Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol.
Paris
DOI 10.1007/s13219-010-0025-8
ARTICLE / ARTICLE
Some reflections on the popularity of forensic anthropology today
E. Cunha
Revised: 8 December 2009, Accepted: 9 March 2010
© Société d’anthropologie de Paris et Springer-Verlag France 2010
Abstract As the title states, this article presents reflections
on why forensic anthropology is now so popular. We do not
wish to present the history of this science or to discuss it in
detail, but rather to comment upon the present situation by
raising what we believe are important questions for all who
work with this science. The past and present contributions of
forensic anthropologists must be adapted to the needs of
society today. Furthermore, the quality of the techniques
applied must be improved in order to satisfy more demand-
ing legal requirements. For this, the accreditation process
and the publication of guidelines are paramount. The devel-
opments that have taken place within the discipline during
recent decades justify the role of forensic anthropology as a
determinant science within the forensic context.
Keywords Forensic anthropology · Perspectives ·
Developments
Résumé Comme le titre l’indique, cet article présente des
réflexions sur l’anthropologie médicolégale et discute les
raisons à l’origine de sa popularité. Sans revenir sur un
historique de cette science, nous nous attacherons à
commenter la situation actuelle en analysant les questions
importantes soulevées par les scientifiques de ce domaine.
Les contributions passées et présentes des anthropologues
médicolégaux doivent être adaptées aux besoins de la société
d’aujourd’hui. En outre, la qualité des techniques appliquées
doit être améliorée afin de satisfaire les exigences légales
croissantes. Pour ce faire, le processus d’accréditation et la
publication de lignes directrices sont primordiaux. Les
développements qui ont eu lieu au sein de la discipline au
cours de ces dernières décennies justifient largement le rôle
de l’anthropologie médicolégale comme une science à part
entière dans des contextes médicolégaux.
Mots clés Anthropologie médicolégale · Perspectives
E. Cunha (*)
Life Sciences Department, University of Coimbra,
Forensic Sciences Center, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail : cunhae@ci.uc.pt
Forensic anthropology on the 150th anniversary
of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris
In terms of the history of forensic anthropology, its aca-
demic roots go back to European scholars of the 18th and
19th centuries, one of whom was Paul Broca [1].This means
that the foundation of the world’s oldest association for
anthropology, La Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, is
also linked with forensic anthropology. “Broca recognized
the need for understanding human variation and putting
skeletal interpretation on a more scientific footing” [1].
Furthermore, the instruments developed by Broca, such as
the osteometric board, are still in use in forensic analysis
today. However, from Broca to the present, this science
went through several phases, the first of which were clearly
linked with physical anthropology, while the later ones
were decisively affected by molecular biology. Though it
is not the objective of this article to present the history of
the discipline, it is necessary to refer to crucial moments
such as the creation of the physical anthropology section
of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, in 1972,
and the formation of the American Board of Forensic
Anthropology (ABFA) in 1977, mainly concerned with
the recognition of the discipline. Outside the United States,
groups such as the Equipo Argentino de Antropologia
Forense must be acknowledged as one of the very first
ones, while in Europe, only in 2003 was the first associa-
tion of the discipline created, the Forensic Anthropology
Society of Europe (FASE) [2], which has just published
the first European guidelines for forensic use [3]. In addi-
tion, an obvious trend within the development of the disci-
pline is a growing interplay with other fields such as
genetics and archaeology; in other words, forensic anthro-
pology has become much more pluridisciplinary. Not only
does it depend on other sciences (histology, biochemistry,
optics), but also other sciences now need the answers pro-
vided by anthropology (genetics, pathology). It is also nec-
essary to point out the important changes that have recently
occurred in the treatment of scientific evidence presented in
court, which has also had crucial repercussions on forensic
anthropology [4,5]. Other key advances that have occurred
2 Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris
in the last 20 years are the development of subdisciplines,
such as forensic taphonomy and trauma analysis, which is
practiced quite differently today. As pointed out by Dirk-
maat et al. [4], 20 years ago trauma analysis was exclu-
sively conducted by pathologists. Today, the study of
traumatic injuries to bone is one of the major tasks for
anthropology as well as one of its contributions to the
legal system, with a major impact on the investigation of
crimes against humanity. Thus, the developments that have
occurred in the discipline are such that, and subscribing
Dirkmaat et al. [4] it can no longer be considered a daugh-
ter of physical anthropology, but rather a sister to it.
Why is forensic anthropology so popular?
The word forensic has become very attractive. Everywhere,
students seek centers where they can study forensic sciences.
And the answers can be surprising. For example, in the UK,
more than 400 courses (such as forensic accounting!) includ-
ing the word forensic can be found. In other words, if the
word forensic is “googled,” the answers retrieved are amaz-
ing. Why is this? Is this a fashion that will decrease over
time? The availability of information in modern society cer-
tainly makes a difference. The internet in itself is a powerful
tool of galvanization. Among the forensic sciences, anthro-
pology has an important place today. The media have also
played an important role in the spread of this discipline.
“While Bones and CSI markedly increased the visibility of
FA, the downside is that jurors and lawyers may have expec-
tations that extend beyond our science” [6]. I would add not
only jurors and lawyers, but also the public in general, and
some of the students who apply for the courses in particular.
There are very high expectations concerning the length of
time for the resolution of a case, and how far we can go in
producing evidence and the media sometimes transmit the
idea that forensic anthropologists are both scientists and
experts in crime, which is not the case. On the one hand, it
is also true that in some instances, the authorities do not
know that forensic anthropology can go as far as it can, as
in the case of inferences that may be made from a cremated
bone. But why is the investigation of skeletal remains or of
bodies in an advanced state of decomposition now more
interesting than ever to the general public?
The reasons for this are mainly related to the quantity of
situations requiring the expertise of forensic anthropologists.
Key events such as the Twin Towers Disaster in 2001 [7],
and the too much crimes against humanity [8] that have
occurred in various countries, have required the expertise
of forensic anthropologists, whose useful work was recog-
nized. Such events have led to a significant, almost exponen-
tial increase in the science of forensic anthropology at the
beginning of the 21st century. The significant amount of
books published on this subject during the last decade is
also a proof, as well as a consequence, of this increase.
Thus, simple questions such as “How to become a forensic
anthropologist?,” “Is it beneficial to become a forensic
anthropologist?” [9], and “What education or training do
you need to become a forensic anthropologist” become
frequent. Again, the fact that answers to these questions are
sought through “Google” reveals the large interest in this
subject. In the United States, the answer may be: “If you
want to become a forensic anthropologist, you must go to
university and study physical anthropology” [9]. In Europe,
where the background of forensic anthropologists varies
from country to country, the answer could be different
[6,10–12]. A common element on the two continents,
though, is the number of students on waiting lists for foren-
sic anthropology courses, in spite of the fact that there are
not enough places to match the enthusiasm [10,13].
Hence, it becomes important to know what are the main
possibilities for the employment of forensic anthropologists.
Universities and museums have been the more traditional
employers, followed by hospitals and forensic institutes.
Recently, humanitarian initiatives have become a major
source of employment [6]. An example is Joint POW MIA
Account command [14], which calls itself the largest foren-
sic anthropology lab in the world, employing the largest
number of experts.
To fully evaluate these questions, it is important to define
the present-day contributions of forensic anthropologists.
Despite general opinion, forensic anthropologists are not
restricted to skeletal remains. They should be called upon for
identification purposes whenever facial recognition is no
longer possible or to perform bone analysis every time a
traumatic injury is doubtful. They also now deal with living
individuals. It is not the aim of the present article to discuss
this issue, as it has been developed in other publications [10],
but the systematization of the main areas of intervention of
forensic anthropologist should be clear.
• Recovery of human remains/scene of crime
• Determining the PMI
• Determining the human origins of remains
• Building of biological profiles (putrefied, burned, skele-
tal, dismembered)
• Craniofacial reconstruction
• Personal identification (searching for identity factors)
• Assistance in the determination of cause and manner of
death (traumatic injuries assessment)
• Mass disasters
• Mass graves and war crimes
• Identifying the living
The quantity and the quality of recent articles and book
chapters on the subject are both relevant and enable the
Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris
dissemination of information concerning forensic anthropol-
ogy in specific countries [6,12,15,16,17,18].
To illustrate the changes operated in this discipline, I
quote here a paragraph from one of the above publications
both particularly eloquent and updated: “The days when a
physical anthropologist could occasionally take on a forensic
case without extensive training or experience are over.
Modern forensic cases have to be handled appropriately
from beginning to end, from the in situ scene to the case
report” [15].
A reference should also be made to one of the most com-
plete, critical, and well-written articles on the roles of foren-
sic anthropology, that of Dirkmaat et al. [4]. This article
deals with the evolution of forensic anthropology from
Iscan’s assessment [19] to the state of the discipline today.
Consequences of the growth
of forensic anthropology
Besides the reasons for the growth of forensic anthropology,
it is important to analyze the consequences of such a phe-
nomenon. In general, the preparation of a forensic anthropol-
ogist should be better today than it ever has been and this
implies the application of rigorous methodologies and a
very demanding process of certification. Without such pre-
cautions, there could be an increase in the number of false
forensic anthropologists, individuals who believe that they
are qualified after completing an intensive course or after
working with some skeletal remains from archaeological
contexts. To quote, Scheuer and Black [20]: “Forensic
osteology is not something that can be learned from a textbook
in a year. It is a subject that relies heavily on practical experi-
ence that must be gained over time and, therefore, it is essential
that rigorous accreditation procedures be in place.”
It must always be borne in mind that we are dealing
mainly with the restitution of identity to human remains
and/or documentation of human rights violation and that
these may have very important legal consequences. Black
[13] points out: “Maintaining and protecting the integrity
of identity has reached levels of unprecedented importance
and has led to international legislation designed to protect
human rights.”
Two important facts are to be retained: traditional physi-
cal anthropology is not enough for the forensic context, and
the modus pensandi is quite different in the forensic domain.
Perspectives and needs for the near future
The proliferation of forensic anthropologists could be
slowed down by a rigorous accreditation system, thus
leading to a decrease in the growth of the discipline in the
3
near future. But, of course, this does not apply to those who
have undergone a recognized academic formation and have
acquired proper experience in forensic anthropology.
Forensic anthropologists should be familiar with courts
and be ready to present their evidence. This implies more
work on the quantification of results, as in fingerprinting
and genetics. Statements such as “my experience enables
me to say that those skeletal remains belonged to a man”
should no longer be valid.
Some of the urgent needs on which some associations are
working (FASE [2]; ALAF [21]; Swganth [22]) are as
follows:
• The establishment of a reliable and credible system of
accreditation for forensic anthropologists;
• The regulation of the admissibility of forensic anthropol-
ogy evidence in court;
• The adoption of standards/protocols and guidelines recog-
nized by the scientific community through publication in
peer-reviewed journals.
Human bones can be analyzed only by experienced foren-
sic anthropologists, and this discipline is experiencing
unprecedented growth and transformation which cause it to
be particularly appealing. It is expectable that the near future
will continue to provide situations/cases where the profes-
sional forensic anthropologists will be irreplaceable.
Uncited reference:
[23].
References
1. Ubelaker D (2006) Introduction to forensic anthropology.
In: Schmitt A, Cunha, E, Pinheiro J (eds) Forensic anthropology
and medicine. Complementary sciences from recovery to cause of
death. Humana Press, Tottowa, pp 3–12
2. International Academy of Legal Medicine https://www.ialm.info.
Last accessed 2010/06/07
3. Cunha E, Baccino E, Martrille C, Cattaneo C (2009) The prob-
lem of aging human remains and living individuals: a review.
Forensic Sci Internat 193:1–13
4. Dirkmaat DC, Cabo L, Ousley S, Symes S (2009) New perspec-
tives in forensic anthropology. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 52:33–52
5. Christensen M, Crowder C (2009) Evidentiary standards for
forensic anthropology. J Forensic Sci 56:1211–6
6. Komar DA, Buikstra J (2008) Forensic anthropology. Contempo-
rary theory and practice. Oxford University Press, New-York, 362 p
7. Budmimlija ZM, Prinz MK, Zelson-Mundordd A, et al (2003)
World Trade Center human identification project: experiences
with individual body identification cases. Croat Med J 3:259–63
8. Steadman DW, Haglund WD (2005) The scope of anthropologi-
cal contributions to human rights investigations. J Forensic Sci
50:23–30
9. http://people.stu.ca/~mclaugh/Specialties/FORENSIC_ANTHRO
POLOGY.HTML last accessed 2010/06/07
4 Bull. Mém. Soc. Anthropol. Paris
10. Cunha E, Cattaneo C (2006) Forensic anthropology and forensic
pathology: the state of art. In: Schmitt A, Cunha, E, Pinheiro J
(eds) Forensic Anthropol Med Complementary Sciences from
recovery to cause of death. Humana Press, Tottowa, pp 39–56
11. Blau S, Ubelaker D (2009) Forensic anthropology and archeol-
ogy: introduction to a broader view. In: Blau S, Ubelaker H
(eds) Handbook of forensic anthropology and archaeology. Left
Coast Press Inc, Walnut Creek, pp 21–6
12. Brickley MB, Ferllini R (2007) Forensic anthropology. Cases
studies from Europe. Charles Thomas, Springfield Ill, 250 p
13. Black S (2003) Forensic anthropology–regulation in the United
Kingdom. Sci Justice 43:187–92
14. Joint Pow/MIA Accounting command http://kwvachapter210.tri-
pod.com/id123.html last accessed 2010/06/07
15. Symes S, Rainwater C, Chapman E, et al (2008) Patterned ther-
mal destruction of human remains in a forensic setting. In:
Schmidt C, Symes S (eds) The analysis of burned human
remains. Academic Press, pp 15–54
16. Blau S, Ubelaker H (eds) (2009) Handbook of forensic anthro-
pology and archaeology. Left Coast Press Inc., Walnut Creek,
534 p
17. Cattaneo C, Porta D, Angelis D, et al (2010) Unidentified bodies
and human remains: an Italian glimpse through a European prob-
lem. Forensic Sci Internat 195:1–3
18. Schmidt C, Symes S (eds) (2008) The analysis of burned human
remains. Academic Press, Amsterdam, 271 p
19. Iscan M (1988) Rise of forensic anthropology. Yrbk Phys
Anthropol 31:203–30
20. Scheuer L, Black S (2007) Osteology. In: Thompson T, Black S
(eds) Forensic human identification. An introduction. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, pp 199–219
21. http://www.alafforense.org/ last accessed 2010/06/07
22. https://www.swganth.org last accessed 2010/06/07
23. Schmitt A, Cunha, E, Pinheiro J (eds) 2006 Forensic anthropol-
ogy and medicine. Complementary Sciences from recovery to
cause of death. Humana Press, Tottowa, 464 p