258 CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality

(b) Compute f ðtÞ for various values of t in ½0; 3, for example,
t 0 1 2 3
f ðtÞ 0 3 4 3
2
Plot the points in R and then draw a continuous curve through the points, as shown in Fig. 7-8.
Ð3
(c) We seek k f k1 ¼ 0 j f ðtÞj dt. As indicated in Fig. 7-3, f ðtÞ is negative in ½0; 3; hence,
j f ðtÞj ¼ ðt2  4tÞ ¼ 4t  t 2
ð3  3
t3 
Thus; k f k1 ¼ ð4t  t Þ dt ¼ 2t 
2 2
¼ 18  9 ¼ 9
0 3 0
ð3 ð3 5 3
t 16t3  153
(d) k f k22 ¼ f ðtÞ2 dt ¼ ðt4  8t3 þ 16t2 Þ dt ¼  2t4 þ ¼ .
0 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 0 5 3 0 5
153
Thus, k f k2 ¼ .
5

Figure 7-8

7.56. Prove Theorem 7.24: Let V be a normed vector space. Then the function dðu; vÞ ¼ ku  vk
satisfies the following three axioms of a metric space:
½M1  dðu; vÞ  0; and dðu; vÞ ¼ 0 iff u ¼ v.
½M2  dðu; vÞ ¼ dðv; uÞ.
½M3  dðu; vÞ  dðu; wÞ þ dðw; vÞ.
If u 6¼ v, then u  v 6¼ 0, and hence, dðu; vÞ ¼ ku  vk > 0. Also, dðu; uÞ ¼ ku  uk ¼ k0k ¼ 0. Thus,
½M1  is satisfied. We also have
dðu; vÞ ¼ ku  vk ¼ k  1ðv  uÞk ¼ j  1jkv  uk ¼ kv  uk ¼ dðv; uÞ
and dðu; vÞ ¼ ku  vk ¼ kðu  wÞ þ ðw  vÞk  ku  wk þ kw  vk ¼ dðu; wÞ þ dðw; vÞ

Thus, ½M2  and ½M3  are satisfied.

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

Inner Products
7.57. Verify that the following is an inner product on R2 , where u ¼ ðx1 ; x2 Þ and v ¼ ðy1 ; y2 Þ:
f ðu; vÞ ¼ x1 y1  2x1 y2  2x2 y1 þ 5x2 y2

7.58. Find the values of k so that the following is an inner product on R2 , where u ¼ ðx1 ; x2 Þ and v ¼ ðy1 ; y2 Þ:
f ðu; vÞ ¼ x1 y1  3x1 y2  3x2 y1 þ kx2 y2
CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality 259

7.59. Consider the vectors u ¼ ð1; 3Þ and v ¼ ð2; 5Þ in R2 . Find

(a) hu; vi with respect to the usual inner product in R2 .
(b) hu; vi with respect to the inner product in R2 in Problem 7.57.
(c) kvk using the usual inner product in R2 .
(d) kvk using the inner product in R2 in Problem 7.57.

7.60. Show that each of the following is not an inner product on R3 , where u ¼ ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ and v ¼ ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 Þ:
(a) hu; vi ¼ x1 y1 þ x2 y2 ; (b) hu; vi ¼ x1 y2 x3 þ y1 x2 y3 .

7.61. Let V be the vector space of m n matrices over R. Show that hA; Bi ¼ trðBT AÞ defines an inner product
in V.

7.62. Suppose jhu; vij ¼ kukkvk. (That is, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality reduces to an equality.) Show that u
and v are linearly dependent.

7.63. Suppose f ðu; vÞ and gðu; vÞ are inner products on a vector space V over R. Prove

(a) The sum f þ g is an inner product on V, where ð f þ gÞðu; vÞ ¼ f ðu; vÞ þ gðu; vÞ.
(b) The scalar product kf , for k > 0, is an inner product on V, where ðkf Þðu; vÞ ¼ kf ðu; vÞ.

Orthogonality, Orthogonal Complements, Orthogonal Sets

7.64. Let V beÐ the vector space of polynomials over R of degree  2 with inner product defined by
1
h f ; gi ¼ 0 f ðtÞgðtÞ dt. Find a basis of the subspace W orthogonal to hðtÞ ¼ 2t þ 1.

7.65. Find a basis of the subspace W of R4 orthogonal to u1 ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 4Þ and u2 ¼ ð3; 5; 7; 8Þ.

7.66. Find a basis for the subspace W of R5 orthogonal to the vectors u1 ¼ ð1; 1; 3; 4; 1Þ and u2 ¼ ð1; 2; 1; 2; 1Þ.

7.67. Let w ¼ ð1; 2; 1; 3Þ be a vector in R4 . Find

(a) an orthogonal basis for w? ; (b) an orthonormal basis for w? .

7.68. Let W be the subspace of R4 orthogonal to u1 ¼ ð1; 1; 2; 2Þ and u2 ¼ ð0; 1; 2; 1Þ. Find
(a) an orthogonal basis for W ; (b) an orthonormal basis for W . (Compare with Problem 7.65.)

7.69. Let S consist of the following vectors in R4 :

u1 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ; u2 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ; u3 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ; u4 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ

(a) Show that S is orthogonal and a basis of R4 .

(b) Write v ¼ ð1; 3; 5; 6Þ as a linear combination of u1 ; u2 ; u3 ; u4 .
(c) Find the coordinates of an arbitrary vector v ¼ ða; b; c; dÞ in R4 relative to the basis S.
(d) Normalize S to obtain an orthonormal basis of R4 .

7.70. Let M ¼ M2;2 with inner product hA; Bi ¼ trðBT AÞ. Show that the following is an orthonormal basis for M:
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
; ; ;
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

7.71. Let M ¼ M2;2 with inner product hA; Bi ¼ trðBT AÞ. Find an orthogonal basis for the orthogonal complement
of (a) diagonal matrices, (b) symmetric matrices.
 260 CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality

7.72. Suppose fu1 ; u2 ; . . . ; ur g is an orthogonal set of vectors. Show that fk1 u1 ; k2 u2 ; . . . ; kr ur g is an orthogonal set
for any scalars k1 ; k2 ; . . . ; kr .

7.73. Let U and W be subspaces of a finite-dimensional inner product space V. Show that
(a) ðU þ W Þ? ¼ U ? \ W ? ; (b) ðU \ W Þ? ¼ U ? þ W ? .

Projections, Gram–Schmidt Algorithm, Applications

7.74. Find the Fourier coefficient c and projection cw of v along w, where
(a) v ¼ ð2; 3; 5Þ and w ¼ ð1; 5; 2Þ in R3 :
(b) v ¼ ð1; 3; 1; 2Þ and w ¼ ð1; 2; 7; 4Þ in R4 :
Ð1
(c) v ¼ t2 and w ¼ t þ 3 in PðtÞ; with inner product h f ; gi ¼ 0 f ðtÞgðtÞ dt
   
1 2 1 1
(d) v ¼ and w ¼ in M ¼ M2;2 ; with inner product hA; Bi ¼ trðBT AÞ:
3 4 5 5

7.75. Let U be the subspace of R4 spanned by

v 1 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ; v 2 ¼ ð1; 1; 2; 2Þ; v 3 ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 4Þ

(a) Apply the Gram–Schmidt algorithm to find an orthogonal and an orthonormal basis for U .
(b) Find the projection of v ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 4Þ onto U .

7.76. Suppose v ¼ ð1; 2; 3; 4; 6Þ. Find the projection of v onto W, or, in other words, find w 2 W that minimizes
kv  wk, where W is the subspace of R5 spanned by
(a) u1 ¼ ð1; 2; 1; 2; 1Þ and u2 ¼ ð1; 1; 2; 1; 1Þ, (b) v 1 ¼ ð1; 2; 1; 2; 1Þ and v 2 ¼ ð1; 0; 1; 5; 1Þ.
Ð1
7.77. Consider the subspace W ¼ P2 ðtÞ of PðtÞ with inner product h f ; gi ¼ 0 f ðtÞgðtÞ dt. Find the projection of
f ðtÞ ¼ t3 onto W . (Hint: Use the orthogonal polynomials 1; 2t  1, 6t2  6t þ 1 obtained in Problem 7.22.)
Ð1
7.78. Consider PðtÞ with inner product h f ; gi ¼ 1 f ðtÞgðtÞ dt and the subspace W ¼ P3 ðtÞ:
(a) Find an orthogonal basis for W by applying the Gram–Schmidt algorithm to f1; t; t2 ; t3 g.
(b) Find the projection of f ðtÞ ¼ t5 onto W .

Orthogonal Matrices 1 
x
7.79. Find the number and exhibit all 2 2 orthogonal matrices of the form 3 .
y z
7.80. Find a 3 3 orthogonal matrix P whose first two rows are multiples of u ¼ ð1; 1; 1Þ and v ¼ ð1; 2; 3Þ,
respectively.

7.81. Find a symmetric orthogonal matrix P whose first row is ð13 ; 23 ; 23Þ. (Compare with Problem 7.32.)

7.82. Real matrices A and B are said to be orthogonally equivalent if there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that
B ¼ PT AP. Show that this relation is an equivalence relation.

Positive Definite Matrices and Inner Products

7.83. Find the matrix A that represents the usual inner product on R2 relative to each of the following bases:
(a) fv 1 ¼ ð1; 4Þ; v 2 ¼ ð2; 3Þg, (b) fw1 ¼ ð1; 3Þ; w2 ¼ ð6; 2Þg.

7.84. Consider the following inner product on R2 :

f ðu; vÞ ¼ x1 y1  2x1 y2  2x2 y1 þ 5x2 y2 ; where u ¼ ðx1 ; x2 Þ v ¼ ðy1 ; y2 Þ
2
Find the matrix B that represents this inner product on R relative to each basis in Problem 7.83.
CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality 261

7.85. Find the matrix C that represents the usual basis on R3 relative to the basis S of R3 consisting of the vectors
u1 ¼ ð1; 1; 1Þ, u2 ¼ ð1; 2; 1Þ, u3 ¼ ð1; 1; 3Þ.
Ð1
7.86. Let V ¼ P2 ðtÞ with inner product h f ; gi ¼ 0 f ðtÞgðtÞ dt.
(a) Find h f ; gi, where f ðtÞ ¼ t þ 2 and gðtÞ ¼ t2  3t þ 4.
(b) Find the matrix A of the inner product with respect to the basis f1; t; t2 g of V.
(c) Verify Theorem 7.16 that h f ; gi ¼ ½ f T A½g with respect to the basis f1; t; t2 g.

7.87. Determine which of the following matrices are positive definite:

       
1 3 3 4 4 2 6 7
(a) , (b) , (c) , (d) .
3 5 4 7 2 1 7 9

7.88. Suppose A and B are positive definite matrices. Show that:

(a) A þ B is positive definite and (b) kA is positive definite for k > 0.

7.89. Suppose B is a real nonsingular matrix. Show that: (a) BT B is symmetric and (b) BT B is positive definite.

Complex Inner Product Spaces

7.90. Verify that
b1 v 1 þ b2 v 2 i ¼ a1b1 hu1 ; v 1 i þ a1b2 hu1 ; v 2 i þ a2b1 hu2 ; v 1 i þ a2b2 hu2 ; v 2 i
ha1 u1 þ a2 u2
P Pn P 
More generally, prove that h m i¼1 ai ui ; j¼1 bj v j i ¼ i;j ai bj hui ; v i i.

7.91. Consider u ¼ ð1 þ i; 3; 4  iÞ and v ¼ ð3  4i; 1 þ i; 2iÞ in C3 . Find

(a) hu; vi, (b) hv; ui, (c) kuk, (d) kvk, (e) dðu; vÞ.

7.92. Find the Fourier coefficient c and the projection cw of

(a) u ¼ ð3 þ i; 5  2iÞ along w ¼ ð5 þ i; 1 þ iÞ in C2 ,
(b) u ¼ ð1  i; 3i; 1 þ iÞ along w ¼ ð1; 2  i; 3 þ 2iÞ in C3 .

7.93. Let u ¼ ðz1 ; z2 Þ and v ¼ ðw1 ; w2 Þ belong to C2 . Verify that the following is an inner product of C2 :
1 þ ð1 þ iÞz1 w
f ðu; vÞ ¼ z1 w 2 þ ð1  iÞz2 w
1 þ 3z2 w
2

7.94. Find an orthogonal basis and an orthonormal basis for the subspace W of C3 spanned by u1 ¼ ð1; i; 1Þ and
u2 ¼ ð1 þ i; 0; 2Þ.

7.95. Let u ¼ ðz1 ; z2 Þ and v ¼ ðw1 ; w2 Þ belong to C2 . For what values of a; b; c; d 2 C is the following an inner
product on C2 ?
1 þ bz1 w
f ðu; vÞ ¼ az1 w 2 þ cz2 w
1 þ dz2 w
2

7.96. Prove the following form for an inner product in a complex space V :

hu; vi ¼ 14 ku þ vk2  14 ku  vk2 þ 14 ku þ ivk2  14 ku  ivk2

[Compare with Problem 7.7(b).]

7.97. Let V be a real inner product space. Show that

(i) kuk ¼ kvk if and only if hu þ v; u  vi ¼ 0;
(ii) ku þ vk2 ¼ kuk2 þ kvk2 if and only if hu; vi ¼ 0.
Show by counterexamples that the above statements are not true for, say, C2 .

7.98. Find the matrix P that represents the usual inner product on C3 relative to the basis f1; 1 þ i; 1  2ig.
 262 CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality

7.99. A complex matrix A is unitary if it is invertible and A1 ¼ AH . Alternatively, A is unitary if its rows
(columns) form an orthonormal set of vectors (relative to the usual inner product of Cn ). Find a unitary
matrix whose first row is: (a) a multiple of ð1; 1  iÞ; (b) a multiple of ð12 ; 12 i; 12  12 iÞ.

Normed Vector Spaces

7.100. Consider vectors u ¼ ð1; 3; 4; 1; 2Þ and v ¼ ð3; 1; 2; 3; 1Þ in R5 . Find
(a) kuk1 and kvk1 , (b) kuk1 and kvk1 , (c) kuk2 and kvk2 , (d) d1 ðu; vÞ; d1 ðu; vÞ, d2 ðu; vÞ

7.101. Repeat Problem 7.100 for u ¼ ð1 þ i; 2  4iÞ and v ¼ ð1  i; 2 þ 3iÞ in C2 .

7.102. Consider the functions f ðtÞ ¼ 5t  t2 and gðtÞ ¼ 3t  t2 in C½0; 4. Find
(a) d1 ð f ; gÞ, (b) d1 ð f ; gÞ, (c) d2 ð f ; gÞ

7.103. Prove (a) k  k1 is a norm on Rn . (b) k  k1 is a norm on Rn .

7.104. Prove (a) k  k1 is a norm on C½a; b. (b) k  k1 is a norm on C½a; b.

ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

Notation: M ¼ ½R1 ; R2 ; . . . denotes a matrix M with rows R1 ; R2 ; : . . . Also, basis need not be unique.

7.58. k>9
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.59. (a) 13, (b) 71, (c) 29, (d) 89

7.60. Let u ¼ ð0; 0; 1Þ; then hu; ui ¼ 0 in both cases

7.64. f7t2  5t; 12t2  5g

7.65. fð1; 2; 1; 0Þ; ð4; 4; 0; 1Þg

7.66. ð1; 0; 0; 0; 1Þ; ð6; 2; 0; 1; 0Þ; ð5; 2; 1; 0; 0Þ

7.67. (a) u1 ¼ ð0; 0; 3; 1Þ; u2 ¼ ð0; 5; 1; 3Þ; u3 ¼ ð14; 2; 1; 3Þ;
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(b) u1 = 10; u2 = 35; u3 = 210
pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
7.68. (a) ð0; 2; 1; 0Þ; ð15; 1; 2; 5Þ, (b) ð0; 2; 1; 0Þ= 5; ð15; 1; 2; 5Þ= 255

7.69. (b) v ¼ 14 ð5u1 þ 3u2  13u3 þ 9u4 Þ,

(c) ½v ¼ 14 ½a þ b þ c þ d; a þ b  c  d; a  b þ c  d; a  b  c þ d

7.71. (a) ½0; 1; 0; 0; ½0; 0; 1; 0, (b) ½0; 1; 1; 0

7.74. (a) c ¼  23
30, (b) c ¼ 17, (c) c ¼ 148
15
, (d) c ¼ 19
26

7.75. (a) w1 ¼ ð1; 1; 1; 1Þ; w2 ¼ ð0; 2; 1; 1Þ; w3 ¼ ð12; 4; 1; 7Þ,
(b) projðv; U Þ ¼ 15 ð1; 12; 3; 6Þ

7.76. (a) projðv; W Þ ¼ 18 ð23; 25; 30; 25; 23Þ, (b) First find an orthogonal basis for W ;
say, w1 ¼ ð1; 2; 1; 2; 1Þ and w2 ¼ ð0; 2; 0; 3; 2Þ. Then projðv; W Þ ¼ 17
1
ð34; 76; 34; 56; 42Þ

7.77. projð f ; W Þ ¼ 32 t2  35 t þ 20
1
CHAPTER 7 Inner Product Spaces, Orthogonality 263

7.78. (a) f1; t; 3t2  1; 5t3  3tg, projð f ; W Þ ¼ 10

9 t  21 t
3 5

pffiffiffi
7.79. Four: ½a; b; b; a, ½a; b; b; a, ½a; b; b; a, ½a; b; b; a, where a ¼ 13 and b ¼ 13 8
pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.80. P ¼ ½1=a; 1=a; 1=a; 1=b; 2=b; 3=b; 5=c; 2=c; 3=c, where a ¼ 3; b ¼ 14; c ¼ 38

3 ½1; 2; 2; 2; 2; 1; 2; 1; 2

1
7.81.

7.83. (a) ½17; 10; 10; 13, (b) ½10; 0; 0; 40

7.84. (a) ½65; 68; 68; 73, (b) ½58; 8; 8; 8

7.85. ½3; 4; 3; 4; 6; 2; 3; 2; 11

7.86. (a) 83
12, (b) ½1; a; b; a; b; c; b; c; d, where a ¼ 12, b ¼ 13, c ¼ 14, d ¼ 15

7.87. (a) No, (b) Yes, (c) No, (d) Yes

pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.91. (a) 4i, (b) 4i, (c) 28, (d) 31, (e) 59

7.92. (a) c ¼ 28
1
ð19  5iÞ, (b) c ¼ 19
1
ð3 þ 6iÞ
pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.94. fv 1 ¼ ð1; i; 1Þ= 3; v 2 ¼ ð2i; 1  3i; 3  iÞ= 24g

7.95. a and d real and positive, c ¼ b and ad  bc positive.

7.97. u ¼ ð1; 2Þ; v ¼ ði; 2iÞ

7.98. P ¼ ½1; 1  i; 1 þ 2i; 1 þ i; 2; 1 þ 3i; 1  2i; 1  3i; 5

pffiffiffi
7.99. (a) ð1= 3Þ½1; 1  i; 1 þ i; 1, pffiffiffi
(b) ½a; ai; a  ai; bi; b; 0; a; ai; a  ai, where a ¼ 12 and b ¼ 1= 2.
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.100. (a) 4 and 3, (b) 11 and 10, (c) 31 and 24, (d) 6; 19; 9
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
7.101. (a) 20 and 13, (b) 2 þ 20 and 2 þ 13, (c) 22 and 15, (d) 7; 9; 53
pffiffiffi
7.102. (a) 8, (b) 16, (c) 16= 3