
m

[6]
Inductance 525 nH/
m
 39

[6]
Cutoff frequency 50323 Hz

[5]
Max tensile load, during 100 N
installation

[5]
Wire size AWG-
[7]
24 (0.20
5 mm² )

[5]
Insulation thickness 0.245 mm

[7]
Maximum current per 0.577 A
conductor

[5]
Temperature operating -55 to °C
+60

Patch cables
A patch cable connects two network devices. Patch cables are
typically CAT5 / CAT5e Ethernet cables linking a computer to a
nearby network hub, switch or router.
 40

Ethernet patch cables are useful to those building home computer

networks and also to travelers who need wired access to Internet
connections such as those provided in hotel rooms. They are
normally manufactured using stranded rather than solid sheathing
in order to give them pliability that reduces risk of breakage when
unplugging or carrying them.

A crossover cable is a specific type of Ethernet patch cable used

to directly connect two computers to each other.

Fiber optic patch cables are also commonly used in the

networking. The term patch cord is sometimes used
synonymously with patch cable, although patch cords are often
non-network types of cables such as those for wiring stereo
components.

Category 5e Patch Cables are used for cross-connecting Patch

Panels and Hubs as well as connecting the PC to the wall
outlet.  Patch Cables come in standard lengths but are available
in custom lengths also.  Please contact Network Supply Inc. for
pricing on custom lengths.   

Our Spectrum™ Category 5E 350MHz

booted premium patch cables offer the
following features and benefits:

 Injection molded boots for critical

Category 5E bend radius
requirements and sealing of the
plug/cable interface
 "Flush" mold design to allow booted
Patch Cables to be installed side by
side in High-Density patch fields
 Two stock Options, Flush "Bump"
 41

style for a protected clip and Flush

"Bumpless" for a molded strain relief
with no clip coverage
 50µ Short body plugs for minimal "de-
twisting" of the cable pairs during
manufacturing
 24AWG stranded construction for
minimum flexibility
 24AWG solid on applicable PVC of
Plenum cables
 Compliance with EIA/TIA Category 5E
specifications
 Lifetime warranty

STANDARD LENGTHS
(Please select desired length)
1 Foot 2 Foot
3 Foot 5 Foot
6 Foot 7 Foot
10 Foot 14 Foot
25 Foot 50 Foot
75 Foot 100 Foot

Fiber Optic Cable

The fiber optic cable consists of 1 mm Plastic Optical Fiber (POF)

or 200 µm Hard Clad Silica (HCS) (glass) multi-mode optical fiber
with a step index profile or graded index profile. Fiber optic cables
and cores can be used. Only fiber optic cables with a wavelength
of 650 nm are specified for SERCOS. For fiber optic materials
currently in use, the attenuation is approximately 220 dB/km for
plastic and 6 dB/km for glass. 
 42

The following drawing illustrates the structure of a typical fiber

optic cable. Note that the SERCOS interface standard does not
specify the outer diameter of the cables. Typically, 2.2 mm
diameter cables are used inside equipment cabinets. These
cables do not have the strength members shown in the drawing.
Typically, 3.6, 5 and 6 mm diameter cables are used for cabinet-
to-cabinet connections.

Structure of a single-core fiber optic cable

• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into

the gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing
to be "refreshed" or strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise
such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to
maintain.

In recent years it has become apparent that fiber-optics are

steadily replacing copper wire as an appropriate means of
communication signal transmission. They span the long distances
between local phone systems as well as providing the backbone
for many network systems. Other system users include cable
television services, university campuses, office buildings,
industrial plants, and electric utility companies.

A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-

optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light
pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using
electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines.
Looking at the components in a fiber-optic chain will give a better
 43

understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire

based systems.

At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of

origin for information coming on to fiber-optic lines. The
transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse information coming
from copper wire. It then processes and translates that
information into equivalently coded light pulses. A light-emitting
diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for
generating the light pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are
funneled into the fiber-optic medium where they travel down the
cable. The light (near infrared) is most often 850nm for shorter
distances and 1,300nm for longer distances on Multi-mode fiber
and 1300nm for single-mode fiber and 1,500nm is used for for
longer distances.

Think of a fiber cable in terms of very long cardboard roll (from the
inside roll of paper towel) that is coated with a mirror on the
inside.
If you shine a flashlight in one end you can see light come out at
the far end - even if it's been bent around a corner.

Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a

principle known as total internal reflection. "This principle of total
internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence exceeds
a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass; instead, the light
bounces back in. When this principle is applied to the construction
of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit information down
fiber lines in the form of light pulses. The core must a very clear
and pure material for the light or in most cases near infrared light
(850nm, 1300nm and 1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for
very short distances) but most are made from glass. Glass optical
fibers are almost always made from pure silica, but some other
materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate,
 44

and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength

infrared applications.

There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single
mode, multimode and plastic optical fiber (POF).

Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided

from one end to the other with minimal loss.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light

introduced at one end of the cable through to the other end. The
light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.

The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive

receiver on the other end of the cable converts the pulses back
into the digital ones and zeros of the original signal.
 45

Even laser light shining through a fiber optic cable is subject to

loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering of the
light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the
greater the risk of dispersion. Light strengtheners, called
repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain
applications.

While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a
equivalent length of copper cable cost less per foot but not in
capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment needed
to install them are still more expensive than their copper
counterparts.

Single Mode cable is a single stand (most applications use 2

fibers) of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has
one mode of transmission.  Single Mode Fiber with a relatively
narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate
typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than
multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow spectral
width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber,
single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber.

Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is

sent at multi-frequency (WDM Wave-Division-Multiplexing) so
only one cable is needed - (single-mode on one single fiber)

Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to

50 times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more.
Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than multimode. The
small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion
that could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least
signal attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any
fiber cable type.   

Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the

 46

lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of

interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.

 
jump to single mode fiber page

Multi-Mode cable has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common

diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry
component (in the US the most common size is 62.5um). Most
applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used, 2 fibers are used
(WDM is not normally used on multi-mode fiber).  POF is a newer
plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to glass
cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.

Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to

100MBS - Gigabit to 275m to 2km) over medium distances. Light
waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they
travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical
multimode fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100
micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet
[914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion
at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data
transmission so designers now call for single mode fiber in new
applications using Gigabit and beyond.  
 47

The use of fiber-optics was generally not available until 1970

when Corning Glass Works was able to produce a fiber with a
loss of 20 dB/km. It was recognized that optical fiber would be
feasible for telecommunication transmission only if glass could be
developed so pure that attenuation would be 20dB/km or less.
That is, 1% of the light would remain after traveling 1 km. Today's
optical fiber attenuation ranges from 0.5dB/km to 1000dB/km
depending on the optical fiber used. Attenuation limits are based
on intended application.

The applications of optical fiber communications have increased

at a rapid rate, since the first commercial installation of a fiber-
optic system in 1977. Telephone companies began early on,
replacing their old copper wire systems with optical fiber lines.
Today's telephone companies use optical fiber throughout their
 48

system as the backbone architecture and as the long-distance

connection between city phone systems.

Cable television companies have also began integrating fiber-

optics into their cable systems. The trunk lines that connect
central offices have generally been replaced with optical fiber.
Some providers have begun experimenting with fiber to the curb
using a fiber/coaxial hybrid. Such a hybrid allows for the
integration of fiber and coaxial at a neighborhood location. This
location, called a node, would provide the optical receiver that
converts the light impulses back to electronic signals. The signals
could then be fed to individual homes via coaxial cable.

Local Area Networks (LAN) is a collective group of computers, or

computer systems, connected to each other allowing for shared
program software or data bases. Colleges, universities, office
buildings, and industrial plants, just to name a few, all make use
of optical fiber within their LAN systems.

Power companies are an emerging group that have begun to

utilize fiber-optics in their communication systems. Most power
 49

utilities already have fiber-optic communication systems in use for

monitoring their power grid systems.

Cable Specifications

Plastic Glass
Fiber - Fiber -
POF HCS
Core 980 µm 200 µm
diameter
Cladding 1000 µm 230 µm
diameter
Numeric 0.47 0.37
aperture
Bandwidt >= 5 MHz >= 10
h * 1 km MHz * 1
km

Fiber Optic Connectors

 50

SERCOS fiber optic cable connectors are specified as: 

-- Shall correspond to F-SMA standard (see IEC 60874-2). 
-- Shall have a quality level of at least 5. 
-- Shall have a metallic connector ring. 

In addition, it is recommended that fiber optic cables have a strain

relief.

Fiber Optic Ring Lengths

A SERCOS interface ring is composed of a number of fiber-optic

segments. Maximum cable lengths are:

Cable Type Maximum

Cable
Length
Plastic fiber –  
POF (1 mm
diameter)
Node-to-node 40 meters
Maximum ring 10,000+
length (254 nodes meters
per ring)
Glass fiber –  
HCS (200 µm
diameter)
Node-to-node 200 meters
Maximum ring 50,000+
length (254 nodes meters
per ring)

If a coupling is used to pass a cable through a cabinet wall, the

maximum length of that segment is reduced by 6 meters. 
 51

The maximum number of drops per fiber-optic ring is 254.

However, the number of drives that can be serviced per ring
depends on three application requirements: 
-- The communication cycle time. 
-- The volume of operational data. 
-- The communications speed required. 

The number of rings that can be synchronized together is limited

only by the controller, which will have a limit to the number of
axes it can process. SERCOS interface-compliant controllers can
have a much higher axis limit than their predecessors, since the
SERCOS interface supports distributed processing, which
relieves the controller of many time-intensive tasks, which are
now handled by the drives.
 52

Performance of SERCOS interface Rings -- Generation I and

II

C Dat Trans Nu D Rem

yc a missio mb at ainin
le Rec n er a g
Ti ord Rate of R Cycl
m Per Dri at e
e Driv ves e Time
e (N
(MD on
T + -
AT) cy
cli
c
D
at
a)
2 32 2 8 8 390µ
m Byte Mbit/s kb s
s s ec it/
s
(2
by
te
s)
1 32 4 8 16 125µ
m Byte Mbit/s kb s
s s ec it/
 53

s
(2
by
te
s)
1 36 8 15 32 208µ
m Byte Mbit/s kb s
s s ec it/
s
(4
by
te
s)
0. 36 16 14 12 113µ
5 Byte Mbit/s 8 s
m s ec kb
s it/
s
(8
by
te
s)
2 Sta 16 11 8 330µ
m ndar Mbit/s 2 kb s
s d ec it/
Tele s
gra (2
m by
2,3, te
4 s)
54