•R PI

(NASA-TM-X-72394) BIOSATELLITE PROJECT N75-71902

HISTORICAL SUMMARY REPORT (NASA) 287 p

Onclas
00/98 09944

DECEMBER 1969
; NASA/Ames Research Center • Moffett Field, California 94035
* (.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY REPORT

December 1969
Prepared by the project staff

Technical Editor J. W. Dyer

Approved

Charles A. Wilson
Project Manager

AMES RESEARCH CENTER

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Moffett Field, California 94035
 FOREWORD

Biosatelhte was the pioneering effort to conduct biological scientific experiments in space.
Many diverse experiments were taken from rudimentary laboratory concepts to exacting
protocols with flight hardware and ground controls sufficient to perform the experiment
remotely in space and to properly interpret the results The project developed an outstand-
ing automated biological spacecraft laboratory, which provided the experiments a two-gas
system, sea level pressure atmosphere, shirt sleeve temperature, and extremely low accel-
eration rates below 1/100,000 of earth gravity Equipment design and special operations
procedures permitted late installation of biological specimens in the spacecraft before
launch, careful monitoring through NASA's STADAN network and their swift aerial re-
covery and return to the laboratory by the U S Air Force
Despite the impressive technological developments accomplished by the project and
noted in this report, perhaps the most significant aspect of Biosatelhte was the develop-
ment of an effective team of biological scientists, engineers, and technicians from univer-
sities, industry, and government, whose combined efforts brought these experiments to
fruition Their dedicated and effective support to this common goal is gratefully acknow-
ledged and sincerely appreciated.

Charles A. Wilson

Biosatelhte Project Manager

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report is based largely on materials prepared by.

W. E. Berry W. L. Jackson T. Tendeland
B Chin J.G Miller J. W. Tremor
R. A Christiansen R H Parker J. C. Van Ess
R E. Corndan L J. Polaski C. A. Wilson
_ J.P. Hemiup E.Rosen C. M. Wmget
J. E. Hewitt J. A. Rubenzer N. D Yetka
W. D. Hightower P. D Sebesta L. S. Young
R. A. Hoffman J. R. Spahr
Reviewers were B C. Look and R. H Parker
 CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PROGRAM ORIGIN 3

Concept 3
Experiment Selection and Definition 4
Spacecraft Contractor Selection 6

3. MISSION REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS 7

Experiment Objectives 7
Spacecraft 12
Launch Vehicle \ 14
Tracking, Telemetry, and Control 14
Recovery , 15

4. SPACECRAFT DEVELOPMENT 17
Radiation and General Biology (Three-day) Spacecraft 17
Biorhythms and General Biology (21-day) Spacecraft 40
Primate (30-day) Spacecraft 42

5. EXPERIMENTS DEVELOPMENT 77

Radiation and General Biology Three Day Experiments 77

Twenty-One-Day Biorhythms and General Biology Experiments 98
Primate Mission Experiments 104

6. SPACECRAFT SYSTEM TESTS 121

Radiation and General Biology Mission Spacecraft • 121
Primate Missiort Spacecraft 127

7. LAUNCH. TRACKING, AND DATA SYSTEMS. 137

AND RECOVERY DEVELOPMENTS
Launch Vehicle 137
Launch Site Facilities 144
Tracking a n d Data Systems . ' 1 5 0
Recovery 165

in
CONTENTS (continued)

Page

8. BIOSATELLITE FIELD AND FLIGHT OPERATIONS 169

Field Organization and Procedures 169
Biosatelhte I Flight Operations 171
Biosatelhts II Flight Operations 181
Biosatelhte III Flight Operations 197

9. MISSION RESULTS 213

Biosatelhte 11 213
Biosatelhte III 216

10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 223

Conclusions 223
Recommendations 224

Appendixes
A BIOSATELLITE MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCES 227
Organization Structure and Responsibilities 227
Contracts 237
Communications 248
Funding History 256
Projections of Total Cost and Schedules 260

B MECHANICAL AEROSPACE GROUND STATION 265

AND GROUND EQUIPMENT
Ground Station For Three-day and Primate Missions 265
Biosatelhte Aerospace Ground Equipment 266
/

C BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS 273

Primate 273
3-day 276

IV
 ABBREVIATIONS

EMC electromyogram
A/C attitude control EOG electrooculogram
t
ACS attitude-control system EP&D electric power and distribution system
AF audio frequency ETR Eastern Test Range
AFB Air Force Base EST Eastern Standard Time
AFETR Air Force Eastern Test Range EOT Eastern Daylight Time
AGE aerospace ground equipment exp experiment
AIDS American Institute of Biological F
Sciences
ampl amplifier fit night
ARC Ames Research Center F Fahrenheit
ARM "arm" command fc foot-candles
ATS Advanced Technology Satellite fps feet per sec
AFFTC Air Force Flight Test Center ft foot (feet)
AFRRS Air Force Rescue and Recovery FC fuel cell
Service FCC fuel cell controller
AD/IPS adapter inverter power supply G
B GE General Electric Company
bps bits per sec GMA gab-management assembly
GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center
GSR galvanic skin response
CaF calcium fluoride GMT Grenwich mean time
CNS central nervous system GFE government furnished equipment
Cap capsule g gravity
eg center of gravity grd ground
C centigrade H
cc cubic centimeter
cm centimeter hr hour
CRT cathode ray tube Hz Hertz (cycles/second)
cmd command htr heater
comm command I
cw continuous wave
IEEA integrated experiment electronics
assembly
DM delayed matching IFD inflight disconnect
DOD Department of Defense ITPP integrated test program plan
db decibel IRFNA inhibited red fuming nitric acid
demod demodulator IR infra red
det detector J
E JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory
EEC electroencephalogram K
EKG electrocardiogram
EMI electromagnetic interference KSC Kennedy Space Center
EMC electromagnetic compatibility kg kilogram
kHz kilohertz
Abbreviations (continued)

R
LiF hthium fluoride r roentgen
LOX hquid oxygen RH relative humidity .-^!
LH, liquid hydrogen RF radio frequency T
hn linear REM rapid eye movement Jr
Ib pound R/V reentry vehicle .«|
R/B reentry body * ',
M rpm revolutions per minute «:
MSFN network reg regulator "\
Mev ts
million electron volts recy recovery
mHz megahertz
nun minute S
ml milbbter s/c spacecraft
mm millimeter SCF Satellite Control Facility
mr/hr millirads/hour SR&T supporting research and technology
MSOCC Multi-Satellite C ations Control S/RV satellite reentry vehicle
Center STADAN Space Tracking and Data Acquisition
mfg manufacturing Network
mon monitor SIRD Support Instrumentation Requirements
Document
N SDS Scientific Data Systems ,
NORAD r Defense SAMSO Space and Missile Systems Organization
NASA :s and Space SCO subcarner oscillator
Administration Slg signal
NASCOM NASA Communici ions (global) sol solenoid
network sep separation
NAS Naval Air Station sec second
neg negative .sec secondary
nm nautical mile spec specification
S/S subsystem

OGO al Observatory T
OSS Office of Space Science
nee TB tuberculosis j
OWSP one word storage progrz
ogrammer T/C thrust cone \
OAD Orbiting Astronomical
cal <Observatory TCU thermal control unit
O&C ordnance and cryogenic
eruc TLM telemetry *" j
op ition
operational or operation T/M telemetry j
TT&C Tracking, Telemetry, and Command |
trans transducer <f >
I
PCM pulse code modulation \Jll -
f\f\
"

PICO primate installation checkout

che U )
PIP predicted impact pointint UCLA University of California at Los Angeles
PSSA polystyrene sulfomc; acidacid UCB University of California at Berkeley j
PMR Pacific Missile Rangee UDMH unsymmetnc di-methyl hydiozcnc [
P02 partial oxygen \
PC02 partial carbondioxidele V
press pressure VM visuomotor [
pwr power VSWR voltage standing wave ratio ,
vib vibration t
vi

" "" — — ^ . - ^.™^,^r-i- ••

 Abbreviations (continued)

W
WECO Western Electric Company
wk week
w watt
wt weight

Z
ZPG impedance pneumogram

VII

rj"™-11
 1. INTRODUCTION

What can be learned about basic life processes by observing them in an earth orbiting labora-
tory 7 What are the effects of space flight on various life systems 9 Might there be implications
for long range development of space flight programs from study of mammalian physiology in
weightlessness9 These were the questions addressed by the concept of Biosatelhte
Three missions were planned, two flights for each General biological studies were
selected from among proposals to represent a cross section of relatively well-known specimens
ranging from frog eggs, pepper plants, and human cell tissue through irradiated Drosophila and
Nenrospora Body chemistry and circadian rhythms were to be studied with laboratory rats
in a 21-day flight Higher-order functions, including brain wave patterns under stress of mental
performance, cardiovascular functions, and calcium and water metabolism, were to be ob-
served on a monkey for up to 30 days
A successful general biology mission was flown in September 1967, after failure of deorbit
in the first flight Some effects of weightlessness were shown, apparently related to the rapidity
of cell processes Both enhancing and antagonistic effects were shown of radiation and weight-
lessness on various specimens The long utilized clinostat for earth-bound laboratory investi-
gation of gravity on plants was indistinguishable from space flight in its effects on pepper
plants and wheat seedlings, strengthening its validity for use in ground-based experiments
The primate mission, flown in June-July 1969, indicated several physiological consequences
of space flight, which are under study Effects upon sleep/wakefulness, blood distribution,
water metabolism, and further data on bone density (previously observed in manned flight)
are of most immediate interest A question of circadian rhythm effects also was raised
The biorhythms and general biology mission, planned to carry rats, Tnbohum plants.
and human cell tissue, was cancelled in December 1968 because of rising program costs and
budget constraints
The project required a cooperative effort of biological scientists and space flight engineers
that proved an ambitious undertaking Translation of experiments from laboratory bench to
automated flight laboratory, application of existing spacecraft technology, and integration of
the two elements into an operational system evolved unanticipated problems that repeatedly
increased total cost projections These cost increases then were compounded by rescheduling
to keep the current rate of expenditures in check Timetables of accomplishments were
severely stretched, for both the agency and the principals committed to the project Termina-
tion of the project was ordered by NASA Headquarters on July 11, effective with the "orderly
completion of effort on the Biosatelhte III mission "
This document summarizes the accomplishments and trials of the Biosatelhte project
Management, engineer, and scientist experience in the unique problems of bioscience in space
flight was perhaps among the more important yields of the effort The purpose of this
report is to help avail the experience gained to our colleagues
 2. PROGRAM ORIGIN

CONCEPT

During its 1962 summer study, the Space Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences
was asked by NASA to consider methods by which the space program could help solve basic
biological problems The Board recommended that NASA study the problems of the biological
effects of weightlessness, the dissociation of living systems from Earth time-regulating influences,
and radiation The Biosatelhte program was established to implement these recommendations
Assigned as a project to Ames Research Center (ARC) in late October, 1962, the original
concept was to use an Air Force developed (LMSC 698AA) space vehicle launched into polar
orbit from the Pacific Missile Range (PMR) Data were to be recorded by the Air Force tracking
network, and recovery made in the Pacific ARC accepted with the reservation that the project
might be substantially changed if the launch were moved to the Eastern Test Range (ETR) as
suggested by Lockheed Missile and Space Company (Air Force's prime contractor)
Approval of the Project Approval Document (PAD) by the Administrator was delayed
pending resolution of several key points The most challenging experiments under consideration
deep brain probe EEC, hemodynamic investigation, and the role of vestibuldr apparatus in
primate animals—required at least 14 to 30 days' mission duration The sea-level atmosphere
of oxygen and nitrogen was needed
The Air Force 698AA vehicle launched from PMR could produce short telemetry data
records in only 13 of 16 daily orbits on the Air Force tracking net Its telemetry system was
not suited for NASA networks that might cover flights from ETR, its life support system was
5 psia O2, its attitude-control system and electrical power source were designed for only five
days, and the Air Force had cancelled recoverable configurations that had not performed
satisfactorily
The Mercury capsule, also considered, could not be injected by its launch vehicle into
high enough orbit, was structurally and weight limited to 5 psia O2, and lacked growth poten-
tial for Biosatelhte beyond 14 days' flight duration
The Gemini spacecraft was recommended for its technical adaptability It could be ad-
justed for 30-day capability, still with 450 Ib experiment equipment, and its data system and
compatible ground networks were adequate An estimated 350 Ib of hardware would have to
be added to increase its power and attitude-control duration to 30 days, to tully automate
the attitude-control system, and to provide for sea-level atmosphere Schedule considerations
ruled out the use of Gemini for primate biology flights Flight before Jul> 1965 would not
be possible with the scheduled demonstration of manned spacecraft rendesvous capability
Also, the earth orbiting laboratory was then projected for 1966, if no earlier alternative
developed.
By January 1963, experiment requirements had been surveyed, indicating a range of
parameters not satisfied by a single vehicle configuration A spacecraft to be launched with
the Scout was considered, but it could accommodate only the simplest short-duration experi-
ments, and development of such a capsule system did not appear justified

Preceding Page Blank

 The Air Force Discoverer Mark V/A-45 capsule on a Thor-Delta launched from ETR
was found to have 450-lb experiment capacity for 14 days, but in only 2 ft3 of space The
Mark V, scaled up in volume, and with an "adapter" added for auxiliary equipment, would
satisfy all known requirements The Thor-Agena was considered for a launch vehicle, but
polar orbit from PMR sharply limited data availability, no launch facility was available for
it on ETR, and it cost more than the Thor-Delta
Before agreeing on the configuration, a contracted competitive study was directed by
Headquarters Three proposals were selected and funded for study two (General Electric
Co. and Lockheed Missile and Space Co ) recommended the scaled-up Mark V capsule, and
one (Northrop Corp ) involved a Mercury-like configuration
The program concept established for the study phase assumed six Thor-Delta flights,
or the equivalent payload capability with other launch vehicles The space vehicle system
was to be capable of accommodating biological specimens for periods of 3 to 30 days in
an earth orbit with subsequent recovery Three classes of experiments to be considered
as representative pay loads were.
1. Combined effects of weightlessness and radiation on simple forms of life, such as cells,
bacteria, plants, and very small animals
2. Effects of weightlessness on a small subhuman primate
3. Effects of weightlessness on the biological rhythms and cellular processes of plants
and small animals

EXPERIMENT SELECTION AND DEFINITION

Many experiments first considered for Biosatellite flight resulted from solicitations to ex-
perimenters by the staff of the former Headquarters Office of Life Sciences Program
Announcements had been circulated in the public press, through presentations to research
institutions, and in professional communications media Committees appointed by this
office reviewed these proposals and approved certain of them (in 1960, 1961) for funding
within the framework of three programs space biology, exobiology, and space flight
Supporting research and technology (SR&T) money was made available then for early
space biology experiment development
With the acceptance of a Biosatellite program by the administrator in February 1962,
the organization for its support was established Under the auspices of the Office of Space
Science (OSS) and its Space Biosciences Program Office, Ames Research Center (ARC)
was designated the experiment and spacecraft management center for the Biosatellite
project. The Space Sciences Steering Committee was set up within approximately the
same time period, this committee was a recommending and reviewing body of leading
scientists established in accordance with Executive Order 11007 to advise NASA on ob-
jectives and priorities of space programs And later, a Space Biology Subcommittee to
the Steering Committee was formed under the aegis of the Office of Space Science, com-
posed of authorities of various disciplines within the biological sciences community The
many experiments originating from the first informal solicitation, some of which were
already funded, were now, being in late 1962, categorized according to certain criteria by
the subcommittee Some 170 proposals were considered and categorized as candidates
for Biosatellite consideration Experiment categories were defined as follows

- tre"
 Category I
Well-conceived and scientifically sound investigations pertinent to the goals of the
scientific program and the objectives of the particular mission, and offered by a com-
petent investigator from an institution capable of supplying the necessary support to
ensure that satisfactory flight hardware can be delivered on time and that the data can
be properly reduced, analyzed, interpreted, and published in a reasonable time after a
successful launch Investigations in Category I are recommended for immediate flight
and can be displaced only by another Category I investigation
Catetory II
Well-conceived and scientifically sound investigations that are recommended for flight,
but at a lower priority than Category I
Category IIf
Scientifically sound investigations that require further development of the associated
experimental apparatus Category III investigations should be funded for development
and may be reconsidered at a later time
Category IV
Proposed investigations that are rejected for the particular mission under consideration
In 1963, SR&T grants were let to support certain of these experiments for further study
It was during this early phase of Biosatellite funding that the ARC staff, Biosatelhte project,
first became involved with the development and definition of many candidate experiments,
20 of which ultimately were approved for flight By the end of 1963, virtually all the
proposers had been at least interviewed for definitive experiment information, and a great
many had visited ARC to demonstrate the stage of development of their particular experi-
i1
ments
This period saw the involvement of ARC biologists and engineers in breadboardmg and
applied experimentation In-house engineering and biological feasibility data were gained
from experiments proposed for such diverse organisms as cockroaches pldnana, daphnia,
chicken eggs, frog eggs, sea urchin eggs, bread mold, bacteria, mice, salamanders, wheat
seedlings, tissue cultures (chick and human), yeast, algae, paramecia, and amoebae A few
of these, through early funding, had already progressed to at least the breadboard stage (e g ,
human tissue culture experiment, paramecium experiment), others were modularized and
tested in-house for packaging feasibility purposes (e.g , daphnia, frog egg, algae experiments)
Some of these experiments were recommended for further or initial funding to the bread-
board stage, using as guidelines the subcommittee categorizations
Preliminary engineering specifications were written by ARC engineers for experiments
under consideration and updated with continuing study As new proposals were categorized
by the subcommittee, the list was continually reevaluated with Biosatellite project recom-
mendations
In December 1963, panels were'formed under the sponsorship of the American Institute
of Biological Sciences (AIBS) and met in Washington, D C , to recommend the experiments
best suited for inclusion in the three missions of Biosatellite The panel authorities repre-
sented four major areas radiation biology, physiology, plant biology, and biorhythms Also
present in an advisory capacity were certain NASA Headquarters and ARC Biosatellite
personnel. It was through the recommendations of these panels to the AIBS and thence to
 ASA Headquarters that the experiments were selected for the Biosatellite mission. (Ex-
periments are listed in Appendix A )
The lengths of the separate missions were determined by the experiment requirements
and engineering/spacecraft capability The three-day battery-powered flight with the simpler
bottled-air gas-management system was preferred to initiate the series and establish confidence
in basic spacecraft features
With selection of flight experiments, efforts were redoubled in defining interface require-
ments, efforts that culminated in the first major experiment requirements document, Docu-
ment B-l, dated July 1964

SPACECRAFT CONTRACTOR SELECTION

For the purpose of studies and proposals, three experimental payloads were described whose
requirements were to be satisfied It was desired that the spacecraft systems be flexible and
adaptable to accommodate these and future payload requirements On March 2, 1963, a
Request for Proposal was submitted to industry for a study of engineering aspects of the
Biosatellite project Responding companies were Bendix, Aeronutromc (Ford), General
Dynamics/Astronautics, General Electric Company, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, and Northrop Corporation
Each proposer was given experiment requirements in the form of specifications and
engineering restrictions defined as well as possible by the experimenter This information
was later better defined in engineering terms in the B-l document of July 1964
Following an evaluation period from March 25 to April 5, 1963, assessments were pre-
sented to the administrator Study contracts were awarded to each of the following com-
panies'
1. General Electric Company, Reentry Systems Department, Philadelphia, Pa.
2. Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Sunnyvale, Calif
3. Northrop Corporation, Hawthorne, Calif
The study contractors were to submit additional information constituting a proposal for a
followon hardware contract for the Biosatellite project (Phase II)
The Technical Evaluation Committee, June 14 to June 30, 1963, considered all three
contractors acceptable, from a technical standpoint They were rated in the following order
(1) General Electric waj> highest, based on its general excellence in most areas, (2) Lockheed
was second, based on its generally good approach to the spacecraft requirements, its power
system required redesign, and (3) Northrop was rated below the other two because its
design contained more complicated and potentially unreliable subsystems, the Northrop
proposal also indicated lack of experience in some areas
The General Electric Company was selected as the successful contractor in July 1963,
and Contract NAS2-1900 was awarded by letter contract on August 21, 1963.
 3. MISSION REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS

The early basis for development of the project is outlined in this section These requirements
were generally met except for subsequent cancellation of the biorhythm and general biology
mission and the deletion of a sea urchin experiment

EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVES

Radiation Experiments
The seven radiation experiments flown m Biosatellite II were designed to determine whether
radiation produces the same effects in organisms exposed in the weightless state as in those
exposed on earth An onboard source of gamma radiation was used during the flight
The biological material from each experiment was divided into four groups, each ex-
posed to one of the following environments
1 Aboard Biosatellite H
Group A Radiation and weightlessness
Group B Weightlessness but no radiation
2 In earth control capsule
Group C Radiation and Ig
Group D Ig but no radiation
Provisions were made in the capsule for an essentially radiation-free area for the control
experiments and for other nonradiation experiments such as the frog egg and pepper plant
experiments Figure 3 1 shows the three main sections of the capsule The forward section
contains the source and packages to be irradiated A tungsten backscatter shield separates
this section from the spacecraft equipment section The third section contains the control
experiments, for which planned radiation exposures were not to exceed 1 r/day
Several factors were considered in selecting a radiation source. It was desirable to
irradiate all the packages at the same time, using a single source Hence, a gamma emitter
was selected If the capsule were lost, a short half-life would reduce danger of exposure to
anyone who might find it At the same time, however, the half-life had to be long enough
that source strength would not change appreciably during the 3 days of the flight The radio-
isotope finally chosen was strontium-85, which is a gamma emitter that gives off a single ray
of 0 513-Mev energy and has a half-life of 64 days
The source consisted of radioactive strontium nitrate powder contained m a stainless
steel capsule. A radiation source holder was required to shield the radiation source before
and after the exposure period and to shield the control experimental packages in the aft
sections of the Biosatellite capsule When the source was retracted, the intensity at the
surface of the holder was not to exceed 40 mr/hr
The optimum exposures for the test organisms ranged from 300 r for Tradescantia
to 6000 r for one of the Neurospora samples Each package was placed at an appropriate
 Backscatter Nuclear Experimental
shield emulsion packages
package
Experimental
packages

Heat
shield ^

Source
holder

Source

Figure 3.1 Biosatellite three-day capsule

distance from the source to ensure correct exposure in a nominal 65-hr exposure time during
flight The source was designed as an effective "point" source so that the specimens could
be arranged according to inverse square relationships, this arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.2
The objectives of individual experiments exposed to the weightless state alone and to
weightlessness in combination with radiation are outlined below The formal experiment
titles are given m Appendix A
Habrobracon (Parasitic Wasp) The Habrobracon experiment was designed to survey
mature sperm and all the difterent stages of oogenesis for mutational effects, particularly
dominant lethality, recessive lethal and visible mutation frequencies, and inherited partial
sterility Additional data were collected on survival, life span, and biochemical and behavioral
differences of the animals themselves
Tnbuhum (bluur Beetle) Somatic wing development, germ cells, and pupal period of
the flour beetle, Tnbohum confusum, were studied
Drosophila (Vinegar Gnat) In adult Drosophila and larva, well-known genetic effects
were studied, including recessive lethal mutations, visible mutations at specific loci, loss of
dominant genetic markers from the Y chromosome translocations, crossing over in the male,
and nondisjunction
Drosophila Larva Radiation effects on gross mortality and cytological studies of
chromosome aberrations in somatic cells were quantitated in Drosophila larva
Tradescantia (Spiderwort Plant) The purpose of the Trades,cantia experiment was to
determine the effects of weightlessness and radiation on the frequency of spontaneous and
radiation-induced chromosome aberrations and spontaneous mutations Specific end points

8
Figure 3.2 Top view of packages arranged around radiation
source. Neurospora bracket removed.

included color changes and stunting in stamen hairs, pollen abortion, microspore death,
disturbed spindle function, and total chromosome abnormalities.
Neurospora (Bread Mold). The Neurospora experiment was designed to utilize a two-
component heterokaryon, obtained by fusing two different haploid strains, each with its own
genetic markers. The effect of weightlessness on the frequency of radiation-induced recessive
lethal mutations at two specific loci in the ad-3 region was to be determined. The mutations
were resolved into point mutations and chromosome deletions. In addition, overall survival
curves for the conidia as a function of dose, as measured in flight and on earth, were to be
compared.
Lysogenic Bacteria. This experiment employed strains of Salmonella typhimurium
and E. coli. Induction of lysogeny had been shown to be extremely sensitive to environmen-
tal factors, including radiation and vibration. The purpose of the experiment was to determine
the effects of weightlessness on lysogeny, as determined by free phage production, and on
bacterial growth.
General Biology Experiments

The general biology experiments were designed to measure the effects of weightlessness on
specimens with gravity sensitivity. Formal experiment titles are given in Appendix A. These
experiments were placed in the aft section of the capsule and shielded from the radiation

I
source. The experimental materials included frog eggs, amoebae, wheat seedlings, and
I pepper plants
Frog Eggs The objective of the frog egg (Rana pipiens) experiment was to answer
the question Does weightlessness affect the ability of the fertilized frog egg to divide,
differentiate, and develop normally9 Under normal conditions the egg, shortly after fertili-
zation, rotates until its vegetal pole is lowermost. However, if the egg is prevented from
rotating and maintained in a position with its vegetal pole uppermost, the formation of
twin-headed monsters, as well as other abnoimalities, may be induced
Echinoherm (Sea Urchin) Eggs (Later Deleted) A sea urchin egg experiment was planned
to accompany the frog egg experiment The end points to be studied included cell division and
normal growth Since, in contrast to the frog eggs, sea urchin eggs are considered gravity insensi-
tive, they would act as controls for the frog eggs If an identical effect were found in both systems,
it would be assumed to be caused by some factor other than weightlessness associated with the flight
In addition, the sea urchin eggs were to be fertilized and fixed in flight to determine if weightless-
ness interfered with the process of fertilization itself, independent of division and growth
Amoeba Two experiments on Biosatellite II involved the multmucleate amoeba,
Pelomyxa carolmensis The first was concerned with nuclear and cell division Although this
organism appears to be independent of gravity on the earth, it does require a gravitational
force to attach it to a substrate for locomotion and feeding While the amoeba is feeding,
there is considerable protoplasmic movement that may be independent of gravity fields
During mitosis and cell division, however, there is relatively little motion Thus, since the cell
is large and has relatively large nuclei, weightlessness could be expected to alter the manner
and rate of reproduction The end points here were the cell-division rate and synchrony of
nuclear division
The second amoeba experiment was intended to study digestion, growth, and locomotion
during weightlessness The mechanisms involved in feeding and locomotion are similar It
had been found that protoplasmic streaming and normal ingestion of paramecia could resume
almost immediately after centnfugation It was not known whether this would occur when
acceleration was followed by a period of weightlessness—a condition under which there would
be an almost total elimination of convective forces Variations in the number, distribution,
and morphology of pinocytic vesicles, food vacuoles, metochondna, nuclei, and contractual
vacuoles were to be used to determine abnormal or disrupted cellular functions Changes
were to be recorded postflight by photomicrography and electron microscopy
Wheat Seedling (Three Experiments) The growth physiology of wheat seedlings in
space was determined by measuring the lengths of the coleoptile, primary root, and lateral
roots as a function of growth time In addition, the orientation angles of the organs were
determined from postflight photographs
Wheat seedling morphogenesis and histochemical determinations were made Morpholo-
gical measurements included coleoptile length and total root length Histochemical deter-
minations included the distribution of DNA, phospholipids, starch grains, peroxidase,
glucose-6-phosphatase, and acid phosphatase
A third experiment with wheat seedlings related the expected geotropic response to bio-
chemical changes throughout the length of the shoot Key enzymes associated with some of
the pathways of intermediary metabolism and energetics were examined from tissues grown

10
 m space, grown on a horizontal clmostat, and grown in the stational erect position Tissue
slices were analyzed for six enzymes, dry weights, protein contents, oxygen consumption,
CO 2 evolution, and ethylene production
Separate analyses also were made of the endosperms of the wheat seedlings Ammo acid
| compositions, glucose, sucrose, starch, and nitrogen were measured
1
' Pepper Plant During the flight the angle between the petioles and the mam stem of
the pepper plants was photographed every 10 mm It was hypothesized that exposing the
plants to weightlessness would produce effects similar to those found on the clmostat i e the
( hmmal angle of the left would be increased In addition, a study was made of the mobilization
of carbohydrates and ammo acids within the plant system
Biorhythms and General Biology Experiments (Not Flown)
Three experiments were proposed and approved for the originally scheduled 21-day mission
Deemed compatible in terms of experiment requirements and payload subsystem, these were
designed to study the eftect of subgravity on mammal body composition and biorhythms, a
higher-plant life cycle, and growth and development of human tissue cells
' One experiment, involving the use of eight female adult white rats, was designed to in-
vestigate the effects on body composition of a 3-week residence at near Og It was hypothe-
5 sized that the absence of the Ig environment would effectively decrease normal workload and
1 lead to a general atrophy of the muscoloskeletal system Accordingly, muscle mass, lean versus
? whole body weight, and skeletal components were to be determined postflight Carcasses were
to be further compartmentalized to ascertain organ weights, fluid content, skin mass, etc
Concurrently, a comvestigator was to study a possible effect of Og on biorhythms of rats
as measured by deep body temperature, gross motor activity, and feeding These functions
are normally circadian in nature, occurring over a 24-hr cycle Of special significance to a bio-
rhythm experiment is exposure to the weightless state during a 90-mm orbital period Im-
planted telemeters were to transmit temperature and gross activity to an onboard spacecraft
data-handling system, while feeding was to be measured by the frequency of actuations of a
liquid feeding/nipple arrangement A controlled, normally entraining, light cycle as well as
s constant light conditions were to be utilized to determine relative biorhythm shift times (time
' required for body rhythm responses to changes in the light cycle) and free running period
(body rhythm measured under constant conditions)
Arabidopsis, a plant capable of undergoing much ot its life cycle within 21 days, was the
plant of choice in studying morphogenesis, flower bud formation, and pollen maturation
under conditions of Og Gravity compensation by clmostat rotation (slow horizontal ictation)
has been shown in ground-based experiments to produce a disoriented growth of normally
geotropic plants Further experiments revealed other departures from normality possibly
occurmg at Og through various sensitive periods of a life cycle
" , Five plants were to be flown and studied by time-lapse cinematography for nutational
movement, growth rate, and pattern of development Physiological, anatomical, and cyto-
logical examinations were made after recovery
Tissue cell cultures were to be used in an experiment on growth and development ot a
controlled human cell line at Og Time-lapse cinematography was to record growth during
flight as well as mitochondncal movement, pinocytosis, mitosis, migration patterns of mtra-
cellular inclusions, and nuclear and cytoplasmic dynamics The cell culture of choice

1 11
 (human liver or respiratory cells) was to be implemented in duplicate for maintenance and
I photography in the spacecraft and compared later with ground-based controls.
Primate Flight
The objectives of NASA's Biosatellite III primate flight were to determine physiological
effects of earth orbit on a subhuman primate, to provide insight into possible hazards to
manned space flight, and, perhaps more importantly, to provide insight into basic physiological
phenomena. Only one subject, a Macaque nemestnna, was flown The several experimenters
shared this one animal for their individuals studies
Neurophysiological Functions This study looked for evidence of space flight effects
on higher nervous functions, including focused attention, discrimination, and recent memory.
It also sought data on skilled performance involving sensorimotor coordination based in
visual and somatic inputs Electroencephalogram (EEC), electrooculogram (EOG), and
electromyogram (EMG) results were to be correlated with each other and with additional
physiological parameters such as electrocardiogram (EKG) and respiration.
Cardiovascular Functions This study sought data on the effects of weightlessness on
regional blood pressures and general cardiovascular functions through analyses of EKG
results, respiration, and venous, arterial, and pulmonary blood pressures Some investigators
had postulated that blood distribution, blood flow, and blood pressures would be altered
from those seen under Ig conditions
Metabolic Functions Two experimenters in this general area were concerned with the
orbital analyses of calcium, creatine, and creatimne to determine the extent of calcium ex-
cretion and muscle atrophy during orbital flight Pre- and postflight fluid compartment
(plasma volume, and intra- and extracellular fluids) studies were also accomplished Another
experimenter recorded pre- and postflight bone densitometry measurements as a basis for
evaluating possible bone density changes resulting from weightlessness
Another study was the pre- and postflight evaluation of testicular biopsies and ejaculates
for changes in histology of the testicular tissues, morphology and viability of the spermatozoa,
and biochemical changes of seminal plasma that might result from extended periods of
weightlessness

SPACECRAFT

The Biosatellite spacecraft (Fig 3 3) was conceived with two mam sections (1) an "adapter"
section, which remains in orbit, and (2) a reentry vehicle (R/V), carrying the experiment
capsule, that separates with retrorocket and heat shield for reentry into the earth's atmos-
phere.
The experiments on the orbiting spacecraft were supported with an earth-type atmosphere
at sea level pressure, power, data recording, timer-programmed commands, and telemetry to
the ground stations For each mission, the temperature was to be maintained within 10°F
ranges and RH in the range of 40 to 70% The spacecraft was stabilized about the three
orthogonal axes such that the maximum acceleration to which any experiment was subjected
would be less than 10~ s g for 95% of the orbital flight phase and would not exceed 10~ 4 g for
the remaining 5% except when aligning for the deorbit maneuver The experiment capsule

12
 Roll IR horizon scanner Separation switch

Attitude control jet

Magnetometer
boom

T/C battery inflight Pitch IT, horizon

Antenna
disconnect feedlme scanner antenna

Freon/Nj tank spin system

Despm system

Spin system

Parachute assembly

Thermal
Antenna—T/M (reentry)
blanket
Dye marker
3 attitude
Marmon clamp, control jets

Freon/Nj tank
Electrical
despin system
connections
Flashing light Despin system

Fluid disconnects
Antenna recovery beacon

Breech ring Ejection piston

Figure 3.3 Biosatellite spacecraft configuration, (a) reentry heat shield, (b) capsule and
parachute assembly, (c) thrust cone assembly, and (d) adapter assembly

was approximately 30 in in diameter and 30 in high with shape and center-of-gravity con-
straints for aerodynamically stable reentry The total weight of the recovered capsule, sus-
pended from its recovery parachute, was restricted to about 300 Ib
The adapter section housed power supplies, telecommunications, attitude-control system,
programmers, storage containers, and other equipment required during orbit but not for
recovery At the end of the orbital phase, the vehicle aligned itself for the deorbit phase,
and the R/V separated from the adapter, which remained in orbit The R/V decelerated and
reentered the earth's atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean, deployed a parachute, and activated
a homing beacon The recovery capsule contained all experimental specimens and equipment
necessary for the investigators' work, plus immediately related equipment such as atmospheric
control, radiation source, feeder, and psychomotor panel Late accessibility to the capsule's
interior prior to launch and early access after delivery to the postflight laboratory were
required for biological specimens The experiment capsule was flown to temporary NASA
laboratories at Hawaii for prompt return of specimens to investigators The scientific investi-
gators subsequently returned their experiments to their home laboratories for more detailed
study and analyses
NASA's reliability and quality assurance standards were applied to design, manufacture,
test, and handling of all flight hardware, including housings and surgical implants directly
associated with experiment specimens

13
LAUNCH VEHICLE

NASA'S Delta launch vehicle was chosen early in the program because its capacity v/as
economically suited to estimated requirements The two-stage version, although a compromise
in total spacecraft weight limit, was later selected to avoid spinning the biological payload
Spacecraft maximum weight was originally planned in 1964 as 1,200 Ib, but it was increased
to 1,550 Ib by the Biosatelhte III launch date in 1969 Delta launch vehicle developments in
the same period were more than sufficient to handle the added weight
Planned orbital altitudes of 160 to 200 nm for the various missions were based on
requirements for visibility at existing tracking stations, for mission durations reliably above
aerodynamic drag conditions of 5 X 10"6g (one-half the total acceleration allowed), and
for reliable reentry within a 400-nm-long target area using previously space-fhght-qualified
orientation and retrorocket systems Orbital inclination of 33 5° was the preferred flight path
within launch range safety constraints, providing for maximum data availability at Fort Myers,
Florida, where control communications were optimum The flight-qualified, "Nimbus"-type
standard fairing was selected to accommodate the spacecraft during ascent
Special modifications were required in the launch vehicle system for Biosatelhte. An
attach fitting was designed and qualified to mate the spacecraft for first utilization of the two-
stage Delta configuration, and additional cabling was required for prelaunch control and check-
out. The spacecraft's recoverable capsule was loaded with specimens as late as 5 hr before
launch—instead of the normal 30 or more hours. Actual measurement of conditions of vibra-
tion and noise experienced in powered flight were required by biologists for the 3- and 21-day
missions, entailing special instrumentation
The enclosure atop the launch gantry in which specimens would be exposed in final
preparations was air conditioned against local atmospheric conditions. Late in the program,
shortly before the launch of Biosatelhte III, very stringent restrictions were placed on the use
of fluids and gases in the launch complex to avoid possible absorption into the capsule's
interior furnishings that mignt result in a toxic atmosphere in the closed capsule

TRACKING, TELEMETRY, AND CONTROL

At the outset of the project, the Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN)
was selected over the Manned Space Flight Net (MSFN) for the mission The MSFN system
provides superior data-handling capabilities, however, its relative priorities for manned flight
and exercises for manned flight imposed unacceptable restrictions on program operation
Although STADAN supports a large number of missions, Biosatelhte initially was an important
competitor among them for priority and eventually received "first" priority in all flights.
Telemetry data were required from all missions for a 3-min period every orbit, and
absolutely without exceptions for two consecutive orbits (An "orbit" for this purpose is a
west-to-east rotation about the earth's surface rather than as classically defined ) For the
primate mission, the investigator preferred 5-min continuums of data Recordings sampled
through the countdown and continuous from -10 mm through orbital injection were required
to assess launch-phase flight effects Compatibility with NASA's STADAN was designed into
the spacecraft for pulse code modulated (PCM) data. Based on experimental requirements,
two bit rates of the same word and frame structure were to be used for missions 1,792
bits/sec (bps) for 3- and 21-day configurations, and 22,400 bps(12'/2 X 1,792) for the 30-day
primate mission
 Tracking and orbit determination had to be sufficiently accurate to minimize errors
in recovery location relative to attitude control retrofire and aerodynamic considerations
Tolerances were estimated as ± 5 nm in the local horizontal plane and ± Vi nm in the vertical
Tracking and orbit data were updated to maintain this tolerance and thus ensure constant
readiness for emergency recovery
A control center with substantial data-handling capabilities for flight management by
project representatives was to be established to permit contingency options to be exercised
on both the experiments and spacecraft
Recovery control readiness was to permit complete decision flexibility for the flight
director to call the R/V down on any suborbital opportunity within recovery aircraft
operating range of Hawaii, or within any orbit to a preselected target area in case of catas-
trophic loss of compressed gas or electrical energy
The separation and retrofire maneuver, and the iccovery system sequence, were trans-
mitted by a previously silent telemetry system on the R/V It was designed to be com-
patible with the Department of Defense national range mobile telemetry ground system
available in the Far Pacific area
Special communications requirements were placed on Goddard Space Flight Center
(GSFC) for coordination of experimenters at various locations during flight, for coordi-
nation of recovery readiness and support, and for delivery of data in specific formats
to some experimenters' home laboratories for processing during flight
Collection of additional telemetry data outside the North-South American
STADAN chain was requested by the principal investigator for the primate mission
to supplement the onboard tape recorder during the two daily 30-mm periods of
psychomotor operation Available global resources were employed on a nomnterfering
basis
Postflight processing was required of GSFC to prepare the flight data for evaluation
by experimenters and spacecraft engineers

RECOVERY

The spacecraft's retardation and recovery system was designed to retard the descent of the
capsule to provide sufficient time for aerial recovery, to keep the deceleration produced by
water impact below 60g, and to provide location aids for the recovery forces
An existent Air Force capability for retrieval in the Hawaiian area was tasked thiough
the Department of Defense to serve the project Development specifications and testing lor
the recovery system were cooperatively planned to ensuie Compatibility The Air Force
provided parachute design details with structural capability tor aerial recovery
A capsule-receiving and -disassembly facility, as well as postflight experiment labora-
tories, were erected near the recovery aircraft landing site Delivery of experimental speci-
mens to investigators within 6 hr after orbital flight was required Special handling was
stipulated to protect biological specimens from adverse temperature, shock, and vibiation
conditions after retrieval Radiation safety precautions also were developed for 3-day
missions

15
 4. SPACECRAFT DEVELOPMENT

At the conclusion of the Phase I design study, a state-of-the-art spacecraft development was
contemplated with a minimum of special or new technology The most uncertain areas of
work were the gas-management assembly (GMA) to provide a two-gas atmosphere for the
rats and the monkey, and accommodating the inadequately defined vibration environment
of the Delta launch vehicle Also, experimenters' equipment and their interfaces were only
in early stages of definition, and it could be foreseen that electromagnetic interference (EMI)
protection of the primate's body implant instrumentation would require careful design
Engineering problems to be recognized with experience in developing Biosatelhte in-
cluded electromagnetic and transient sensitivities throughout the electrical systems, the
original fuel cell's inability to operate for 30 days, calcium deposit characteristics of urine,
the extreme sensitivity of some experiments to materials, the active mechanical curiosity ot
a monkey, the challenge of reliably dispensing food pellets for 30 days, and the uncertainty
in infrared horizon sensing
Definition of the test program was one of the initial efforts in the spacecraft contract
Tests were designed to qualify every function for its operating environment, requiring a pro-
gram much more elaborate than originally envisioned many of the available components
were qualified only to lesser environments, and the complexity of systems and their operating
modes had been underestimated

RADIATION AND GENERAL BIOLOGY (THREE-DAY) SPACECRAFT

The overall external configuration of all Biosatelhte spacecrafts is shown in Fig 3 1 In addi-
tion to external configuration and their separations, features common to all three missions
are
1. The reentry ablative heat shield
2 The shell structures of the reentry capsule (including nose separation for access to its
interior) and the adapter
3 The thrust cone containing deorbit rocket and compressed-gas spin/despin system
4 The programmer-operated separation subsystem
5. The recovery subsystem operated by G switch and programmer
6 The attitude-control subsystem, including its rate-control and deorbit orientation-
control modes of operation
7. Most of the telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) subsystems
Structure

The reentry vehicle (R/V) configuration was scaled up from a previously developed Air
Force R/V The Biosatelhte capsule was made of aluminum varying in thickness from
.080 in. at its nose to 035 in in its conical aft region The heat shield of phenolic nylon and

17

Preceding Page Blank

fiber glass varied in thickness from 72 in at its nose to 22 m. at its skirt, and was covered
with a coating designed for passive thermal control Between the capsule and heat shield,
foam insulation was bonded to the capsule m thicknesses varying from 1 /4 to 1 /2 in. A new
development in both heat shield and capsule was the inclusion of a quick-locking separation
of both of their nose segments for latest possible installation of biological payloads into the
R/V before launch.
Figure 4 1 is an exploded view of the internal arrangement of the forward capsule. It
was essential that the center of gravity be located far enough forward for aerodynamic sta-
bility during reentry The radiation backscatter shield, of .050-m tungsten bonded between
008-in aluminum sheets, carried the 35-lb radiation source holder and was bolted into the
nose cap during final prelaunch assembly Irradiated experiments were arranged on the for-
ward side of the shield assembly Forward and aft racks behind the backscatter shield carried
equipments and nonirradiated experiments, respectively Packaging of the experiments with-
in the confines of the capsule, combined with the necessity for keeping weight toward its
nose, was the most challenging aspect of structural configuration m the three-day Biosatel-
hte spacecraft.
The adapter shell comprised a cylindrical aluminum skin .020 m thick with mounting
rings at each end, lighter intermediate rings, and longitudinal stiffeners. A conical frustrum
was attached to the forward end to provide a transition for attachment to the smaller-diameter
R/V. By far the most massive single component mounted within it was the main battery
power supply for the three-day mission, weighing approximately 128 Ib The thrust cone
(T/C), also an uprated version of a previously developed system, carried the retrorocket,
spin/despm assembly, and separation subsystem.
Total weight of the Biosatelhte three-day spacecraft was 955 Ib: 116 Ib for the heat
shield, 321 Ib for the recovery capsule and its parachute system, 94 Ib for the thrust cone
assembly, and 424 Ib for the adapter assembly.
Some of the tests specifically related to structural configuration included a reentry
shield temperature cycling test, a combined reentry temperature and pressure test on reduced
heat-shield thickness, vibration tests, a separation shock test (in which the spacecraft mockup
was separated from a simulated rocket mass, both restrained on suspensions) and a water
drop test. No noteworthy problems resulted
Life Support

The small size and relatively passive nature of plants, insects, and bacteria to be carried
aboard Biosatellites I and II necessitated only a simple passive air supply, which served from
the moment of capsule closure before launch until reopening m the postflight laboratory
without change of mode (m contrast with the primate mission)
Capsule pressure was maintained by an air storage bottle containing a standard atmos-
pheric mixture of O2 and N2 , together with a small amount of CO2 (approximately 0 5%)
Air was supplied on demand by means of a pressure regulator and was controlled to a nomi-
nal sea level pressure of 14 7 psia A small fan circulated the air in the capsule, and a silica
gel canister controlled the humidity in the capsule between the limits of 40% and 70%. In-
strumentation consisted of a current sensor for the fan, a capsule pressure sensor, a capsule
temperature sensor, RH sensor, a O2 partial pressure sensor, and an air-storage pressure
 23 32

27

3(3)

3(4)

39 Tnbolium, package 1
40 Habrobracon, package 1
41 Drosophila, larvae, package 1
42 Drosophila, adult, package 1
43 Neurospora, package 1
44 Tradescantia, package 1
Irradiated experiments on forward 45 Lysogenic bacteria, package 1
Spacecraft components on forward raj*
bulkhead radiation shield 46 Wheat seedling
47 Amoeba
48 Capsicum (pepper plant)
Capsule forward cap 1 Neurospora, package 2, 3, 4, 5 Shielded and general biology experiments
49 Frog eggs
2 Habrobracon, package 2 on aft bulkhead
50 Dosimeter
3 Habrobracon, package 3, 4, 5 51 Accelerometer
4 Drosophila, adult, package 2 52 Ultrasonic sensor
5 Drosophila, larvae, package 3
6 Tribohum, package 2 12 Signal data 26 Explosive-switch
7 Tradescantia, package 3 13 Accelerometer " 27 Power controller
8 Lysogenic bacteria, package 3 14 SCO Assembly 28 Recovery battery
9 Lysogenic bacteria, package 4 15 Payload programmer 29 Tape recorder
10 Lysogenic bacteria, package 2 16 Flashing light controller 30 Battery reentry
11 Radiation source holder 17 Multicoder 31 Gas management
18 Commutator 32 Converter control
19 Recovery beacon 33 Recovery programmer
20 Programmer timer 34 Connector bracket
21 Transmitter telemetry 35 Detector vibration triaxial
22 Switch assembly electrical 36 Vibration and acoustic noise analyzer
23 > Radiation controller 37 Recovery events impedance match unit
24 Inverter power supply 38 Latching relay
25 Heater battery

Figure 4.1 Three-day capsule isometric exploded view.

ff
 sensor RH and O 2 partial pressure sensors were mainly for verification of conditions and
additional qualification for the subsequent flight system
Numerous development tests were conducted to assure a satisfactory operation of the
gas-management system These included breadboard tests, functional tests, and an electro-
magnetic compatibility (EMC) test on the GMA and the environmental-control system The
flight capsules were so tight that no measurable amount of air was lost in flight I or II
Thermal Control

} Heat loads inside the recovery capsule of the three-day Biosatellite configuration were very
small, requiring insulation and moderate electrical heat augmentation to stay within specified
temperature range during orbital flight Eight strip heaters were spaced around the inside ot
the capsule skin These heaters were controlled by thermostats and maintained a capsule air
temperature between 65° and 75°F The capsule was thermally protected by a composite
layer of foam insulation, cemented to the capsule exterior surface, followed by a multilayer
\ blanket of alumimzed mylar In addition, the phenolic nylon and fiberglass heat shield was
', covered with a suitable thermal radiation coating During reentry into the earth's atmos-
I phere, the ablative heat shield and insulation protected the experiment capsule from the et-
' fects of aerodynamic heating, and during parachute descent through the cold upper atmos-
phere, strip heaters in the capsule maintained a temperature above 50°F Special cooling
coils within the capsule, supplied from an external thermal control unit (TCU), provided the
temperature control prior to launch, including special cooling connected to the trog-egg ex-
periment to suppress cell division before flight Heaters were incorporated in the Tnbolium
) experiment package to satisfy its special temperature environment of 28° to 32°C
A passive system in the adapter held internal temperatures between 0° and 1QO°F It
I consisted of a 28-layer alumimzed mylar insulation blanket attached to the vehicle skin
, Cutouts in the blanket to provide surfaces with the desired thermal radiation coating allowed
i dissipation of internal heat generated by components mounted therein Strip heaters with,
I thermostat controls were located on the orbital battery and on the infrared scanners to main-
tain the required operating temperatures
A thermal-balance development test verified the predicted heater power requirements
and insulation performance for various anticipated orbital enviornments
Attitude Control
Basic features of the attitude-control system had been used in previous space flight systems,
although not in the Biosatellite configuration Perhaps the greatest innovation was use of a
magnetometer to align the spacecraft about its yaw axis for deorbit in varying conditions of
geomagnetic field Development of the attitude-control system for the first three-day flight
progressed satisfactorily except for occasional transitions to an undesirable operating mode
during certain phases of systems testing As predicted this inadequately explained phenome-
non was easily controlled during flight I However, anomalies of greater importance in the
deorbit attitude mode were experienced in flight I (see Section 8) and corrected before
flight II
Design objectives of the attitude-control system were to prevent accelerative forces on
the biological specimens due to rotation of the spacecraft about its axes, and to align the
spacecraft for retrorocket firing to result in reentry in a preselected recovery zone The
second of these objectives and the experimenters' requirements to stay as far as possible

21
below the radiation belt demanded the lowest practical flight altitude, therefore, one-half of
the nominal 10~ 5 g acceleration allowed on the specimens was arbitrarily allocated for space-
craft rotation Five percent of orbital time could be used for maneuvers producing 10"4g
acceleration on specimens to slow rotation or to orient the spacecraft Use of the Hawaiian
recovery area, combined with an already qualified retrorocket producing 600-fps velocity
change from a 33° inclined West-to-East orbit, dictated alignment for retrofire m the Far
Pacific area Mission analysis was later to disclose need for capabilities of aligning with re-
spect to geomagnetic fields in the general area stretching from Australia to Japan
Allowable errors in pitch and yaw were ±6° and ±15°, respectively In the rate-control
mode, rotation was limited to 0 1° per sec about any axis Figure 4 2 is a block diagram of
the attitude-control system, which includes a minor change for the later primate mission con-
figuration. The axes of the attitude-control system sensors, thrustors, and gyros were dis-
placed 36° in the pitch plane trom the spacecraft's axis of external symmetry On all flights,
this was to provide a pitch down of the retrorocket when the R/V separates
To the extent possible, components were selected from previously qualified space flight
hardware. Major components included primary and alternate sets of rate-sensing gyros, in-
frared horizon scanners in pitch and roll axes sensitive in the 8n to 20M range, a null sensing
boom-mounted magnetometer with bias coil, a magnetometer programmer by which a cur-
rent selected by ground command could be induced in the magnetometer bias coil, the
attitude-control programmer containing the subsystem control logic, and the gaseous-nitrogen
assembly with its electromechanical controller
On injection into orbit, the Biosatelhte was separated from the booster, and the
attitude-control subsystem was automatically activated to sense and control angular rates
about the three control axes The two rate-gyro packages operated in sequential redundancy
either set of gyros, operating through amplifiers in the attitude-control programmer, could
drive the threshold detectois of the jet controller to control the pneumatic assembly sole-
noid valves, thus generating torques about each control axis to minimize vehicle rates When
control of vehicle attitude was required in the deorbit mode near the end of flight, the error
signals from the two IR horizon sensors and the magnetometer could be acted on by the re-
spective displacement amplifier of the attitude programmer and magnetometer programmer
and summed with the amplified rate-gyro signals The pneumatic assembly receives N2 pro-
pellant from the tankage subsystem, and filters, regulates pressure, and controls the flow of
propellant as required The attitude-control programmer receives commands, and has built-
in logic to sequence the various modes of operation The magnetometer programmer re-
ceives indication of required bias from the command decoder, and generates an appropriate
bias field at the magnetometer to assume proper yaw attitude
Selection of the various attitude-control operating modes—off, rate sensing, rate con-
trol, and deorbit attitude control—was accomplished by ground commands, as was the selec-
tion of primary or backup gyros, and adjustment of the magnctometef s bias current In
addition, a "gyro test" command activates a timed sequence of bias voltages on the gyro out-
puts, such that, in the rate-control mode, effectiveness of gyroscopes can be verified by the
system's reaction
A full-scale subsystem development test on a three-axis air bearing permitted checkout
of every aspect of subsystem operation Purpose of these tests was to verify subsystem de-
sign and to predict orbital operations Figure 4 3 is a sketch of the air-bearing table Essen-
tial elements of the attitude-control system were mounted on it The simulated earth inside
 Legend
To logic
Sol valves nozzlei (i) = Telemetry processing circuits
Primary Ampl & Pos sig
Fill valve Neg sol = Polarity of signal is the same
&cap pitch gyro demod as sign of error
Filter ©
T Polarity of signal is opposite
Sec pitch to sign of error
T/M Press
Ampl Null .Jo
T/M Tank trans gyro demod T
* A i
temp
Ij^Jo 1 (§)
y Ena ble
t w
cjet loqic
J" *{9^— Ampl J (+) Det (-) Det
1 Axis reference systems are

^r^ i
Pitch rate l +
, f
,
both right hand
T luu

Filter Latching downstream

Pitch
scanner
Q
_.
" "- JL" -Ampl J• © '
I 1 All sensors are aligned to

^ •i
ffi) Hysteresis L control axis
solenoid relief circuit
--- 3 Gyro signal polarity is
valve Null To
obtained by proper orientation
— •- To logic (5)
'°9'c

< j
Lost horizon sig det of the gyros m the vehicle
4- Pitch IR sensor scan axis is
To logic n 1 Pitch hystersis Switch the same sense as the minus
pitch axis
Primary Ampl & | © 1 Pos sig
roll gyro demod — Ampl V] ^^ Pos. sol 5- Nozzles are located with
respect to control axes.
VDC
+10 4- _ i^ © 6 Refers to logic
a
Roll Sec roll Ampl X, © Null To
+5 . ? T
J/ I,'
r
scanner gyro demod T _ /f\ det IOQIC -t(V}_J Ampl J (+) Det (-) Det
T-—J Enable ~— ,
+180 7 3 5 + 9 0 +145 +180
"5
Error-deg <f>c

'i
Roll
scanner
_
w
To Ing r

i.
Roll rate
bias

Null
(6)

lll4Jo
_r p=- —.
-10 Hysteresis
det Innir

VDC
i Lost horizon sig
i 1 Roll hysteresis
4-+10 P'tch Switch
Anti null not shown To logic
scanner

Error deg
i Primary Ampl » tt)
1— (IT]
^ \j/ Pos Sig
•
gyro yaw demod
•4- -t- ' a ;sol
-145 -90 -35 +90 -HfJE 4@ G
-5 !^
-10 +
Sec vaw
gyro
Amol &
demod
©
Y
• 1
Axis orientation

Yaw © O
To loqic w
1 O
r -"Q^)~~*"

\
Ampl

f
-" 1 (+) Det

^
(-) Det

Yaw& magnetometer 1 | i nysLt'iebii i i i

roll Yaw rate | circuit i
gyro
Control Bias coil
V i 1 Yaw hysteresis Switch
+ roll axis Yaw
Current 1 bias \?
Direction i
of orbit ; Magnetometer Pwr .... _». P°v ver
motion
i
I
•' ' i
programmer © comm swi tch
Veh axis of Part of
symmetry Commands attitude control
Control The +pitch axis
M programmer Jet co ntroller
|SOUt ofthe
paper

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of Biosatelhte attitude-control configuration.

1

13
Figure 4.3 Sketch of three-axis attitude-control air-bearing test.

25
t the water-cooled "teepee" provided an infrared model for checking scanner performance and
evaluating earth presence logic Later tests included subsystem checkout after installation in
the spacecraft adapter, and operating verifications of individual sensory parameters as a part
of the various spacecraft systems tests
An outline of operating anomalies for the attitude-control system is given in Section 8
Intensive testing and rework of the system was undertaken as part of the corrective effort
that delayed launch of Biosatelhte II Flight II demonstrated the success of these efforts,
but it is uncertain which of the several adjustments was most effective in stabilizing the sys-
tem in daylight. Because of such uncertainty, an fm subcarner was added to the on-orbit
telemetry link transmitting bolometer output signals and reference marker from the scanner
on ground command Course magnetometers also were added to the spacecraft Flight II
results were excellent, precluding analysis with these diagnostic aids
Changes made after flight I included
1. Change of the earth presence threshold in the infrared scanner circuitry from 210° to
190°K to account for the possibility of very cold clouds at high altitudes.
2. Improvement of the earth presence logic to reduce its sensitivity to small extraneous
signals and spacecraft motion.
3. Electrical changes to reduce sensitivity to electromagnetic interference and to reduce
the possibility of a bias voltage on the scanner output.
4. Improved isolation of the attitude-control programmer from electromagnetic interference
5. Improved mounting of the aluimmzed mylar thermal blanket around the infrared scan-
ners to prevent the possibility of a loosened segment obstructing fields of view.
6. A latching relay was added to the deorbit-attitude-mode command line to maintain
voltage on it and avoid the possibility of catastrophic transition of mode near the end
of flight.
Performance of the attitude-control system, satisfactory in flight I, was excellent in
flights II and III.
Electrical Power and Distribution
The electrical power and distribution (EP&D) subsystem provided primary electrical power
to the experiments and to the spacecraft subsystems during prelaunch countdown, powered
flight, orbital flight, reentry, and recovery until retrieval. This subsystem includes circuit
interconnections (harnesses) for all spacecraft subsystem components, for experiments (up
to the negotiated interfaces), and for the distribution of power, signals, and commands The
subsystem also provided power switching and certain timing signals It was designed to meet
the EMC design specification prepared for Biostaellite vehicles. Appropriate test connectors
were incorporated for systems test, ground test, and prelaunch check and control.
Figure 4.4 is a diagram of the EP&D subsystem It is arranged to show all adapter com-
ponents on the left side of the double vertical line, and T/C and R/V components to the
right. All power was supplied by the 330-amp-hr orbital battery at a nominal 26 vdc. The
26 vdc is routed via the power controller (adapter) to the inverter/power supply (adapter),
which returns several regulated ac and dc voltages to the power controller The power con-
troller then routes the various voltages, including 26 vdc, to various points in the adapter,
T/C, and R/V This on-orbit arrangement ends when the adapter separates from the T/C and
R/V The deorbit subsystem in the T/C is powered by two deorbit batteries
s
26
Figure 4.4 Three-day EP&D subsystem diagram
 Shortly before separation of the adapter and R/V, the R/V is switched to the 1 1-amp-hr
reentry battery and the capsule heater battery The recovery subsystem is powered by its
6-amp-hr recovery batteries
A programmer timer was incorporated within this system to provide timing signals for
various components in the spacecraft during flight Signals were provided at 1-, 5-, and 10-
min intervals, plus 1-, 12-, and 24-hr intervals Two programmed intervals were provided to
turn off the reentry telemetry an hour after separation, and to turn off the orbital telemetry
transmitter 10 mm after it was activated in case the off command should fail
Tests with the EP&D system were relatively trouble free, except for failures of the m-
verter power supply The adapter power supply was, however, satisfactorily qualified without
inordinate development work before flight I Performance of the EP&D system was perfect
during both flights I and II Operations subsequent to separation of the R/V indicated abili-
ties of both primary batteries to perform well beyond their design margins
Gas Storage

For the three-day spacecraft only storage of dry nitrogen for the attitude-control subsystem
was required. (Air for the recovery capsule and gas for spin and despin are regarded as com-
ponents of other subsystems ) The high-pressure nitrogen storage tank carried 11 2 Ib at
2600 psi The tank was instrumented for pressure and temperature monitoring via the space-
craft's telemetry system In developing the tank for Biosatelhte, the originally designed
stainless-steel tank was replaced with a titanium unit because of corrosion where silicone
rubber on its mounting straps contacted the stainless steel
The nitrogen supply, as designed, was adequate for all flights In fact, the attitude-
control system proved so conservative that the nitrogen supply would have been sufficient
for a flight of several months
Tracking, Telemetry, and Command

The GSFC space tracking and data-acquisition network fSTADAN) was designated for or-
bital flight operations of the Biosatelhte A trackable radio beacon signal in the 1 36-mHz
range, a pcm telemetry signal at 136 mHz, and a command-receiving system in the 148-mHz
range were provided Designs were in accordance with GSFC's "Telemetry Standard, PCM
Telemetry" and "Command Standards, Tone Digital Command Standard " Figure 4 5 is a
functional block diagram of the tracking, telemetry, and command (TT&C) system
An fm/fm telemetry transmitter and data system was included in the recovery capsule
to transmit data related to separation, deorbit, and recovery Designed for compatibility with
DOD data-receiving systems, its radio signal also serves as a backup to the separate 240-mc
homing beacon for the aerial recovery and search forces An analog tape recorder with 1 00
hr of storage capacity on seven-track !/2-m tape is also contained in the recovery capsule for
postfhght analysis of selected data
The command subassembly consists of primary and backup receivers, (148 98 me),
primary and backup decoders, a one word storage programmer (OWSP) and a receiving-
antenna assembly. The receiving antenna assembly consists of two 136- to 150-mc antennas,
a hybrid coupler, and an associated cable harness. The antenna system is shared with the
telemetry transmitter The command receivers select and demodulate the command signals
The detected am modulation from both receivers is summed in both decoders

29
 Command
decoder
(A700!

I
o<
II
Command

H—
pacecra decoder

T5

en u
omman (A701)

in
CO

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3
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3

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I
 The command section has a capacity of 70 separate commands A command consists
of equally spaced bursts of an am carrier signal A %-penod burst is used for word synchro-
nization, Vi-penod burst for a binary 1, and a Vi-penod burst for a binary 0 A command
.' message contains an 8-bit address and an 8-bit command, which contain specific distributions
1 bits and 0 bits Message checking in the decoder rejects commands that do not satisfy the
i t command-format specification.
The command decoders receive the pulse-duration modulated 7-kHz tone from one or
both command receivers The coded message is decoded and generates a 35-msec pulse on
one of 70 command lines Each decoder has a different address so that only one of the de-
coders will respond to a given command message at one time
I An indication that a real-time command has been received by the command executing
i device in the spacecraft is telemetered to the ground station
The OWSP included in the TT&C subsystem is an adjustable timer, set and started by
! commands from the ground, that enables command of the separation and deorbit sequence
' at a preselected instant of orbital flight It is set by a sequence of binary numbers rcpre-
I sented by either of two commands, a series of 18 of which define a runout time to 1/10 sec
; Maximum programmable duration after "start" command is 11A hi. Countdown status of
the OWSP is visible through the telemetered data
i The on-orbit telemetry data-transmission system incorporated a primary and alternate
| transmitter, selectable by ground command They were frequency modulated with a split-
• phase pulse code at 1792 bps Analog and digital data inputs were commutated in both the
adapter and recovery capsule and combined into a format containing 256 words per frame,
! six data bits, and one parity bit per word Data transmitted within this format for three-day
i Biosatelhtes are charted in Fig 4 6
A primary and alternate tracking beacon to facilitate orbital trajectory measurement by
mteferrometry were selectable by ground command No information was modulated on its
100-mw signal
The reentry telemetry signal was modulated by three low-frequency subcarners (max-
imum 5 4 kHz) carrying separation, deorbit, and recovery subsystem operational information
Spin rate of the spin-stabilization sequence was measured by observing amplitude modulation
on this carrier
The magnetic tape recorder was an upgraded version of that used in the Gemini space-
craft for biomedical data Changes in its reel, base plate, and capstan tension were made to
improve its performance during vibration One of the recorder's seven tracks in Biosatellite
was devoted to recording a 30-segment commutator at one revolution every 10 sec The
tape recorder was operated for nearly the full duration of the three-day flights
In addition to the regular qualification and acceptance tests of the TT&C subsystems in
the spacecraft factory, GSFC required a systems compatibility demonstration of a prototype
system. A functional breadboaid of the complete system was taken to GSFC and satisfac-
torily tested The one serious problem, corrected by redesign, was the activation of all 70
command outputs with a low signal level input when combined with electromagnetic noise
Flight I experience with this system was generally good However, as noted in Section 8,
there were three instances of apparent command actuations without initiation from the
ground, and the accept/reject telemetered indication was erratic throughout These effects
were attributed to feedback of telemetry transmitter energy through the command receivers
to the decoders, which occasionally recognized a valid command pattern and frequently
31
 signaled decoder activation based on the noise. Based on confirming bench tests, the tele-
etry transmitters were redesigned for improved stability and a 3-db pad was installed at the
'output of the backup transmitter in case of repeated trouble (Signal strength had been
shown to have adequate margin in flight I) Also incorporated were changes in oscillator
frequencies to shift harmonically related outputs from the command receiver passband, an
added wavetrap between transmitter and antenna diplexer, a "lockout" command sequence
by which the command decoder could be deactivated to other commands, improved an-
tenna connector mechanical design, and improved test and inspection procedures.
An undetected change in manufacture of command receivers was responsible for the
serious difficulties with flight II Subsequently, GSFC produced a field testing system for
independent verification of the TT&C compatibility of the flight spacecraft before launch.
Separation
The separation subsystem consists of a programmed switching assembly and the electro-
mechanical components that produce mechanical and electrical disconnection of the R/V
from the adapter at the completion of orbital flight It was initiated by command from the
OWSP set by ground command during the preceding 7 hr After launch, however, it is armed
initially by a barometric switch that closes above 50,000 ft altitude After the OWSP has
been started and has timed out, the 240-mHz telemetry system is automatically energized
and the recovery programmer relays are reset for later operation About S'/z mm later, the
separation, deorbit, and recovery subsystems are armed. Eleven seconds after that, elec-
trical connections between the adapter and R/V are severed Two thermal batteries on the
T/C are activated within the next second Electrical connections between the adapter and
T/C are separated, the deorbit programmer is started, and separation springs are released to
effect about 1-fps velocity between the R/V and adapter in the final 3 sec of the sequence.
All of these events are confirmed via the newly energized fm telemetry system.
For the three-day spacecraft, a fluid line disconnect permits circulation of cooling
fluid to the recovery capsule from the spacecraft's special umbilical until launch time For
these flights this part of the separation system is fired 5 sec before launch
All of the sepaiation devices are pyrotechmcally opeiated Each separation function
is equipped with two independent cartridges and firing squibs for reliability The linear
actuators that release separation springs are designed to operate within 10 msec of each
other to avoid tipoff of the R/V before it is spin stabilized Four matched compression
springs are used
Deorbit
The deorbit subsystem is mounted on the T/C at the back of the R/V When separated from
the adapter, the R/V retrorocket is directed 36° downward from the velocity vector and is
in the plane of orbital flight The deorbit programmer is initiated on separation The R/V
is spin stabilized at approximately 60 rpm by discharge of a mtrogenfreon mixture 2 sec
after separation The retrorocket fires immediately and persists for 10 sec imparting approx-
imately 600-fps change in velocity Despm is programmed immediately after retrorocket,
and the T/C is separated from the R/V ending the deorbit sequence 1 Yz sec later.
Like the separation subsystem, the deorbit subsystem is a scaled-up version of a pre-
viously space-flight-quahfied subsystem Nevertheless, it was the immediate cause of total
failure of the Biosatellite I mission.

32

pr-
 ^^^^•^^^•^^^^
)
I i

A162 A204 A163 ASS A90 A86 A113 A87 A208 A88 A212 A122 A52 A109 A SO AS A160 A9 A161 A16 A213 A89 A126 A 203
FRAME FRAME FRAME MINOR A71
Nj STORAGE TEMP P 1035 P1035 TEMP P 1035 ADAPT CAPSULE ADAPT -5VOCREG ADAPT P-103S ADAPT P-1047 ACCEPT/ R/V ORBIT R/V PITCH TEMP N 2 REG TEMf PRI /SEC P1047 CAP PROG P 1035
SYNCH SYNCh SYNCH FRAME
ID#t #5 FIXING OP CHAMBER COMP TEMP TEMP ffl.1* COM" FEEDING COMP FIXING REJECT CAPSULE BATT CAPSULE RATE P1035 PRESS R 10. 5 GYRO FIXING TEMP TIMER FIX OP
PRESSURE
VERIF #14 TEMP ZONE #2 MON #3 TEMP OP TEMP OP COMMAND TOTAL VOLT TEMP SECOND CHAMBER CHAf BER POWER OP ZONE #1 MOD 1 VERIF
MON *1 i MON #3 VERIF MON #14 VERIF MON PRESS *15 #17 VERIF MON #1 '

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 It 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
'
A8 A166 A 200 A167 A207 A168 A13 A169 A210 A164 A155 A179 A 28 A 172 A29 _A173
TEMP TEMP TEMP PITCH TEMP P1035 TEMP CAMERA TEMP COARSE TbMP COARSE ~TEMI
PITCH P1020 P1035
IR P1037 FIXING P1037 FEED P-1037 IR P1039 FEEDING P1037 SHUTTER P1079 MAGNET P1047 MAGNET ' P 10< I I
SENSOR PKG #3 OP PKG #14 OP PKG #5 SENSOR PKG frl OP PKG #1 POS PKG #1 OMETER CHAMBER OMETER CHAft BER
TEMP VERIF VERIF COARSE VERIF P-1020 A PR #4 B PR It 6

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 SI 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

A209 A91 A127 A128 A129

1 A211 A101 AS3 A102 A180 A103 ' A181I
P103S R/V PROG PROG PROG
I P1035 28 VDC R/V +10 VDC TEMP 10 VDC TEMPJ
FEEDING COVER TIMER TIMER TIMER i P1047 REG CAPSULE REG P 1079 REG ' P1079 ,
OP TEMP MOD 1 MOD 1 MOD 1 FIXING ±±3% PARTIAL 13% PKG #2 ±3% PKG It 3
1
VERIF MON #2 MON #3 MON #4 OP °2
t VERIF
1

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 ' 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 , 81 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

A4 A182 A110 A183 A106 A1S4 All A1S5 A107 A186 A206 A187 A105 A188 A2 A189
ROLL TEMP ORBIT TEMP 6 VDC TEMP ROLL TEMP , i ORBITAL TEMP P1035 TEMP +6 VDC TEMP PITCH TEMP
RATE P1079 BATT P1079 REG P1123 IR P1 123 i BUS P1135 FEEDING P1135 REG P 1135 RATE ' P MS i
SECOND PKG #4 CURRENT PKG #5 ±3% PKG#1 SENSOR PKG #2 . FINE PKG #l OP PKG #2 13% PKG #3 PRI PKG #4 i
FINE VERIF

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 12 0 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

FRAME FRAME FRAME MINOR A70 A190 A104 A191 DIGIT DIGIT DIGIT DIGIT DIGIT DIGIT A14 A192
SYNCH SYNCH SYNCH FRAME N2 TEMP +5 VDC TEMP WORD #1 WORD #2 WORD # 3 WORD #4 WORD #5 WORD #6 MAGNETO- TEMP
ID #2 STORAGE P-1159 REG P1159 OWSP1 OWSP2 OWSP3 MAG BIAS MAG (LSB) ATT METER piie)
TANK PKG #1 ±1% PKG fr2 {MSB) ARM (MSB) JCP CONTROL OUTPUT PKG #1
ERROR YAW SIG SOLENOIDS '

129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 IE 2 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160

A7 A193 A150 AI12 AI08 A158 A12 A15I A205 A174 A121 AE8 A26 A67
ROLL TEMP SOURCE +10 VDC 26 VAC TEMP ROLL TEMP - P103S TEMP SEP R/V ROLL , R/V
IR P1160 HOLDER REG REG P1020 IR #1 FIXING P1047 SENSOR BATT EARTH BATT
SENSOR PKG #2 SHUTTER ±01% ±2%~ CHAMBER SENSOR P-1017 OP CHAMBER MON #1 PRES #2
TEMP POSITION VERIF PR #8 VOLT VOLT '
#3 COARSE

161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 1721 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192

A80 A165 A81 A152 A82 A153 A83 A154 AB4 A115 A202 A116 A201 A114 A27 A1S9.
ORBIT TEMP ORBIT TEMP ORBIT TEMP ORBIT TEMP ORBIT 115 VAC P1035 4 25 VDC P1035 +5 VDC PITCH TEMPJ
BATT P1037 HEATER #2 HEATER #3 HEATER #4 HEATER REG FIX REG FIX REG EARTH >- I P102
TEMP PKG #2 TEMP P 1017 TEMP P 1017 TEMP P 1017 TEMP ±2%~ OP ±025V OP ±1% PRESENCE [ CHA^ BER , J
MON #1 MON #2 MON #3 MON VERIF VERIF *
#4
#4
193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 21,8 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224
1

A6 A117 A1 AS1 A148 A171 AID A156 A100 A170 A111 ASS A65 A56 A3 I A157
YAW 2 5 VDC ROLL R/V TAPE TEMP PITCH TEMP +28 VDC TEMP SIG GRD BLOWER BAROSWITOH AIR TANK YAW TEMl!
RATE REG RATE CAPS RECORDER P1047 IR P1020 REG P1039 CURRENT MONITOR PRESS RATE P102)
SECOND ±025V PRIM REL OPER CHAMBER SENSOR CHAMBER ±3% PKG #2 PRI < CHAMBER
HUM PR #2 FINE #1 #2 ',

225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 2Je 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256

Figure 4.6 Three-day flight PCM format chart.

! i

-S3
 Referring to Section 8, the first retrorocket of the Biosatelhte series, did not ignite
probably because of an open circuit between the deorbit programmer switch and the retro-
rocket firing squibs As a result, redundant circuitry, including switch contacts, thermal re-
lays, connectors, and harnessing were installed to the two squib circuits in the retrorocket
for flights II and III A new igniter was selected and test fired using retrorockets at the
Thiokol manufacturing facilities New precautions were taken to assure that the retrorocket
would not be exposed to excessive humidity from the time it left Thiokol until launch Also,
special ground test equipment was developed and permission was obtained from safety
authorities to make positive verification through newly installed test plugs that the retro-
rocket and all separation and deorbit subsystems firing circuits had continuity as prepared
for launch
A minor problem evolved in that the spin rate was less than 40 rpm at the end of flight
I Air-bearing tests confirmed that the spin propellant load previously developed in part by
calculation was inadequate The ratio of nitrogen was increased from 10% to 40%, cor-
recting subsequent operation of the spin stabilization
The deorbit subsystem function flow, as modified for flight II, is shown in Fig 4 7
Recovery
The recovery subsystem provides programming independent of other vehicle subsystems after
arming and deorbit has occurred It retards the ballistic vehicle velocity after reentrv to a
sufficiently low rate of descent to accomplish an air-snatch recovery or to limit the impact
from landing in water
Immediately prior to separation, the OWSP originates a signal, which is switched through
the separation switching assembly, activating the recovery T/M and beacon, and arming the
recovery programmer
After the separation and deorbit events have been completed and reentry has com-
menced, the recovery programmer time circuits are armed when the reentry g level reaches
3g (increasing) When the reentry loads reach 3g (decreasing), the recovery programmer
timer circuits start timing to initiate the retardation sequence 34 sec later
Two parachutes deployed in sequence provide three stages of deceleration Deploy-
ment of the first chute is accomplished by ejection of the aft thermal cover by four pyro-
technic ejection pistons activated on an electrical signal from the recovery programmer The
ejection pistons provide simultaneous aft thermal cover ejection and heat shield separation
The decelerator chute retards the capsule for 10 sec This interval is controlled by mechani-
cally activated bag line cutters Second- and third-stage deceleration is provided by a main
parachute, which is reefed during the second stage of deceleratton and fully opened by
chemically delayed pyrotechnic cutters to a 33-ft diameter during final stage
The recovery subsystem includes a vhf radio homing beacon activated near the point of
separation of the satellite R/V from the adapter section The beacon operates for a period of
24 hr A flashing light was included on the Biosatellite I recovery capsule, but was inten-
tionally disconnected for the second flight to increase battery life for the radio beacon from
12to24hr.
The only new development for the Biosatelhte recovery system was the 33-ft (flat)
diameter Mark VI parachute with reinforcing for aerial retrieval The design was scaled up
from a previous development and furnished by the Air Force for development by this project

35
 Explosive
bolts (2)
h V)

CO
'•6
o
(O
c
o
°+3
O

0)
+-•
V)
tn
JD
to

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 Aerial-retrieval compatibility with Air Force facilities was demonstrated by tests and
proficiency exercises The homing beacon was proven effective beyond the visual horizon
by a special sea setout test As noted in Section 8, it was discovered before Biosatellite II
that the G switch in the recovery subsystem was reversed in accord with original assembly
drawings Its mounting was corrected, and performance of the subsystem was nominal for
the second flight
Aerospace Ground Equipment (AGE)
Two sets of AGE were built for the three-day Biosatellite Their purpose was to provide for
maximum exercising of electrical and mechanical functions in simulated operations and
countdown checkout of the spacecraft An existing telemetry ground station was used in
the GE plant, and a new system was installed under a separate facilities contract in Hangar S
at Cape Kennedy for prelaunch field operations Table B 1 (App B) identifies the AGE
items and their functions for three-day and primate missions Technical development prob-
lems were not notable for the three-day flight, but readiness was a constant threat to the
development schedule Numerous small slips in the program and inefficient "workaround"
plans were attributable to late completion or inadequate checkout of AGE when it was
needed for test. Also, physical tracking of the interfacing cables and hoses was formalized
after flight I due to persistent delays, especially in the field, for these items
Experiments Interface
Configuration of the three-day Biosatelhte to enclose irradiated experiments and their umr-
radiated "controls" in weightlessness was a major part of the initial design effort on Bio-
satellite A mockup of aluminum with a plexiglass nose cap was made, and experiment
packages were simulated with styrofoam blocks The radiation source, its holder, and the
backscatter shield on which irradiated experiments were mounted were designed at this
time In 1964, a separate contract was awarded to GE to design most of the experiment
packages for irradiated experiments and their controls in Biosatellite I and II Other pack-
ages carrying the frog egg, the wheat seedlings, the pepper plant, and the sea urchin egg
(later deleted) experiments were designed by the North American Rockwell Company and
ARC under a separate contract In general, the status of experiments was such that the ex-
perimenters themselves participated in the evolution of detailed specifications and drawings
for their units Interface drawings for each experiment package were made, defining its
size, weight, shape, materials, mounting detail, power, instrumentation, and operational re-
quirements A system was formalized whereby the signatures of the investigator and an ARC
representative were required in addition to GE approval for any changes to be effected in
these interface drawings
A full-scale durable mockup of the three-day capsule configuration was constructed
by GE to solve problems ot acceptability, harnessing, weight, and center of gravity It facil-
itated proposed changes and experiment packaging
Section 5 contains additional descriptions of the experiments and their packaging
Development Test Program
The purposes of the Biosatellite program ground testing were
1 To assure that parts and components would perform as intended

37
 To determine spacecraft operating and performance characteristics
To assure that the spacecraft/experiment combination would perform as intended dur-
ing the mission sequence
5. To obtain experiment data during simulated mission sequence testing to assure that the
system satisfied experiment objectives
These guidelines and pertinent sections of NASA Specifications NPC-200-2 and NPC-250-1
were reflected in Biosatelhte Project Specification A-6824 for the spacecraft contract awarded
to GE As a contract requirement, 90 days after contract award GE submitted an integrated
test program plan (ITPP) to ARC for approval
Three kinds of ground tests were used in the conduct of the project; development tests,
qualification tests, and acceptance tests. Development tests were performed on components,
subsystems, and the total system to assure that the development hardware satisfied design
intent. Qualification tests were performed on parts, components, and the total system to
demonstrate that the prototype hardware would not only function properly, but would sur-
vive environments more rigorous than those expected from transportation, handling, storage,
launching, flight, and recovery from orbit during the actual mission Acceptance tests were
conducted at the system and subsystem level to ascertain that end items of flight hardware
met specified environmental and performance criteria and were flightworthy Development
testing for the three-day mission and common systems is outlined here, systems qualification
and acceptance testing is the subject of Section 6
Several functions and subsystems of the three-day configuration were common to the
other two missions, and the development testing for them was expected to be valid for all
Biosatelhtes. The common functions were attitude control, TT&C, separation, deorbit, and
recovery. Development testing was based on operation of the test specimen through a series
of simulated missions Electrical and mechanical performance data were collected on the
development hardware during these tests, which were conducted at laboratory ambient con-
ditions Typical development test objectives were
1 To establish electrical interface
2. To evaluate electrical performance characteristics during controlled changes of primary
power voltage
3 To establish performance within specification and design limits
4 To establish mechanical interface
5. To validate materials compatibility
6. To evaluate electrical AGE
7 To establish performance during simulated failure modes and emergency conditions
8. To measure spacecraft magnetic fields
The experiments selected for each of the three Biosatelhte missions required recovery
of experimental specimens for complete mission success Therefore, special emphasis was
placed on the development testing of the deorbit and recovery functions The parameters of
the recovery subsystem as established by the Air Force were incorporated into the design of
the NASA recovery system
The satellite R/V and adapter-separation mechanism were ground tested to establish the
dynamics of the separation, including velocity increments This test was performed with the
R/V and adapter supported to allow free pitch and yaw about their respective centers of

8
gravity The functioning and characteristics of the T/C separation from the R/V was simi-
larly established
The vehicle forebody was placed in a test fixture, and the application of pressure bags
simultaneously with heat by thermal blankets verified R/V adequacy for reentry
In a second structural integrity test, the forebody assembly with the phenolic nylon
heat-shield material removed was placed in a test fixture and subjected to the thermal cover
ejection loads with hydraulic jacks At 100% of the ejection design limit load, the reentry
thermal environment was simulated with heating blankets Also, an emergency mode check
of the thermal cover ejection was made with only three of the four pistons operating
Important to the recovery subsystem operation was the establishment of relative tra-
jectories and their probable variation Parachute-deployment design parameters were tested
over the range of flight conditions Capsule weights varied from normal to maximum Mini-
mum and maximum g conditions with varying mach numbers were also tested The deceler-
ation parachute was deployed at conditions of minimum, normal, maximum, and 1 5 times
maximum dynamic pressure m capsule drop tests In cooperation with the Air Force, nine
such drop tests were made
A two-phased sea setout test was conducted The first was an evaluation of the flotation
characteristics of the capsule at various weight and center of gravity conditions The second
phase was an evaluation of the effect of water impact on the capsule sealing and flotation
characteristics, with the capsule in its most adverse center of gravity configuration This
second phase also demonstrated the effectiveness of the recovery beacon, a flashing light and
a dye marker under actual sea state conditions during both daylight and nighttime The
fast-phase testing was conducted in the Delaware Bay with a Coast Guard cutter The second
phase was conducted with Pacific Missile Range (PMR) Both ships and aircraft were used to
determine the effectiveness of the various recovery aids
Shock imparted to the spacecraft during separation from the booster were simulated by
suspending the spacecraft and the simulated expended booster mass in line and firing the
separation explosive bolts
The attitude-control system underwent extensive development testing During bread-
boarding, the subsystem was operated under simulated maneuver conditions Stability,
pressure drop, temperature, flows, response times, and general operation were investigated
and validated Performance characteristics of the subsystem were tested in dynamic modes
to determine its capability to meet performance requirements on an air-bearing platform
Other elements of the Biosatelhte vehicle such as the command and telemetry equipment,
gas supply, and electrical AGE were used in conjunction with the attitude-control subsystem
The attitude controller was then subjected to a series ot maneuvers designed to permit
closed-loop operation of the control subsystem Position and rate errors were measured
Modes and combinations of modes were investigated in both the rate limiting and deorbit
condition
A major and critical interface existed between the tracking and command elements of
GSFC and the project Antenna radiation pattern characteristics, voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR), and the associated transmission losses for all antennas on the spacecraft for various
on-launch-pad and flight configurations were measured Radiation patterns were established
on the basis of 20% to 40% actual size models Location of the antennas on the vehicle were
established to optimize antenna pattern performance Each of the five major subassembhes

39
of this subsystem were tested as separate entities to determine performance characteristics
Following these separate tests, the test harnesses and other subassembhes were intercon-
nected for a subsystem test A modified simulated mission sequence was conducted using
commands relevant to the TT&C subsystem.
The entire EP&D system was assembled on a bench with harnesses to provide limited
distribution functions to simulated vehicle loads. Simulated commands and vehicle power
were provided to the subsystem. Voltages were provided at nominal and specified extremes
and output voltage checks were made Both dc and ac outputs were tested
The electrical and mechanical compatibility among interconnected and operating com-
ponents was determined for the environmental control subsystem in a configuration repre-
sentative of flight hardware Temperature sensors were stimulated and the response of each
thermostat and temperature controller was evaluated Current drains were measured Devel-
opment tests established the heater power requirements and insulation performance for
various anticipated orbital requirements
The R/V, as a total entity, was fabricated and instrumented with accelerometers and
strain gages To test the total vehicle for its survivabihty in the expected acceleration and
vibration during the general biology mission, varying g loads were applied in various axes by
mounting the test hardware on a centrifuge Structural integrity was tested by vibrating the
vehicle in various directions.
EMI and susceptibility characteristics of the subsystems were evaluated Conducted
interference measurements were made on power signal and control lines at frequencies rang-
ing from 10 to 10,000 kHz Radio frequency radiated and conducted susceptibility measure-
ments were made at frequencies ranging from 15 to 10,000 kHz Audio frequency conducted
susceptibility measurements were made over the range of 50 to 15,000 cps Transient-
conducted susceptibility with both narrow and wide pulses were determined to the various
subsystems Narrow pulses were measured with about 50 spikes, Vz-jisec rise times, and ap-
proximately 1-^sec pulse length Each subsystem was tested with 50-msec wide negative
going pulses at the rate of 1 per 5 sec applied to its power leads Transient-radiated sus-
ceptibility for each subsystem was measured by subjecting it to ignition type interference

BIORHYTHMS AND GENERAL BIOLOGY (21-DAY) SPACECRAFT

Originally scheduled as the third and fifth of the Biosatellite six-flight series, this mission
was cancelled in its entirety because of mounting project costs in 1968 Following is a brief
outline of the particulars in spacecraft development planned and initiated for this mission
The spacecraft basic external configuration for the biorhythms and general biology
experiment missions was to be identical to that for the other Biosatellite missions (Fig 3 1).
The satellite R/V contained the recovery capsule, which housed all the experiments
In addition to the 1792-bps real-time readout on orbit, a magnetic core memory data
storage unit collected the experiment measurements taken at 10-mm intervals throughout
the mission During station contacts, the contents of this core memory were read out via the
telemetry link when commanded
The electrical power supply was a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell, identical to that devel-
oped for the primate mission Cryogenics and gas storage also were the same. The GMA,

40
which controlled the experiment atmosphere environment, was basically the same as the
primate mission design, but with less capacity for CO2 removal
A cylindrical cage assembly divided into eight pie-shaped enclosures for individual rats
was to be mounted within the recovery capsule The irregularly shaped Arabidopsis plant
experiment enclosure, with its associated cameras, was to be located just below the rat cage
The human tissue experiment package was also included as part of the total payload assem-
bly These experiment packages are shown in Figs 5 19, 5 20, and 5 21 The rat and plant
hardware was tightly integrated with the overall capsule design Environmental control for
both experiments was to be provided by a single GMA Conditioned air flow from the GMA
was to be ducted through the rat cages to provide a controlled atmosphere and to carry ex-
creta away from the animals
Single-phase (liquid) food was to be delivered to the rats by means of a dispenser,
which miected a measured quantity of the diet into a bowl shaped to utilize surface tension
forces for containment of the food at Og Individual telemetry receivers were incorporated
with each cage module tor measurement of body temperature and indications of activity via
an implanted sensor in each rat's abdomen Lights within the cages were programmed for
12 hr on, 12 off with capability of phase change and continuous ON by ground command
during flight The animal data and light status were to be recorded in the magentic core
memory storage
Arabidopsis plant growth was to be recorded stereoptically throughout flight by dual
16-mm cameras Temperature control external to the plant modules was to be provided by
auxiliary air flow exiting from the rat cages (the plants were not exposed directly to this air-
flow) Wide-spectrum fluorescent lamps were to provide continuous light for the plants
(approximately 150 fc) throughout the mission
The human tissue experiment package was essentially a self-contained and self-support-
ing unit with a minimum of interfaces with the spacecraft The hardware provided for
microscopic photographs of the tissue cultures at intervals throughout the flight The tissue
was maintained with internal temperature control and automatic nutrient injection
Major design development challenges for the 21-day spacecraft were
1. Packaging of the three experiments within the Biosatellite capsule envelope
2. Achieving proper temperature control for both rats and plants with a single GMA
3 Developing a feeding system for the rats that met requirements for storage and reliable
delivery at Og
4. Establishing and controlling conditions within the plant modules for viable growth
(light intensity and spectrum)
5. Achieving experiment requirements within spacecraft power limitations
Design solutions for the above were conceived, and development had proceeded through
the successful conduct of a thermal-interface-viabihty test with prototype flight hardware
and live biology specimens over a continuous 21-day period The major objectives of the
tests—verification of the GMA environmental control function, and demonstration of bio-
compatibihty between test specimens and engineering hardware—were met
The chief difficulty with the hardware that remained at the completion of this develop-
ment activity was the Arabidopsis environment control The GMA adapted from the primate
mission design could not control temperature within the tight range required by this

41
experimenter. Some redesign of GMA elements would be necessary to meet or more closely
approach these requirements Mission cancellation precluded further effort in this area

PRIMATE (30-DAY) SPACECRAFT

The Biosatellite III system of modules (recovery, adapter, heat shield, T/C) was basically the
same as for Biosatelhtes I and II, but the adapter and R/V internal configurations were dif-
ferent, as described herein The interface with the boost vehicle was the same as for Bio-
satellite I, with telemetry of vibration and shock information from selected locations in the
attach fitting The attach fitting itself was structurally stiffened to eliminate resonant vibra-
tion modes The launch vehicle was the Thor-Delta N configuration, which is a long-U-nk,
two-stage vehicle The fairing over the spacecraft was the same as for Biosatelhtes I and II
The heat shield and T/C were basically the same as for Biosatellite II
• The experimental animal, a 13- to 15-lb Macaca nemestnna, and his supporting couch
occupied the central volume of the recovery capsule, with his head and feet close to the
cabin walls Beneath him, the GMA equipment occupied most of the available spaco On
either side of the primate was located the equipment supporting his experimental and Ine
functions. Directly in front of him, the removable nose cap and equipment rack contained
most of the recovery vehicle's electronic components plus the camera (for photographing the
primate) and the panel that presented behavioral tasks to the animal Figure 4.8 is an ex-
ploded view of the capsule
The adapter interior layout, similar for 21-day and primate missions, was densely
packed. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell with its cryogemcally stored gases and plumbing and
control systems, for excess fuel cell water, urine from the primate, and waste watei removed
from the capsule atmosphere were accommodated A water boiler for peak-load thermal
control and an in-flight urine analysis instrument supplied by IPL, was also located in the
adapter Cooling for the fuel cell, the power controller, and the JPL unit was provided by a
liquid coolant loop Radiators for the coolant system weie affixed to the exterior of the
adapter At an early stage of development, a 340-amp-hr battery was added to assure recovery
of the primate if the fuel cell should fail, and to share peak electrical loads with the fuel cell
This repackaging of the adapter had a significant cost impact
Interdependence of the subsystems and their interaction with the experiments, as a
result of insufficient planning effort in systems design early in the program, were a major
cause of delay and cost increase during Biosatellite III development Original design require-
ments did not place limitations on the levels of transients that each component could intro-
duce into the circuitry Thus, when the spacecraft was assembled electrically, large tran-
sients were found on power return and on some signal lines The materials in the water sys-
tem that supplied drinking water from the fuel cell to the primate were not compatible with
the water-quality requirements for particles, organisms, and minerals Therefore, a cleaning
and sterilizing procedure to remove bacteria and phenols had to be developed and imple-
mented. The greases used in the oxygen supply system were found to be incompatible with
oxygen and had to be replaced The pressure drops in the water system to the primate were
not recognized in a system approach, this required a change to the water-dispenser valve
spring to cope with an unexpectedly high back pressure
The government defined a requirement to sterilize the urine system late in the program

42
 1 Manifold tube vent
2 Recovery beacon
3 Commutator
4 Converter, controller
5 Explosive switch
6 Programmer, timer
7 Power controller
8 Reentry battery
9 Latching relay
10 Heater battery
11 Recovery programmer
12 Camera controller programmer
13 Inertial switch (3 G)
14 Inverter, power supply 27 Couch assembly
15 Multicoder 28 Restraint (GFE)
16 Recovery battery 29 Primate (GFE)
-17 Telemetry transmitter 30 Heparm block (GFE)
18 Accelerometer 31 Heparm tank
19 SCO Assembly 32 Blood pressure
10 Passive dosi meter (G F E) tranducer(GFE) (4)
21 j Psychomotor tester (GFE) 33 Heparm pump (GFE) (4)
22 Calendar clock (GFE) 34 Battery (GFE) (2)
23 Biomedical tape recorder 35 USC Signal conditionei
24 Fiber optics (GFE)
25 Primate controller 36 UCLA Signal
26 16 MM Camera conditioner (GFE)

49
35

Aft capsule assembly

Primate and components

on coach assembly
47 Gas management assembly
48 Capsule sealing, coupling "O" ring (2)
49 Feedlme disconnect
50 Capsule pressure relief valve
51 Capsule atmospheric sampling
52 Fluidlme disconnect-urme

15
Capsule forward cap 37* Water dispenser assembly
38 Air diffuser
39 Light assembly
Capsule components on forward rack 40' Psychomotor programmer (GFE)
41 GMA Pre filter
42 Trace gas contaminant canister
43 Passive dosimeter (GFE)
44 Feeder assembly
45 Urine system
46 Emergency urine assembly

Figure 4.8 Primate capsule, isometric exploded view.

(1967), which resulted in a redesign of the system This was one of the largest single impacts
in the program, but development of techniques that effectively prevented bacterial infection
in a cathetenzed animal for periods of up to 30 days was a significant new development with
medical implications It also was found that the effect of downstream pressure on the urine
volume measurement accuracy had not been accounted for—an oversight that necessitated
system tests with relatively small impact
A large cost increase resulted from late concern for the total cabin atmosphere During
the first long-duration ground test of the prototype Biosatelhte III spacecraft (203) the ani-
mal's physical condition began to deteriorate after about eight days, he was removed and
died seven days later A replacement animal remained in the spacecraft for 16 days without
apparent ill effect although changes in heart rate and breathing similar to those noted for the
first animal occurred during the first eight days of his occupancy Toxic contaminants in the
cabin atmosphere were suspected as the cause, but no conclusive pathological evidence was
found in the first animal. During the continuation with the second animal, atmosphere sam-
ples were analyzed and found to contain small amounts of chlorinated hydrocarbons These
included tnchlorethylene, which has been shown to react with hydroxides to form dichloro-
acetylene, a very toxic gas. Biosatelhte III used LiOH to remove C02 from the closed atmos-
phere, although a chaicoal bed upstream of the LiOH would have prevented the tnchloro-
ethylene frorn reaching the LiOH, it was felt that this widely used degreaser might have been
in the LiOH at the beginning of the test Subsequent analysis of the charcoal used in the
test showed that dichloroacetylene had been present, at least in the LiOH canister The in-
vestigation into the atmosphere disclosed trace contaminants had not been considered in
defining the atmospheric purity required to perform the experiment, and the materials and
solvents used in and around the spacecraft had not been evaluated from the standpoint of
outgassed or volatilized products that would be dangerous in a closed atmospheie A mate-
rials test program was undertaken, and the introduction of new nonmetallic materials and
the use of solvents in and around the spacecraft were restricted Preflight testing of the flight
spacecraft showed that subsequent to placing control over volatiles, the atmosphere was free
from dangerous contaminants Samples taken just after recovery, and analysis of the flight
charcoal, showed that there were very low levels of contaminants during the flight Toxic
gases were not implicated in the deterioration of the flight animal The investigation into
the Biosatelhte III atmosphere is believed to have been the most stringent examination of
trace gases in a closed environment undertaken to date (A separate report on this study is
being prepared )
During development of the primate spacecraft, a failure mode was found in plastic en-
capsulated diodes extensively used in the system Discovered through performance failures
in the attitude-control programmer and OWSP, these same diodes were also built into the
magnetometer programmer, the life support controller, and the programmer timer Some of
them became intermittent or open circuited after temperature cycling or thermal/vacuum
tests. The discovery was made late in the program, and some of the very small diodes were
incorporated m locations where a complete component redesign would have been necessary
to replace them with available proven items Based on assessments of cnticahty, then, the
programmer timer and life support controller were changed completely The attitude-con-
trol programmer was cross strapped in two pairs of its functions to reduce the possibility of
critical failure, and nine critical diodes were replaced in the OWSP The magnetometer
programmer was not changed No effects of diode failures were detected in flight III

45
Structure
The general structure was the same for the primate mission as for all Biosatellite spacecraft.
The skin and its stiffeners were unchanged The major structural development effort for this
mission (and generally applicable to the 21-day configuration) was to provide mountings for
the densely packed components Problems of assembly, accessibility, and vibration sensi-
tivity were severe design constraints. The resultant configuration is shown in Fig. 4 9
A special mechanical mockup of the primate spacecraft was constructed and subjected
to vibration testing in the development of its layout and mechanical supports of critical com-
ponents
Electrical Power and Distribution
The functions of the EP&D subsystem were fundamentally the same for the piimate mission
as for the three-day mission The separate supplies for deorbit and recovery subsystems were
identical to the previous configuration, as was the programmer timer The hydrogen/oxygen
fuel cell electrical energy source and the multitude of electrical equipment aboard Biosatel-
hte III, however, were grossly more complex Fig 4 10 is a general power flow diagram,
showing the orbital battery which shared peak loads and provided backup to the fuel cell
In addition to the previously mentioned systems problems of protecting components
from conducted interference through the power-distribution subsystem, development of a
satisfactory fuel cell for Biosatellite became one of the more outstanding technical problems
It was because of this problem that when some other reconfigurations were being planned it
was decided to incorporate an orbital battery large enough to sustain operations to a recov-
ery opportunity near Hawaii within 24 hr should the fuel cell fail during flight.
The original plan was to use the Gemini fuel cell Tests in its development program in-
dicated the practicality of extending its endurance to meet Biosatelhte's requirements for a
30-day flight Early tests with six-cell units confirmed this expectation in i 200-hr demon-
strations As predicted, voltage degradation was acceptable However, when a 32-cell stack
required for Biosatellite was tested, sudden voltage drops to zero over periods of a few sec-
onds were experienced as the electrolyte material developed perforations Other units failed
to maintain satisfactory voltage through the predicted mission profile Analyses indicated
that the freon used in preparation of the foam surrounding the modules decomposed in the
presence of the hydrogen fuel and platinum plates producing volatile chlorides. These chlo-
rides occupy hydrogen reaction sites on the platinum catalyst, lowering the fuel cell voltage
This effect is especially evident on restart after the cell has been operated and shut down
Breakdown of the membrane, allowing the hydrogen and oxygen to mix, was found
responsible for the more complete failures of test fuel cells The D membrane (the Gemini
electrolyte) is composed of a polystyrene sulfonic acid (PSSA) electrolyte imbibed into a
matrix of acalar film. Over a period of time, in the presence of H2 , O2 , and platinum, the
benzyllic C-H bonds in PSSA become oxidized and the hydrogen breaks off to form an un-
stable benzylhc peroxide As a result, the polymeric chain breaks into small fragments,
which are extracted by the product water The evidence also indicated that the loss of acid
was greatest at the high temperature points and that it was aggravated by drying in the vicin-
ity of the hydrogen inlet tube
The state of the art in fuel cell technology required drastic improvements if the Bio-
satellite mission requirements were to be met For this reason, two parallel development

46
 1 Separation spring assembly (4) 15 termal controller
2 Pallet structural assembly 16 ater storage tank
3 Evaporative boiler 17 ice/RHO experiment
4 Dual pressure regulator 18 ttitude control programmer
5 Fuel cell controller 19 b Tank and mounting structure
6 Storage programmer 20 Ijpverter power supply
7 Power controller 21 ' [racking beacon (2)
8 Multicoder 22 IJ2Tank
9 Feedlme disconnect 23 I Jiplexer
10 Water accumulator 24 juel cell assembly
11 Rate gyro 25 I ietabohc tank
12 I R Sensor heater assembly 26 }»2 Tank and mounting structure
13 Tone digital decoder (2) 27 agnetometer programmer
14 Command radio receiver (2) 28 diator assembly

26

13
14

Insert showing components in position

Figure 4.9 Primate mission adapter configuration, isometric exploded view,

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49
 programs were undertaken The first was to modify the conditions that aggravated the D
membrane degradation by changes in the configuration, materials, and the environmental
exposures The second was to be a more comprehensive program that would attempt to elim-
inate the D electrolyte entirely and replace it with a material that was not subject to the same
degradation phenomena
Membrane perforation in the vicinity of the hydrogen inlet tube was determined to be
initiated by dehydration of the material by the dry hydrogen gas impinging on this area
Further degradation was caused by burning of reactants that leaked through the pores, even-
tually resulting in a gross perforation of the membrane A metallic shield was incorporated
to prevent impingement of the dry gas directly on the membrane, and a screen baffel was
added to diffuse the flowing gas The assembly was designed to disperse the inlet gas suffi-
ciently to allow its relative humidity to rise prior to exposure to the membrane surface This
change eliminated local drying as a major cause of failure
• Two new types of foam were selected on the basis of an evaluation of several types of
foam for mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties in the fuel cell environment. The
capability of the fuel cell for repeated activiations and storage was demonstrated through
testing. Endurance qualification of the redesigned call was yet to be established
In parallel with the D membrane efforts, a new R electrolytic material of some promise
was examined In comparative tests for oxidative degradation, the R material indicated sub-
stantial superiority over the D material This stability was confirmed by cell life testing
Single units had performed as long as 1750 hr at extremes of temperature and with high peak
current densities
This material is a perfluorocarbon sulfonic acid material, prepared by E I DuPont de
Nemours, in which the C-H bonds of PSSA have been replaced with nonbenzylhc C-F bonds
This new structure, while not materially affected by oxidative attack, has physical properties
very similar to D material and therefore could be substituted directly into the Biosatellite
hardware with minimal effect on peripheral hardware
Three development test units were built in the Biosatellite configuration Two were
used to demonstrate endurance capability with good voltage stability, and the third was sub-
jected to starts and stops with extended holds showing no degradation Subsequently, a
qualification test proved the new fuel cell design acceptable The Biosatellite III fuel cell
(Fig. 4.11) performed perfectly throughout the flight It delivered an average of approxi-
mately 110 w of power It performed for 38 days until the adapter system failed on orbit
The orbital battery, similar to that used for the three-day flight, also was satisfactory
Average power demand on the battery was about 20% below the predicted level up to the
time of R/V separation.
The programmer timer performed satisfactorily with a cumulative error of only 59 sec
m the nearly nine days to separation. This was slightly over one-quarter its design tolerance
of 1 sec per hr.
The inverters, regulators, power controller, commanded functions, and instrumentation
all appeared perfectly normal through separation and for adapter components, through the
37th day of flight The oxygen/water differential pressure transducer, however, was erratic
through orbit 119 It is hypothesized that exposure to water in start-up procedures compro-
mises its performance as had been previously observed, and that the drying effect of the gas
cleared the anomaly for the later part of flight

50
'

^a .\4A> _

; *«•«£'
r»*-
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— 7\ *"~" —
llfW* '
•• '

Figure 4.11 Fuel cell assembly.

Attitude Control
The only design change in the attitude-control subsystem for Biosatellite III was incorpora-
tion of an automatic rate-control operating mode. To conserve power in the 30- and 21-day
missions, the attitude-control programmer was energized when rotational rates reached
0.36° per sec. Control jets were turned off when the rate was reduced to 0.1° per sec, and
the attitude-control programmer power was turned down again after an 8-sec delay inside
the 0.29° per sec tolerance of the rate-control mode.
New rate gyros were selected, bearing failures precluded use of the original units for a
30-day flight. Contamination of damping fluid was later detected in the new units, but was
corrected by improved quality control in manufacture of the flight units. In the attitude-
control programmer, solder cracking was experienced due to thermal effects where cordwood
modules were connected to printed circuit boards. Ribbon connectors were interposed in
such locations in the attitude-control and magnetometer programmers.
The earth presence signals of both infrared scanners were cross strapped to the logic for
the deorbit control mode, and the "scanner on" and "magnetometer on" signal lines were
cross strapped to reduce the likelihood of failure in case of diode failure, previously noted.

51
Gas Storage and Water Supplies

Hydrogen, oxygen, and water supplies were incorporated in Biosatellite III in addition to the
same nitrogen supply used for attitude control in the three-day mission The spacecraft ear-
ned capacities of 11 1 Ib of liquid hydrogen, 108 4 Ib of liquid oxygen, 12 Ib of gaseous nitro-
gen, and for storage of up to 59 Ib of unused water produced by the fuel cell Power re-
quirements were for 10.4 Ib of hydrogen and approximately 80 Ib of oxygen for the 30-day
mission Adaptation of cryogenic tanks previously supplied for the Gemini program was
planned for Biosatellite. The Air Research Company in Los Angeles, California, was the
supplier.
Cryogenic storage and supply was the greatest technical difficulty of this subsystem
Hydrogen was to be delivered between 35°F and 140°F at rates between 0016 and 0 035 Ib
per hr. Oxygen was to be delivered in the same temperature range, but at higher flow rates
Heat leakage into the cryogenic hydrogen tank was only marginally low enough to pre-
vent boil off against the 850-psi relief valve But after vibration, the hydrogen tank consis-
tently failed to meet specifications in this regard A substantial failure analysis effort dis-
closed that the alummized mylar "super insulation" used in the annulus of the tank outgassed
during vibration, degrading the vacuum in the annulus sufficiently to cause excessive hydro-
gen boiloff A pyrotechmcally operated valve was installed on the tank to operate shortly
after launch and expose the annulus to the vacuum of space Tests proved the adequacy of
this solution The oxygen tank similarly was improved, although tank requirements were
less stringent because of the higher specific heat of oxygen
The hydrogen and oxygen supply subsystem is shown schematically in Fig 4 12 The
gases are heated before delivery to the fuel cell by the previously mentioned coolant circula-
tion m the thermal control subsystem. In addition, warmed oxygen gas was recirculated as
necessary through its cryogenic supply tank to maintain pressure above minimum A dual N
pressure regulator reduced pressures of both hydrogen and oxygen gases fed to the fuel cell,
and a separate oxygen regulator supplied the GMA m the capsule
In addition to serving the attitude-control system, the nitrogen supply provided a pres-
sure reference for the dual pressure regulator of hydrogen and oxygen, pressurized the urine
analyzer and the water and coolant accumulators, and maintained total capsule pressure in
case of leakage
Water generated by the fuel cell was filtered to remove its impurities and bacteria
originating from the fuel cell It was stored in an accumulator until required by the boiler
in the thermal control subsystem or by the water dispenser for the monkey to drink When
the accumulator was filled, the excess was irreversibly diverted to a storage tank in the
adapter. Total design capacity was 90 Ib of water
Filtration of the water became a major development task Water generated by the D
membrane fuel cell (the one used in Gemini) was unsuitable for drinking by the flight
animal A filter was developed to overcome the effects of resin migration, flow channeling,
and oxygen gas in the fuel cell effluent The resulting filter weighed approximately 7 Ib and
met requirements for water purity with the D membrane fuel cell The R membrane fuel
cell produced water of sufficient quality to indicate that a smaller filter would satisfactorily
process 90 Ib of water. The now conservative new design was flown, however, because of
the greater capacity of the improved Delta launch vehicle.

52
 Vent

Liquid 03 Fill C*J

Vent

Liquid H2 Fill tXj

Heater
(AGE and fit)

300-850 psi

Figure 4.12 Hydrogen and oxygen supply subsystem schematic

The cryogenic gas supply system was tested and operated in the spacecraft for the first
time at KSC because of safety restrictions in the factory While only moderate delay to the
field schedule resulted, loading of cryogenics into the spacecraft was a persistent problem up
to, and including, the prelaunch countdown At the outset, it was discovered that oxygen
fill lines would have to be vacuum jacketed as were the hydrogen lines Subsequently, dur-
ing each fill of a cryogenics assembly, moisture condensed inside the fill system delaying
progress Blockage typically occurred in the filter screens in the ground equipment near the
disconnects Insurance against such problems had been designed into the test program with
an earlier demonstration at the vendor's remote test site in Nevada The AGE had been
shipped there and tested in a complete hookup, but later investigation showed that hose
interconnections had not been fully simulated as intended
In a rehearsal on the launch pad, frozen condensate blocked the fill line inside the
spacecraft, possibly because of the change out of a leaky valve while residual cryogen was in
the oxygen tank A 24-hr purge with dry nitrogen cleared the moisture as indicated by a
monitoring instrument on the discharge Still, cryogenic fill problems consumed contingency
time provided in the final countdown and improved equipment and/or procedures would be
recommended for future usage The entire gas storage and water subsystem performed

53
beyond minimum requirements of the flight of Biosatelhte III. Cryogenic hydrogen had
been recognized as the limitation on power availability, but flight records indicate that a
20% greater rate of power consumption could have been supported for 30 days, or the nom-
inal usage for an additional four days Water was regularly made available as programmed
and as commanded and its quality as measured from the capsule recovered after nine days
was well within specifications for purity.
Tracking, Telemetry, and Command
The TT&C subsystem on Biosatelhte III was essentially the same as that described for the
three-day mission The PCM telemetry-data rate on orbit was increased 12:/2 times to 22,400
bps by simply operating the telemetry encoder at the higher selectable rate originally de-
signed into it The 70-command capacity of the command decoders was fully utilized, and
was found to be a limitation as the design for the primate mission spacecraft was developed
Commands available for ground control are listed in Table 4 1 Figure 4 13 shows the 256-
word telemetry frame format for the primate mission.
Table 4.1 Commands for primate mission

Identification
Number Command Name

001 Tracking beacon on

002 Tracking beacon off
005 Orbital telemetry transmitter on
006 Orbital telemetry transmitter off
007 Orbital telemetry transmitter 1 select
008 Orbital telemetry transmitter 2 select
009 Orbital telemetry 12-mm timer bypassed
010 Primary gyro power on
011 Secondary gyro power on
012 Gyro power off
015 Rate-control mode on
016 Rate-sensing mode on
017 Deorbit attitude mode on
018 IR sensor and orbital battery warmup heaters on
019 IR sensor and orbital battery warmup heaters off, and reset N2 valve relays
020 IR sensor on (backup) and automatic rate control unlock (backup)
021 Magnetometer on
022 Separation switch back up
023 Attitude-control programmer power off
024 Gyro test (programmed sequence)
025 Binary zero to magnetometer programmer
026 Binary one to magnetometer programmer
027 Magnetometer programmer input enable
028 One word storage programmer (OWSP) on
029 Binary zero to OWSP
030 Binary one to OWSP
031 Start OWSP timing
032 Stop OWSP timing
033 OWSP off
034 Fixed timer start

54

r
Table 4.1 (continued)

Identification
Number Command Name

035 Arm separation sequence

040 Tape recorder on
041 Tape recorder off
051 Arm powered flight (prelaunch only)
052 Boiler on
053 Boiler inhibit
054 Purge command (programmed sequence)
055 Oj purge command
056 H2 purge command
057 Fuel cell controller reset
067 Emergency feeding
068 Maximum (override) water mode
069 Delayed matching (DM) task on
070 Visuomotor (VM) task on
071 Launch mode on and pellet feeder lock
072 Launch mode off and capsule heater off
074 Ad lib feeding extended
075 Recording period extended
076 VM task enable
077 VM task inhibit
078 Cine mode stop
079 Emergency water mode
080 Pace/Rho power on
081 Pace/Rho power off
082 Cine mode start
083 Tape recorder enable
084 Tape recorder inhibit
085 LiOH canmster divert
086 Automatic rate-control mode on and lock
087 Pace/Rho bypass (urine analyzer)
088 Fuel cell controller arm
089 Capsule heater on
090 Orbital battery on 17 cells
093 Deorbit mode lock
094 Deorbit and automatic rate-control mode unlock
098 Fuel cell controller regulator bypass
099 Fuel cell controller regulator bypass reset .
100 Orbital battery on 18 cells
101 N2 available (to all but attitude control)
102 N 2 shut off (to all but attitude control)

The orbital tracking beacons, deorbit fm telemetry, and recovery radio beacon were
identical to those used on the previous mission The Gemini biomedical tape recorder had
been improved during the development for both missions to achieve the fidelity required for
brain wave analyses by the principal investigator Operation during launch vehicle vibration,
and recovery of data from the very slow moving tapes were the more difficult problems

55
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 oooi 0002 0003 OOO4 0005 0006 0007 0010 0011 0012 0013 0014 0015 0016 0017 0020 0021 0022 0023 0024 OO25 OO26 0027 ^0030 OO31 0032 0033 0034 0035 0036 0037 0040
i 2 55' (551 56 91 92 3. 37. 73 19 38 57 58 4 93

FRAME FRAME FRAME MINOR 071 D424 D306 D57 O413 O410 O422 D411 0403 D412 D408 D413 D122 DS2 D313 D50 D310 D442 D9 D C6 O419 D414 D409 D415 D405 D416 D406 D417
SYNCH Nj EEG PM EEG EEG BP EEC ACC/REJ RC F/C RC F/C URINE Nj E KG EEG EKG EEG
SYNCH SYNCH FRAME EMG F/C WATER EEC BP
TEMP CURRENT VOLUME "LEG BP EEG BP EEG
ID#I STORAGE NECK DIFF OISP 43 #1 TESTER #2 -TA-A #3 -PA ?4 CMD TOTAL VOLT REG T'3RSO $10 #5 *6 -CV #7 -CA-A £8
WORQ#1 WORD #2 WORD #3 MON PRESSURE FINE INCENT FCC
IB PRESSURE PRESSURE LEVEL PRESSURE
(PB FRAME ID) FCC POINT
FRAME IOI 0 2 -H 2 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
0061 0062 0053 0064 0065 0066 0067
0041 0042 0043 0044 0045 0047 0050
JO 21 39 40 59 (94) 74 75 41- 94' 5 6 22 23 (411 42 95 60

D8 D74 O55 D75 D51 O72 D4310 OV3

0400 D101 D112 O301 D13 DI13
PITCH TEMP 28 VDC • 10 VDC T8U PITCH H2 BLOWER RC 02 REGISTER 0,
5 VDC "2 Rl
IRSENS AD RV BUS IRSENS RV STORAGE CURRENT STORAGE REL STORAGE STORAGE
TEMP IPS IPS VOLT COARSE IPS TANK PRESSURE HUMID TANK PRESSURE
AD-PC TEMP TEMP

33 34 35 36 37 33 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

0101 0102 0103 0104 0105 0107 0110 0121 0122 0123 0124 0125 0126 0127
7 8 24 25 43 76 77 9 10.61 26 44 45.96 62

O308 O126 D58 D447 O106 D80 D116 098 O432» 0450 053 O102 O433» 0311
F/C PROG URINE WATER 6VOC META +4 25 VDC GMA REGISTER PACE/ RC HO VDC REGISTER ORBIT
SOLENOID TIMER COLL DISP AD WATER RV LOOP R2 RHO PARTIAL AO R3 BATT
TLM MON 1 LEVEL COUNT IPS PRESSURE IPS PRESSURE OUTPUT Oj IPS CURRENT
FCC 5-20MIN DIFFER FCC

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 /
0141 0142 0143 0144 0145 0147 0150 0161 0162 0163 0164 0165 0166 0167
11 27 46 78 79 28' 80' 97 (28) 47 29 63 98 48

D312 O404 D110 0407 DBS Oil D127 D107 O420 0307 D421 D105 D423 02

y
PITCH
AMP-HR
METER
BP
-TA-B
F/C
BUS
BP
-CA-B
AD
IPS
ROLL
IRSENS
PROG
TIMER
F'CBUS
VOLTAGE
EOG
LEFT
F/C
DIFFER
EOG
RIGHT
*6 VOC
AD
ZPG
RATE ^"
FCC CURRENT TEMP FINE MON 2 AO-PC PRESSURE IPS PRI/SEC
AD-PC 20-120MIN H2-H20

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106

1
107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124

0001 0002 0003 0204 0205

12
0207
(80)
0210
81
0221
99

DIGITAL
0222
100

DIGITAL
0223

DIGITAL
30
0224
31

DIGITAL
0225
64

DIGITAL
0226
65

DIGITAL DM
0227
82 /
FRAME FRAME FRAME MINOR D70 D104 D128
SYNCH SYNCH SYNCH FRAME N2 +5VOC PROG WORD 1 WORD 2 WORO 3 WORD 4 WORD 5 WORD 6 MAGNETO-
OWSP OWSP OWSP MAG GYROS ATT METER
WORO#1 WORD #2 WORCT#3
ID#2 STORAGE
TANK
TEMP
AO
IPS
TIMER
MON 3
2-12HRS
(MSB) ARM
ERROR
PROG
(MSB)
BOOM
JCP YAW
AUTO
CONTROL
SOLENOIDS
OUTPUT
/
129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154

0241 0242 0243 0244 0245 0247 0250 0261 0262 0263 0264 0265 0266 0267
13 14 49 SO 66 101 102 15' 67' 32 33 51 (67) 83 84 103

D7 D314 D401 D108 D12 D179 D99 054 D309 D56 D88 D445* D30S
ROLL POWER SIG CON 1 1 5 VAC ROLL PROG F/C RC F/C REENTRY ORBIT PELLET F/C
IRSENS SWITCHING CASE SINE WAVE/ IRSENS TIMER LOOP PARTIAL PURGE O2 TANK BATT DISP WATER
TEMP STATE TEMP 10 VDC COARSE MON 4 PRESSURE C02 TLM TEMP COUNT #1 PRESSURE LEGEND AND NOTES
PRESSURE
FCC AD IPS 12-48HHS DIFFER FCC LSB(s)

161

0301
162

0302
163

0303
164

0304
165

0305
166 167

0307
168

0310
169 170 I 171 172 173 174 175 176 177

0321
178

0322
179

0323
180

0324
181

0325
182

0326
183

0327
184 185 186
f RADIATION DATA TAG NO — -"-0301
7 BASTARD FRAME WORD NO S,-»•14 69 ( }•'
.PSYCHO-BASTARD
,' F R A M E ONLY

•^
(IS) 34 52 53 85 68 (69) 35 36 69' 104 (54) 105 86 87 70 sx
BASTARD FRAME
D92 D148 096 D448 D97 D26 D94 D95 O149 076 0146* D79 O114 078 ONLY
COOLANT TAPE COOLANT RMS COOLANT ROLL COOLANT COOLANT PAM H2 PELLET PUMP/ +5 VDC WATER
TEMP RECORDER TEMP AUDIO TEMP EARTH TEMP TEMP SUB QUANTITY DISP BOILER RV LEVEL
F/C OPERATION RAD NOISE RAD PRESENCE GMA F/C COM COUNT #2 SIGNAL IPS ACCUM
OUTLET INLET INLET MSBd) J MAGNAVOX DATA WORD NO — — »-193
OUTLET INLET

209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218
193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 206
/
0341 0142 0343 0144 0345 0347 0350 0361 0162 0363 0164 0365 0166 0367
16 106 88 71 72 l54* 107' 17 (107) 18 89 90

D407 O77 093 O1CO D420 086 D421 D121 D423 D3

027
PITCH
D4O4
BP
Ol
ROLL BP 02
DID
PITCH COOLANT »23 VDC EOG RATE EOG PWRD ZPG YAW \l
EARTH -TA-B RATE -CA-B IRSENS TEMP AD LEFT GYRO RIGHT FLT HATE
QUANTITY
PRESENCE PRI/SEC FINE GMA IPS TEMP EVENTS PRI/SEC
OUTLET

227 228 230 235 236 237 238 239 24O 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250
225 226 229 231 232 233 234

Figure 4.13 Primate mission PCM format.

 (Ground command)
- • Diverter I
Charcoal Thermal control system
valve ~--»^ t i i . To metabolic H2O
/ | ] T storago tank
-f \I -^ ^i /
-| Unn (x i LIOH II -«j
§» Adaptor menace
\ J \ V

1 Coolant -^^

' To condensate storage

Heat exchanger
_ v^ X
O f—s ^J" iniiii r|
X fVi c j i_ ——s—
From capsule t
Trace gas 1 Fan D\ tf \
canmster N. 1
1 \ 1 ^
- \- n GE Waste 1 Temperature 1 Water separator

t
N. | T management • control valve *
\J interface To capsule
,1 , 1 To capsule

^^^ 1
/
[ F.ltor
\ n
J
171

From capsule fy i i N^

/ Orifice

P2 Dual capsule pressure regulation

Pre filter
Master .
contro ' ChCCk V9 Ve
1 1 regulator '
1 1 1 fear)
p -•—(nY^ L-iO ^K- .--. - f
°2 rh ph •^ — Vi/^Vk \£J ^bt^1 L N
2 20 psia
toTM
1 1 1 1 Jl transducer / °2 F'» valve
02 Partial
pressure sensors
Jw 1 1 C^r
To
/ ¥
Initiator
™? T5 s Tf
© f \
^ ^a 1

I Reentry &
Insentive PO2 02 Tank Relative Capsule CO2 Par 1 i .C O2 supply tank ^
pressu i^ 3500 psia max
temp Press press humidity pressure Current
sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor senso

p g p p p g ~
£*h
^si'
^CV
V/y
T
1_ n^ -• 30 osia

1 Check Solenoid
valve valve

i i i i i TM
i 1
1

Figure 4.14 GMA functional schematic.

 (Ground command)
Charcoal Thermal control system
A^^^ Diverter 1
^^H valve ~-^^i i » . To metabolic H2O
/ I T T «tnragp ti>nk
' ,. /
I ...1 LIOH \
1^ A
(/} 1 / § •*) ,
t
A 1 ,
I
, f
I

\ / V \
Wr1 "-rrJ LrjJ v.

1 Coolant '^-^

"^-To condensate storage

Heat exchanger
. \

1
f
|1 9
A
^L 1 — U
^^
l*J fc "j _r—,_ __^^
H IllllllH —•• L,—,Jx
Trace gas
From capsule
1 Fan tr\
>—I'V 1
y \ \

i
cannister \ 1
Water
N. n GE Waste Temperature 1 separator
^v | (' management i control valve •
\J interface f To capsule
,1 1 To capsule

\ Jr^ N /fl \ I '

Vfc. I 1 Filter
From capsule C^ i i ' \ \ _J

/ Orifice

P2 Dual capsule pressure regulation

Pre filter

. Master .
' contro ' Pressure
Check valve
1 1 r—[— i regulator ^ . /
1 1 _ f / ^ N (two rear) ^^7 x^/
to =M^>=^
^J ^V _ ... ,
'—W
(9^—^*y£^- •• •• r
L ^2 ^ 20 psia
™ D U * M O2 Tank pressure
Jl transducer .0 2 F, II valve
O2 Partial j(g) To| 1 i— K
pressure sensors
/I
Initiator |
™ rs
^ g Jf
© f
x--v i
^\ v
„,«. I ) c
L — — --j -v^,^ a;
«.
1 Reentry §•
• i fC 02 supply tank 3
Insentive PO2 02 Tank Relative Capsule CC>2 Pari
temp Press press humidity pressure Current pressu " i^ 3500 psia max
sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor sensor senso.

g g g g g g t; ^,
£?h
• \Si/
^v\
— -V/V
T
—— L n-, "^ 30osia

i :i ii :
i i
i TM
:
i :i Check
valve
^ Solenoid
valve

Figure 4.14 GMA functional schematic.

• (,o
• <?o Go*i
Cabin air is recirculated at 70 cc per mm through the contaminant gas cannister to remove
noxious and'toxic constituents The cannister contains activated charcoal, Amberlyst, and
Hopcahte
Measurements in the capsule that come from, or describe, the performance of the GMA
include total capsule pressure, O 2 partial pressure. CO 2 partial pressure, RH, fan electrical
current, air temperatures, and recovery oxygen tank pressure
Development of the GMA was subcontracted to the Hamilton Standard Division of
United Aircraft Corporation Except for the two-gas feature, the design was similar to that
used in earlier manned spacecraft The most serious development problems were encountered
with the LiOH canmsters and the master controller The LiOH cannisters developed chan-
neling of gas flow, which limited the chemical effectiveness of its load, and LiOH dust
particles were released during vibration testing Selection of packing material and loading
techniques were eventually adjusted to control these problems The master controller failed
during system qualification test to control O 2 partial pressure The problem was traced to
deficient relays, because of their inaccessibility, new master controllers were built
Flight performance of the Biosatelhte III GMA was good
Thermal Control
The primate mission spacecraft's thermal control system was required to maintain a con-
trolled, laboratory-like environment within the recovery capsule and the temperatures of
adapter components within acceptable operating limits Active thermal control was provided
by a twin-loop pumped coolant system, which rejected excess heat to space from a space
radiator mounted on the circumference of the adapter section One of the loops is the
GMA circuit, which circulates coolant through the heat exchanger in the recovery capsule and
the adapter where excess heat from the R/V is transferred to the second loop (with fuel cell
and radiator) by an interloop heat exchanger Fig 4 15 is a schematic ot the entire system
Excess heat from the primate, various electronic components, and the chemical reaction
within the LiOH cannister is picked up by the circulation of air through the capsule and
passed to the thermal control system in the counter flow, air-to-liquid, GMA heat exchanger
To prevent freezing, heated coolant from the GMA heat exchanges passes in close parallel
with urine and water lines and within the insulating blankets of the water accumulator,
metabolic water storage tank, and excess fuel cell water storage tank Coolant next flows to
the low-pressure side of the primary pump
The pumping system consists of two motor pump assemblies, isolation check valves,
coolant accumulator, pressure differential switches, and pressure differential transducers
The system normally operates with the prime motor pump assembly pumping both coolant
circuits at the nominal rate of 55 Ib per hr, both from a common manifold Pressure in the
bladder-type accumulator is provided by the spacecraft's regulated N 2 supply Switchover
to the secondary pump after prime pump failure is automatic and irrevocable
The evaporative boiler and the interloop heat exchanger receives the coolant from the
pump During normal operation of the system, the boiler is inoperative and the coolant
passes through with no temperature change Heat is then transferred from the GMA circuit
to the radiator coolant circuit in the interloop heat exchanger Cold coolant flows through
the coolant valve to the modulating valve where it is mixed with warm coolant that has by-
^passed the interloop heat exchanger The modulating valve controls the mixing of the

61
coolant to achieve a coolant inlet temperature of 45°F ± 3°F at the GMA heat exchanger
However, in the event that the modulating valve cannot achieve this inlet temperature be-
cause of insufficient heat rejection by the radiator, the thermal controller switches the
coolant valve to its bypass mode, bypassing coolant around the mterloop heat exchanger,
thermally isolates the two circuits, and actuates the boiler The boiler, which has its own
control circuitry, then evaporates fuel cell water to space at a rate necessary to maintain the
GMA heat exchanger inlet temperature Boiler operation continues until the thermal con-
troller senses that the radiator can again carry the GMA theimal load and returns the system
to normal mode of operation, deactivating the boiler. Boiler operation can be inhibited by
ground command if it is necessary to conserve water for primate's consumption
Coolant heated in the fuel cell circuit side of mterloop heat exchanger is used to main-
tain the Pace/Rho urine analysis experiment and fuel cell controller temperatures within
their operating ranges Fuel cell coolant inlet temperature is maintained between 40° F and
75°F to prevent freezing of the fuel cell water and maintain efficient operation Finally, the
coolant is used to heat the O2 and H2 gases from the cryogenic storage tanks The tempera-
ture-control valve controls the amount of coolant reheating in the regenerative heat exchanger
necessary to maintain minimum operating temperatures of the other components in the fuel
cell circuit
The adapter-mounted radiator is of tube and fin design and consists of four parallel pas-
sages mounted external to the adapter skin While the radiator is in direct sunlight, all four
passages conduct fluid equally, however, the two-position valve limits flow m the radiator to
one passage if the radiator outlet temperature goes below 11°F
As in the three-day configuration, passive thermal control techniques were used to main-
tain temperature control of adapter components not tied to the active thermal control sys-
tem, and heaters with thermostats and copper heat-conducting straps were used for thermal
control of the battery and infrared scanners Prelaunch cooling of the radiator was provided
by an AGE refrigerated ethylene glycol water mixture flowing through four tubes brazed to
the exterior of the radiator At launch the radiator glycol lines were purged with nitrogen
and the AGE lines disconnected from the spacecraft
During flight operation the telemetry subsystem provided monitoring of the GMA heat
exchanger coolant inlet and outlet temperatures, pump pressure head differentials for both
coolant circuits, boiler operation, fuel cell coolant inlet and outlet temperatures, and radiator
inlet and outlet temperatures
The basic system design as described above was essentially unchanged from final design
through testing and flight The major engineering effort after the system was designed was
applied to testing and ensuring that the individual components met the system design and
reliability requirements Thermal vacuum testing simulated all combinations of spacecraft
and external environment thermal loads for all spacecraft operating modes and ranges of
orbital heat flux Orbital heat fluxes were simulated by thin-film electrical heaters bonded
directly on the radiator Heater wattages were controlled by automatic power controllers
programmed to vary the total simulated fluxes for the day-night orbital cycle and the cir-
cumferential flux variation due to spacecraft roll about its longitudinal axis
The majority of problems encountered were involved with component qualification and
did not effect the design of the s/stem itself The most significant component problem was
the discovery that ultraviolet degradation of the originally selected radiator PD-115 thermal

62
 Radiator -
Cryo heat
r— -f—f "t~ exchanger
ii :ii !ii —vwwv—
i i !
L4
-t Regenerative
heat exchanger

L^
APre
1
- Orifice tra

(
Two position
valve

A
Check valve
z
y Radiator temp sensor Pressure
switch

Pump Pump

Motor Backup
motor

Pump Pump

A Pressure
transducer

Check valve Z

SGMA Temperature
sensor

1
Water Metabolic ' Water
GMA
storage

\J '
Heat accumulator
exchanger tank tank

ecovery capsule

^ -*'

Figure 4.15 Thermal control subsystem schematic.

'63
 coating would cause excessive use of the water boiler over the full mission and upset the
W spacecraft water balance This problem was solved by overpaintmg the flight PD-115 painted
radiator with the S13G silicone base coating
The only system problem occurred while the spacecraft was being tested in the field
prior to launch A high-pressure differential experienced in the GMA circuit was traced to
a contamination blockage of the normal inlet port of the modulating valve The contamina-
tion was of two types, hydrohzed alumina and solidified coolanol The source of the con-
tamination was traced to inadequate cleaning of the mterloop heat exchanger and contami-
nation of the coolanol with water Water in the coolant caused polymerization of the cool-
anol and the formation of hydrohzed alumina on the large aluminum surfaces of the heat
exchanger. As a result of this problem, it was necessary to reclean the entire thermal control
system, add filters ahead of both inlets to the contamination susceptible modulating valve,
and institute more stringent checks on the water content of coolanol before the system was
filled
The thermal control system performed nominally throughout the flight All telemetered
parameters were within the specified value ranges The only exceptions to the predicted per-
formance of the system were a much smaller variation in radiator outlet temperature over
the day-night orbital cycle then that measured in thermal vacuum testing, and the lack of
sufficient thermal loads to require the system to go into the boiler mode of operation at any
time during the flight
Life Support
The life support subsystem of the primate mission spacecraft was defined to include the food
pellet dispenser, pellets, water dispenser, urine transport system, couch, feces collector, light
assembly, camera, and life support controller The development of these components in-
volved some of the most difficult and costly technical efforts in the spacecraft program
Engineering specifications for these items, based on experiment requirements and character-
istics of the animal (interface) were clarified and finalized partly as a feedback from the
development efforts
The pellet feeder was based on a previous development by the Air Force While it had
not been qualified for space flight, its design status was thought to be nearly ready for quali-
fication and acceptance. The feeder was designed to carry eight rolls of teflon tape, each
with 230 pellets adhesively attached to it. The handle, operated like a slot machine, pre-
sented one pellet from each roll in sequence in its respective slot By this concept, it was
hoped that mechanical blockage would never obstruct a large proportion of food availability
The experimenter required that the handle force on the feeder be held in the range of 2 to 5
Ib throughout the flight The 5-lb upper limit was only marginally achieved and was the
subject of much analysis and adjustment throughout the test program
The mechanical feeder component was eventually qualified and accepted for flight
However, confidence was relatively low and in April 1968, parallel development of an
electrically operated pellet feeder was agreed on with the spacecraft contractor Both the
electrical and mechanical models were qualified as components and were tested in the space-
craft system before shipment, but the mechanical unit was used for the most comprehensive
qualification endurance test with an animal An electrical flight unit was chosen for flight
because of its advantages of reliability and consistent handle force in the final month before

65
launch. It performed perfectly through the flight and was recovered in excellent condition.
The opened pellet feeder is shown in Fig. 4.16.

- - ••> , ..

^ '•

- T •

L >
-*^• •

Figure 4.16 Pellet feeder (photo).

66
 The food pellet originally selected was modified to increase its fat content However,
the change resulted in a mechanically weaker more hygroscopic pellet, so it was agreed to
return to the previous formulation with the addition of terramycm Further changes were
made in May 1968 to eliminate the antibiotic, change the flavor, and add vitamins and trace
elements An interface control drawing for the pellets specified hardness, weight, friability,
and nutritive composition Adherence to the feeder tape was improved and protection from
humidity was provided by repeatedly spraying the pellets on all sides with an arsenic-free
shellac, making them very expensive to manufacture
Due to problems with the urine transport system, however, a high-protein casein diet
was formulated to improve urine acidity, and was ordered for the program beginning in
October 1968 While the new diet solved the urine transport problem, it produced a very
loose stool, which was somewhat improved by the addition of psyllium husk The resulting
nonhydroscopic pellets were sprayed only on one side, and the 200,000 pellets required could
be purchased at less cost than the previous diet Further improvement in the diet would be
generally recommended for future applications to provide for firmer stools and to make the
pellets more palatable to the animal
The water dispenser was designed to allow sucking of water during orbital flight The
30-cc dispenser was filled once each hour in the capsule day mode, and once each 3 hr at
night Ground command capability provided for immediate refill of the dispenser at any
time, and for a maximum water mode in which the dispenser was filled every hour during
the night and day cycles Measurement of water consumption was severely compromised in
early tests because the monkey, hearing the fill solenoid click, would draw water through the
system while it was being filled A second protective solenoid valve was added to the dis-
penser to prevent unmeasured flow
The urine transport system was a recognized developmental problem area early in the
project Experimenters were responsible for developing a catheter that could remain in
place for the planned flight duration of 30 days, and the urine transport system was to re-
ceive a relatively undefined fluid containing particulates, blood and tissue cells, and ejacu-
late that was to be reliably measured and transferred to storage during flight The subsystem
was constructed of nonpathogenic silastic tubing, a pressure-operated emergency valve and
bag in case of downstream blockage, a 100-cc collector, a filter screen with capacity for the
entire flight, a peristaltic pump, a 10-cc measuring unit accurate to 1%, a solenoid valve, a
quick disconnect between the capsule and adapter, a urine analysis device (furnished by the
experimenter), and an evacuated titanium collection tank In the development of the inte-
grated spacecraft system, the requirement for sterilization of the entire urine-handling com-
plex was stipulated after initial tests to help prevent infection around the catheter and to
prevent precipitation of solids in the system due to bacterial action on the urine Repackag-
ing of the system, changes in its materials, addition of access ports, and major operational
constraints resulted Sterilization with 8% formaldehyde and ethanol for 24 hr, followed
by flush with distilled water to achieve a formaldehyde concentration below 80 ppm, and
sterility verification tests were added to the countdown Criteria for selection of the flight
animal were increased to include consideration of bacteria on hib bladder Also, it was
learned that waste water from the spacecraft could not be mixed with urine in storage since
sterility of the system would be violated with the water, and a separate urine tank was devel-
oped, light in weight, strong enough for evacuation, and configured for an available volume

67
in the spacecraft adapter. The residual volume of the urine collector had to be limited so
that the time history of downstream unnalysis would be meaningful The collector was re-
designed so that only about 25 cc remained after each hourly pumping sequence The com-
plete urine system performed as intended in Biosatelhte III. It was still sterile after recovery,
and the emergency bag was empty
The couch frame was provided by GE under the spacecraft contract, while the re-
straint garment and much of the equipment mounted on the frame were furnished by ARC
and the experimenters. The frame, originally designed of steel, was changed to aluminum
for the weight-critical recovery capsule It was easily distorted and required a support frame
to maintain its shape during buildup and until insertion into the spacecraft. The couch as
installed in the spacecraft featured a foot rest and foot separator, an aluminum box to con-
tain the four hepann bags, and a back plate to which the experimenters' equipment was
mounted The restraint garment for the animal was laced to the couch frame, and the
animal installed at the time of surgical implantation of blood catheters The feces collector
also was mounted to the couch frame Except for the usual difficulties in fitting the couch
frame to its mounting points in the spacecraft, its design was fully satisfactory.
The feces collector presented the problem of transporting fecal material into storage
and distributing it in weightlessness One cfm of cabin air was drawn through a foam lining
in the collector to effect distribution at its bottom. Air was drawn into the collector through
holes close to the anus providing a kind of pneumatic transfer Originally, a long tube was
to be held in place with surgical screws to the bone structure Periodic spray of disinfectant
was proposed to avoid infection Later, a belly band restraint with a large external ring in-
terfacing the animal to the collector was found acceptable in ground test and the disinfectant
spray was deleted Performance in flight, however, was unsatisfactory as a result of the
loose stool presented and might have caused a problem had it continued full duration. The
loose stool apparently tended to adhere to the animal Air flow close to the animal in
weightlessness caused the buildup of a dried crust, which eventually bridged over and forced
the very loose stool into the padding in the seat of the couch
The camera was to record still photographs every 20 mm throughout the flight, and as
controlled by the psychomotor During launch, psychomotor operation, and reentry phases
of flight, the camera was to be operated in cine mode at 4 frames per sec This was also
available on ground command Subcontracted to the D. B Milhken Company, it performed
through tests and flight satisfactorily. The main problem encountered was obtaining cover-
age of both the animal's head and the clock within the field of view. This problem was
further complicated by the space and location constraints for the camera and clock A
prism was used to permit coverage of the eyes and head A unique auxiliary lens over a por-
tion of the entrance pupil of the camera's objective focused the clock image onto a portion
of each picture The cine mode was not actuated in the deorbit and recovery sequence be-
cause it had been inhibited as a side effect in the commands employed to lock the pellet
feeder (to overcome an anomoly in the psychomotor) After the OWSP was started to time
out for separation and deorbit, the control team decided not to risk the transient of starting
the camera by command since the system had not been tested in that mode. Fig 4 17 is a
representative photograph of the animal in orbital flight in Biosatelhte III
The light assembly became a greater development problem than anticipated Two in-
candescent bulbs were arranged with a circuit to switch on the alternate in case of failure of

68

r
 V~
.
Figure 4.17 Biosatellite III on-board camera photos during flight.

the primary. Incandescent was preferred over fluorescent for its lighter weight and freedom
from electrical noise. A second assembly was provided for the 12 hr of night mode, filtered
for insensitivity of the animal and for good registration on the photographic film. A 10-to-l
ratio of light intensity was originally specified. However, later in 1967, a 6 foot-candles at
the monkey's eyes and 30-to-l day/night ratio was specified to entrain the animal's circadian
rhythm. This brightness with the power limitation was a serious problem, due to the decay
characteristics and extreme voltage sensitivity of the lights. A costly filament redevelopment
program and bulb selection, plus some minor changes, resulted. Filament decay characteris-
tics were slightly improved, 1A w more power was allocated, arrangement of reflective surfaces
was changed, and the primary/backup light bulbs were interconnected for transposition near
the middle of the mission when the secondary LiOH cannister was to be activated by ground
command. Light for photography of the clock was transmitted to the clock face by means
of fiber optics. The fiber bundle was often damaged until its design was changed from glass
to plastic. Late in the systems qualification test series, a light sensor was added to the capsule
instrumentation because of the experimenter's potential need for verification of the light

69
condition in interpreting physiological observations. The light assemblies performed well m
flight, though the lights tested below their projected levels after recovery—possibly due to
recovery vibration and shock effects.
A life support controller, a camera controller, and a lighting controller were incorpo-
rated m the life support system to program its various components in response to clock sig-
nals, to the psychomotor programmer, and to ground commands. They consistently per-
formed in flight as designed.
Experiment Interface
The experiment to be accommodated for the primate mission included the monkey, his
surgically implanted instrumentation, and the psychomotor test panel that imposed standard-
ized performance requirements on him The experimenters, their laboratories, and contrac-
tors furnished the psychomotor panel, its electronic controller, and the signal-conditioning
equipment, which interfaced transducers implanted in the animal's body with the space-
craft's telemetry and recording subsystems Couches and restraint garments were delivered
to the experimenters early in the preflight preparation for buildup with signal-conditioning
equipment, hepann pumps to keep blood pressure transducers clear of blood clotting, bat-
teries for the pumps, and eventually the five surgically prepared monkeys The psychomotor
panel equipment was delivered to the spacecraft assembly ahead of each systems test and
maintained in the spacecraft after systems acceptance The urine analyzer also was installed
in the spacecraft adapter during factory buildup
Included m the spacecraft were the pellet feeder, drinking water dispenser, a urine col-
lection and measurement system, and feces collector, all of which related directly to the
animal In addition to the GMA, the animal's capsule was equipped with a camera, lighting,
a hepann supply tank, and power, command, and data signal interfaces
The electronic equipment interface included powering the psychomotor equipment,
the blood pressure equipment, and the urine analysis instrument, telemetry of data from
these units, tape recording of some of these signals on command from the psychomotor,
photographing the clock (GFE) and primate on command from the psychomotor, arming
the feeding device on command from the psychomotor, providing electric timing signals to
the psychomotor, blood pressure instruments, and urine-analysis instrument, and providing
commands to the psychomotor and urine-analysis instruments Space and mountings were
provided for the psychomotor logic and panel, EEC, EKG and other signal conditioning,
hepann pumps, the pump batteries, clock, urine-analysis instrument, and three passive radi-
ation dosimeter packages In addition, thermal control was provided for the urine-analysis
instrument, and interface conditions were placed on the urine received by it from the space-
craft's transport and measurement system
The direct interface with the monkey proved to be complex because of the difficulty
m describing it in engineering terms For instance, it was difficult to place noise level limit
on the spacecraft, since it was impractical to determine what level would begin to affect the
experiment On the monkey side of the interface, his thermal, body water, urine, feces,
particulates, and vomitus outputs were defined, the forces he would be expected to exert
were specified, and his urinary bladder pressure range was defined
Several major schedule delays and cost increases resulted from problems associated
with the interface with the monkey Initially, the psychomotor test panel had been located

70
in a difficult place for the monkey to see and reach. This, along with some other problems
necessitated a complete rearrangement of the capsule In 1966, it was found that the
animal's biological data were disturbed when he touched nomnsulated surfaces in the cap-
sule As a result, plastic shields around some equipment were devised, and an insulating
paint was applied to the surface of other components The paint had to withstand the mon-
key's activity In early 1967, the experimenter advised that the monkey could not be re-
strained in normal gravity without change of position for more than five days, and that
restraint in normal gravity in the same orientation for more than 24 hr would degrade the
experiment It was therefore necessary to periodically change the orientation of the space-
craft during tests with an animal Substantial revision of the test program resulted
It was found late in the development that the accuracy of the urine volume moasure-
ment depended on the pressure downstream of the unit, and this pressure was controlled in
part by the JPL urine-analysis instrument One of the largest impacts to the program re-
sulted from a late decision to sterilize the urine system Concurrently with this change a
system test at the experimenter's facility identified a need to acidify the urine to prevent pre-
cipitation of solids This was eventually accomplished by a change in the primate's diet
The equipment interface between the experiment components and the spacecraft was
controlled by means of envelope and circuitry drawings The simple circuitry interface
proved inadequate due to the high transient levels existing in the system, so the drawing was
converted to a timmg-and-events definition, which identified circuitry on either side of the
interface and defined the signals that crossed the interface
In view of its complexity, the overall performance of the interface was good There
was one in-flight anomaly that may have represented an electronic interface problem, the
visuomotor task showed intermittent operation and intermittent counting on one of its
electronic registers (Section 8) However, limited testing ol the component and of the
spacecraft has failed to disclose the cause
Aerospace Ground Equipment (AGE)
Interface and updating adjustments for the primate mission AGE were so irequent, and
cleanliness constraints on some items so difficult, that formal configuration controls were
established prior to flight III on the set of AGE that was used in acceptance testing The
same set was to remain associated with the 501 spacecraft until launch As m the three-day
mission, primate spacecraft AGE was persistently late in operational readiness, causing sched-
ule delays and workaround plans in testing
Development of an electronic, or "active" (not the mechanical or thermal units),
primate simulator presented severe technical problems Low-level signals from the animal's
instrumentation were to be simulated, but sensitivity of the simulator to electromagnetic
interference and lack of clear, fixed definition of interface signals resulted in large unplanned
effort and marginally acceptable performance The AGE utilized is tabulated in Appendix B
Development Test Programs
The three-day mission policies, procedures, and methodology were used in the primate mis-
sion development test program Much of the development testing associated with common
subsystems between the two missions was directly applicable to the primate mission The
greatest differences between the two configurations (other than the life support and

71
experiment components) were in the EP&D, the gas storage, the thermal control, and the
environmental control subsystems
The fuel cell assembly itself, the ability of the fuel cell controller to control the fuel
cell, the topping battery, and the charging assembly were tested under various simulated
vehicle loads and operating conditions A second phase included demonstration of the com-
patibility between the fuel cell assembly, fuel cell controller, topping battery, charging
regulator, and the rest of the EP&D system. Electrical power and distribution subsystem
characteristics were established in terms of power quality and quantity under extremes of
loads and emergency conditions, as well as compatibility of the subsystem with certain
pieces of AGE. During both phases of testing, the components assembled in a breadboard
fashion with a development harness used to interconnect them. Gas was supplied from
bottles, and coolant was provided from a laboratory coolant supply. Electrical loads simu-
lating anticipated Biosatellite loads and thermal conditions were provided by a variable load
bank Compatibility of the subsystem and AGE and other systems was demonstrated, and
power control and switching capability was verified
The environmental control subsystem demonstrated electrical and mechanical com-
patibility among components, and showed that the coolant loop would transfer specified
amounts of thermal energy and maintain specified coolant inlet temperatures to the GMA
and the fuel cell. The coolant loop was also tested for response to transient conditions and
to determine design limits The subsystem was operated under expected normal conditions
and under anticipated extreme conditions, such as simulated pump failure with pump
switchover.
The primate mission life support subsystem test objectives were to evaluate perform-
ance of the primate feeder, water dispenser, feces management, restraint couch, and GMA
under long-term operating exposure to the primate It was necessary, also, to verify O2
consumption, CO2 production, water vapor production, toxic and noxious gases generated,
and particulate matter production Food and water consumption, urine production rate also
were measured in this bell jar test The complete primate mission development test flow is
shown in Fig 4.18.
Particular attention was paid to maintaining and characterizing the thermal balance of
the primate mission spacecraft Various thermal conditions were simulated in a test capsule
placed in an evacuated chamber. Internal heat loads were varied at each external environ-
mental level Capsule heater power, air temperature distribution, capsule air temperature
response to transients, effects of boiler operation, functioning of the fuel cell heater,
orbital battery heater power requirements, and the like were all observed.
The EP&D subsystem interaction with other subsystems required further testing An
active primate simulator was installed to provide realistic heat and electrical loads, as well as
end-to-end testing of experiment signals and initial mating to experimenter-provided elec-
tronics A complete simulated mission sequence was conducted to assess operation during
all aspects of expected flight Initial tests were repeated with an active fuel cell
The interference and susceptibility test, similar to that made on the radiation and gen-
eral biology mission vehicle was, of course, a much greater effort with the more complex
systems. The primate mission vehicle design was validated through the powered flight vibra-
tional environment
Inadequate early experiment definition, budgetary limitations, and spacecraft

72
 Env con T/S •
Calibration-

Cmd T/S — manufacturing

Test1 L Calibration

Gas man T/S — manufacturing —J

P-9—9
J T
Calibration-L.
AGE cables -

R/V T/S - manufacturing

Install air Calibration
Comp thermocouple
thermocouple Replace all Att con T/S - manufacturing-J / \
Install installation gaskets Capsule Test' 1
primate (except air) elec Calibration!
shields Install c/o-
primate Adapter cables
simulator
Capsule Pay load T/S - manufacturing —> / T
Test L. Calibration
Complete disassem T/B test config • G I/GFE Troubleshooting
Replace Remove simulated components- Thermal battsim— manufac- fuel cell safety setup
GMA Checkout turing Calibration
insulation Comp ecs sys C/O from capsule

Harness
Seal and
leak
Start fac prep Disassemble
capsule -
Complete
comp inst Prelaunch 9
mon-manufacturmgTest Calibration Complete primary mission
thermocouple check sequence with fuel cell
(except air) Install radiator- omp mech elect
For thermal bal test Remove capsule
Preliminary test set up Complete narrow and
leak check from service wide pulse conducted
Insulate Tests completed before 30 Dec 19(
Install adapt Assemble Complete bracket/stru mod susceptibility
components heat loads Complete EP&D start GE/GFE Troubleshootmg-
spacecraft — Complete harn inst life support S/S- Complete transient
Comp new adapter detection and RF
elec harness Complete disassem T/B
veh
test vehicle measurement •
Adapter
Comp elec and Complete bracket
Transfer veh to 1707 '
demate SRV and adapt
hydraulic plate —
Leak check
Start evacuate
Comp fac11 prep— Thermal bal
test complete
Transfer test
i mod & comp inst
o
Complete life support
Remove Install tubing & fill system — opacecraii/ia lllty system assy to room S/S start att/control
comp and with instrument Elec C/O checkout cor ip and install 1507 S/S
tubing Clean and Install capsule
insulate thermocouple Disassemble srv Complete harness installation- Start EMC test-
Rework Start pu ,np down and from adapter • Complete S/S testing
struct tubing penetration - Evacuate & fill ecs S/S H2O S/S
Comp harn thermo- .therm p mp test Remove simulated- Deliver adapter
and Complete audio
Evacuate & fill system' components from adapt Deliver capsule
install Receive thermal controller Set up primary mission sequence conducted
elec C/O ransfer S/C to fl assy
bue brks Complete refurbishment susceptibility
emate Complete primary mission seq W/0
Vehicle to 12208 fuel cell
Complete continuity checks set
up for S/S testing Transight insertion-
Install fuel cell
Comp DAC mod- Move to 1643
Complete srv mbte Lat axis#1 set theVmal
comp cap leak test Long axis fixture Lat axis «i vib Coptrol S/S
• survey • -Test complete
Complete srv/adapt mate survey-; preparations
Mount S/C on fixture- Data reduction
Hook-up instrument- Set up record equipment
Long axis vib survey- Lat axis #1 qua Install dial indicators
Lat axis *2 set Install load fixture
Data reduction-I Lat axis #2 vid survey- Install test jig Complete fuel cell
Long axis qua! level vib- Data reduction Complete inst preparations
Lat axis *2 qua Start primary mission
Rerun lat axiscual level sequence
for additional data

Figure 4.18 Primate mission development test flow chart.

73
development problems all contributed to delays in the development test cycle As a result
the development test cycle was closely overlapped with the qualification test cycle This
made less valid some of the development testing Electromagnetic compatibility tests had to
be added to the systems qualification test program of the primate mission because there
was uncertainty as to the exact configuration of the electromagnetic test spacecraft used
early in the program Biosatellite experience demonstrated that overlapping development,
qualification, and flight spacecraft design and testing is possible (although not recommended),
if care is taken to identify accurately configuration details of each of the three categories
of hardware, both absolutely and relative to each other, and to assure that solutions to
development problems can be injected into the qualification and flight hardware designs
prior to testing

75
 5. EXPERIMENTS DEVELOPMENT

Scientific design of experiments earned aboard all Biosatelhte missions remained the primary
responsibility of the selected experimenters throughout the program The selected experi-
mental concepts generally had been demonstrated to some degree in laboratory work, but
none had been previously developed and qualified for space flight Some elements, such as
the automatic urine analyzer, the urine catheter, and fixing and feeding equipment for frog
eggs and amoeba had never previously been developed for automatic operation
In the course of experiment development, peculiar technical interface problems between
hardware and organisms in biological experiments became apparent, as well as the difficulties
of clear definitions, scheduling, measurements, experimental controls, and timing While the
ARC project management staff was less directly involved in the development of most expen-
ments as compared with the spacecraft and operational support, it was their responsibility to
ensure that each experimenter's approved research objectives were being attained, and to
guide his developmental readiness for participation in total systems tests in ways that would
assure flight worthiness
Experimenters in this first-of-a-kind space biology project became encumbered with
unfamiliar qualifying requirements for hardware and biological replicates, detailed documen-
tation of their own procedures, policing by quality inspectors, schedules at remote locations
over which they had little control, and, eventually, long schedule extensions in the tasks to
which they had been committed
Unlike the spacecraft, experiment hardware was developed and produced for flight by
a variety of suppliers (Appendix A) In every case, however, care was taken to ensure that
the responsible experimenter accepted and was satisfied with his experiment hardware With
the possible exception of the JPL urine analyzer, which was added to the system at the latest
practical time in program development, experiment hardware is believed to have met the
experimenters' standards of flight readiness The urine analyzer was acceptable, had schedule
and funds permitted, however, its fluid-mixing characteristics would have been improved to
permit more sensitive definition of trends Other design constraints were the expected ones
of power, weight, and space

RADIATION AND GENERAL BIOLOGY THREE DAY EXPERIMENTS

Experiment Design
To varying degrees, virtually all of the experiments underwent design changes from initial
definitive documentation in July 1964 to the flight of Biosatelhte I These modifications
increased data return with no compromise of original objectives One significant exception
involved the originally proposed sea urchin egg experiment Because of the failure of inten-
sive efforts to develop nontoxic, consistently reliable hardware to support the sensitive sea
urchin eggs and sperm, this experiment was cancelled in the fall of 1965
Of the radiation experiments, the one that perhaps changed the most in design was the

77

Preceding; tag^ Blank

Tnbolium experiment The 1200 rad designated as the chronic three-day dosage for this
expenment was found to be insufficient to effect the observed primary end point, a somatic
mutation, i.e , wing abnormalities Therefore, it became necessary to preirradiate the
specimens by x ray at a dosage of 1350 rad, before chronic exposure to the Sr8 s source.
Comparatively little work had been done with chronic, as opposed to acute, radiation effects
on these Biosatelhte organisms prior to the required developmental tasks, and much interest-
ing information has been acquired since. Also, it was decided to include observation of
length of pupal period as affected by flight as well as determination of dominant lethality
by postflight matmgs The number of specimens actually flown in Biosatelhtes I and II was
close to the approximately 1,000 originally proposed
One significant change was in the adult Drosophila expenment During experiment
development, it was found that data reutrn could be increased considerably without com-
promise of original objectives by flying adult males and pupae in addition to the female
adults originally planned. Again, a preirradiation x ray dosage was used to increase the num-
ber of observable end points The experiment tested the effects of near Og with and without
radiation on the following genetic phenomena- recessive lethal mutations, visible mutations
at specific loci, losses of dominant genetic markers from the Y chromosome, translocations,
crossing over in the male, and nondisjunction
The remaining experiments developed for the three-day mission changed comparatively
Jittle during development In some cases, the specimen number changed, e g , the number of
Habrobracon organisms was increased from 250 to about 500, while number of experimental
units in the amoeba expenment was decreased from 44 to 24. In all such cases, the changes
were acceptable, usually desirable Preirradiation also was found useful in increasing data
return of the Habrobracon expenment. In the amoeba and frog egg experiments, in particular,
a newly acquired electron microscope capability lent an additional valuable element to ex-
periment analysis Computer techniques, developed during experiment preparation, similarly
supplemented data treatment in many experiments
Hardware Design

Requirements and Constraints. Experiment hardware were designed to withstand the

"hard" environments (acceleration, shock, vibration, etc ) encountered in spacecraft opera-
tions, the development and test programs were comparable to those of the spacecraft com-
ponents Additional design factors were sterilization and cleaning processes Severe restrictions
on design were imposed by spacecraft payload weight, volume, and electncal power limitations
A large part of the payload weight was allotted for shielding of the radiation source both to
contain the radiation during pre- and postorbit operations, and to shield the general biology
and control packages in the aft portion of the spacecraft from secondary radiation
Many of the experiments had been previously conducted only in laboratory glassware,
materials selected for flight hardware had to be carefully tested to ensure that no biological
changes would occur, either in the enclosed biology, or in any of the other experiments in
the capsule Some of the experiments were hermetically sealed, but others were exposed to
the atmosphere, so that contaminants or fixatives had to be prevented from leaking into the
capsule
Radiation Source and Holder The radioactive element was Sr85 powder, contained in
a stainless steel capsule that was inserted into the source holder and locked in the safe (non-
irradiating) position prior to the installation of the experiment packages. One hour after
78
launch, the source capsule was rotated to the exposed position on command from the onboard
timer; prior to deorbit, it was rotated to the safe position by ground command. The source
holder, shown in Fig. 5.1, consisted of a 32-lb tungsten assembly and associated drive
mechanism. The drive mechanism, which rotated the source through the closed-open-closed
cycle, was spring-driven with a solenoid-controlled latch mechanism. As a backup safety meas-
ure, the source holder was designed to rotate to the safed position under the action of reentry
g forces—if the close command was not received.

tjM&r.f*-^****

Figure 5.1 Radiation source holder.

Radiation Experiment Packages. A primary requirement for radiation experiments was

uniformity of radiation field spectrum and intensity. The standard material selected for
the experiment containers were polypropylene or polycarbonate plastic, which have satisfac-
tory transparency to 7 rays, as well as suitable mechanical and chemical properties. Other
small components, such as screens, covers, screws, and washers, were made of nylon or poly-
propylene. The only metallic parts used in the irradiated volume were bolts and washers for

79
fasteners and wire for temperature recording. The packages were arranged at various distances
around the central source to receive the required dosage and located so as not to shield each
other. Figure 5.2 shows the arrangement of the radiation experiment packages on the back-
scatter shield.

'.-
.-

- j A_,.
'<&
^
.
*

S a i-Sfe*'
% "*'// J-<

r.; •
', (

/^_ i<- «•*/'

^ ..-*.
V
- •& \ v

r / \Y4
W
Ml
M-:
-3,.
V-' •^ [ft£
v
^ "\
-"'I:: \
::
•v/

•
w
;~ «^,.<-
f
•
. _.. ...J-......_^^ .
Figure 5.2 Radiation experiment packages mounted on backscatter shield.

The radiation dose received by the biology in each flight or ground test was measured
by means of plastic tubes filled with lithium fluoride (LiF). These tubes were located on
each package in a fixed position relative to the biology and the radiation source. After
exposure, the dose received by the LiF powder was measured, and the dose received by the
biology was calculated by interpolation.
In addition to the LiF tubes on each package, three dosimetry packages were installed
in the capsule. Package 1 contained filmpacks and LiF tubes, and was mounted in the
radiated compartment to measure the direct radiation from the source. Package 2, in the
aft compartment, contained ion chambers of 1-r and 5-r capacity, filmpacks, and LiF tubes.

80
Package 3 was a tungsten block containing a nuclear emulsion block mounted to the space-
craft structure to record radiation received from outside the spacecraft.
Temperature measurements of each package were recorded by means of thermistors
imbedded in the package frame and monitored through the spacecraft data system. One of
the radiation experiments (Tribolium) required special provision for temperature control;
the other six experiments followed capsule ambient temperature.
General Biology Experiment Packages. The general biology modules were contained
in four packages mounted in the rear of the capsule on the aft bulkhead plate (Fig. 5.3),
which also held the control packages for the seven radiation experiments. The general
biology hardware was much more complex than the radiation hardware; provisions had to
be made for periodic activation and confirmation of time-lapse photography, and for feeding
and fixing operations.

^ .
•*_-^j/p

*'•%
• f^ .

/AAy* v
, JP • «
v
fir.inaa->i»a.-"-»-i- t i «.«.»„-• . -n. 'in i mUf'tii^f *

Figure 5.3 General biology packages on aft bulkhead plate.

81
 Temperatures were monitored with thermistors; four were installed in each package.
Temperature control was passive, except for the frog egg package, which required cooling
prior to launch and heating for a brief period immediately after launch.
Radiation Experiment Configurations

Neurospora. Five Neurospora packages were installed in the capsule for each of the
in-flight and earth-based experiments; four were located in the forward section and one in
the aft shielded section. The two packages placed closest to the radiation source were
mounted on a metal structure above the source, and the other two were mounted directly
to the backscatter shield.
The biological material was contained in ten individual filter holders assembled into
a module for insertion into the housing at final assembly. Figure 5.4 shows the housing
with thermistor leads, and the assembled module ready for insertion.
Temperature readings for the Neurospora packages were erratic during Biosatellite I
flight. None of the five other experiments with similar thermistor installation experienced
any difficulties. The cause of the malfunction was not determined; however, the imbedded
thermistors were replaced with a removable thermistor assembly inserted at final assembly
after the unit was autoclaved, and no difficulties were encountered in Biosatellite II
operations.
Drosophila Adults and Drosophila Larvae. These packages were constructed with the
same materials and differed only in size. Each had 16 modules containing the biology, held
in a housing frame, which was built as a spherical segment so that all modules in each frame
were the same distance from the source. The larvae package was installed behind the adult
package; it had a greater radius of curvature and received a lower intensity of radiation.
Figure 5.5 shows the two packages ready for installation on the forward plate; two control
packages were also installed on the aft plate. Figure 5.6 shows a disassembled adult module.
Habrobracon. Four Habrobracon packages were mounted on the forward plate and
one on the aft plate. Each package had four small modules containing the specimens and
screwed into the frame. Figure 5.7 shows the assembled package; the disassembled com-
ponents are shown in Fig. 5.8.
Tradescantia. Two Tradescantia packages were mounted in the capsule, one in the
forward and one in the aft compartment. Each contained 32 plants, the roots sealed in a
tube filled with nutrient. Figure 5.9 shows the package with the loaded tubes in place,
ready for attachment of the cover.
Tribolium. Two Tribolium packages were flown, one each in the forward and aft
sections. Each package contained 720 Tribolium pupae. This experiment was unique in
that it required a temperature environment of 86°F ± 4°F. The packages were constructed
with integral heating strips and a preset thermostat; temperature control was automatic, and
required 28 vdc power. Figure 5.10 is the assembled package without the insulation cover,
showing the thermostat, LiF tubes, and terminals for heater and thermistor wires.
Lysogenic Bacteria. The lysogenic bacteria experiment comprised four packages,
three in the forward radiation section and one in the aft control area. Figure 5.11 shows
the complete experiment set. The large square package.contains 48 1.2-ml, nonirradiated

82
 .

Figure 5.4 Neurospora housing and module.

>.

j
'.v

^ tm n • i • I ^^^^^^^^8^^

Figure 5.5 Drosophila adult and larvae packages.

 ,

Figure 5.6 Drosophila adult disassembled module.

chambers. The three contoured packages contain 16 chambers each, 1.2 to 1.8 ml, with
curvature to isodose lines of three mean radiation levels.
The only significant problems encountered with these packages were leakage and
thermistor failure. The packages were constructed of three sections of polycarbonate
resin (Lexan) bonded together with EPON 934. The individual chambers in the center
section were filled with the biological solution through the fill ports in the cover; then
nylon screws with silicone O rings were inserted to seal the chambers. During each series
of tests, leaks developed in a few chambers, necessitating rebonding and retesting of the
affected packages. Biological growth produced gaseous pressure greater than anticipated,
causing bond failure. This condition did not compromise flight or ground tests, but did
necessitate rework and retesting of packages.
Thermistor failures, probably caused by steam autoclaving, necessitated using temp-
erature information from other experiments adjacent to the bacteria packages. Capsule
temperatures were uniform enough for reliable results.
Pepper Plant. The pepper plant experiment package contained nine pepper plants
potted in plastic containers. Four of the plants were photographed to record leaf move-
ment (liminal angle), the remaining five were analyzed postflight for chemical changes.
Since the overall height of the package was limited to 10 in., a three-mirror optical system
was devised to record the top and side view of each plant plus a 24-hr clock dial on each
frame taken by the time-lapse camera. Illumination for photography was provided by
four 15-w incandescent lamps, turned on for 5 sec at each camera activation. Pictures

84
 LLv~

fflfl
-

Figure 5.7 Habrobracon packages, forward plate.

were taken every 10 min from launch until reentry; the timing pulse was provided by the
spacecraft programmer timer. Figure 5.12 is a view of the pepper plant package ready for
installation of the protective cover.
Wheat Seedling, The wheat seedling package (Fig. 5.13) was divided into four com-
partments: One large compartment contained three polycarbonate "stalks" with 1 2 seeds
each; the three smaller compartments coniained one stalk with 15 seeds each. Two of the
small compartments were equipped with a squib-activated pressure system to spray fix the
seedlings during flight on ground command shortly before reentry.
The original requirement was to maintain the package temperature at 77°F; as the
vehicle temperature was expected to be 70° ± 5°F, electrically heated blankets around each
chamber provided supplementary heating. Thermal-vacuum tests at GE during 1966 showed

85
 .

Figure 5.8 Habrobracon packages, disassembled.

an unaccountable failure of seedling growth during the tests. It was suspected that dif-
ferential heating of the chamber wall and the seed stalk resulted in local dehydration.
The heaters were disconnected in subsequent ground and flight tests with satisfactory
results.
Amoeba. The amoeba experiment package contained 24 individual Lexan cham-
bers constructed with three compartments loaded with appropriate quantities of amoeba,
food (paramecium), and fixative (gluteraldehyde). Central chamber shafts and pistons
were spring loaded on one end and restrained by a multislotted face cam on the other end.
When the cam was rotated by a motor, chamber shafts were pushed into the cam slots to
accomplish the desired feed or fix chamber actuations. The shaft movement also closed
microswitches, which sent a signal to confirm the actuations. The first three activations
at L + 1, L + 12, and L + 24 hr were controlled automatically by the onboard timer, the
remaining two were initiated by ground command. Figure 5.14 shows the flight package
in the final assembly process.
Frog Egg. The frog egg package was similar to the amoeba package in that it con-
tained individual modules requiring injection of fixative (gluteraldehyde) at specified
intervals after launch. The same principle of spring-loaded shafts restrained by a motor
driven cam was utilized. Figure 5.15 shows the components of one flight package. After

86

_
 i

!
-

Figure 5.9 Tradescantia package.

being assembled and loaded v/ith the biology and fixative, the 16 modules were inserted
into the metal assembly at the upper left, which had external coils for the water-glycol
coolant. Finally, the assembled package was put into the insulated case shown at the
upper right. The entire assembly process starting with the loading of the frog eggs into the
modules was performed in a 43°F cold room; during the remainder of the prelaunch
procedures the package was connected to circulating coolant in its transporter and in the
spacecraft.
Experiments Recovery
An air-conditioned trailer laboratory for processing the recovered experiments was es-
tablished at Hickam AFB prior to the flights of Biosatellites I and II. Facilities were not
as elaborate as those at KSC since only one set of experiments was involved, in contrast
to the four sets prepared for flight, flight backup, and ground controls at KSC. Also,
many of the experiments were carried directly back to the experimenters' home labora-
tories for the postflight evaluations.
87
 - y
•'
W --1--

Figure 5.10 Tribolium package.

'

.
- -••

"M—

I * *^ "-*•"•

Figure 5.11 Lysogenic bacteria experiment set.

 —...-,. «MP*,
^:

*..w V.... •. r - - -

Figure 5.12 Pepper plant package.

The flight II capsule was disassembled and the experiment packages removed and
returned to the experimenters within 2 hr after arrival at the Hickam lab. Simultaneously, -
the ground control capsule at KSC was disassembled, and the experiment packages were
returned to the experimenters' representatives for appropriate processing.
Development History
From the time of developmental hardware delivery in the spring of 1964, an ambitious
series of testing was initiated, which involved not only individual experimenter hardware
but also operations committing the three-day mission experimenters and supporting
personnel as a team on a schedule.
Table 5.1 indicates the number and kinds of tests conducted to the time of the first
Biosatellite launch in December 1966. Since, by this time, the hardware and team operation
had been proven as compatible and reliable, little testing other than the confirmation of
the biological end points ensued until the second, and successful, flight in September 1967.
In all instances controls were run simultaneously with the test article(s). Temperatures and
humidities were controlled to appropriate levels. Gas samples were taken during tests at
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Figure 5.13 Wheat seedling.

GE and KSC and from the wheat seedling packages at GE, KSC, and North American
Rockwell Corporation. Radiation sources were low for the first several systems tests but
in later tests were at the nominal values. All Sr8S sources were encapsulated in flight-type
stainless steel.
Since efficient use of space was essential, it was necessary to first determine the
minimum number of specimens that would yield meaningful data. This sample would then
have to be supported by hardware that could be flight qualified. It was predicted that
rugged, machineable, lightweight plastics would most universally apply, provided that they
proved compatible with experiment requirements. Plastic materials ultimately did prove
practicable, and virtually all of the three-day experiments utilized hardware comprising
considerable plastic.
In the case of the frog egg experiment, one of the first tasks was to establish compatibi-
lity of eggs with plastic. A small module of acrylic plastic was fabricated, routinely cleaned,
filled with water and eggs, and sealed (Fig. 5.17). Since a minimum survival time of four
days was necessitated by the experiment schedule, it was found that tradeoffs between num-
ber of samples needed, sample size, and module and package volumes demanded the addition

92
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Figure 5.14 Amoeba flight package in final assembly.

of oxygen to the egg solution. The amounts of oxygen necessary were determined in
further experimentation.
Early in the program, the possibility of biological effects of launch forces prompted
tests incorporating the biological material with vibration and acceleration at estimated
levels. Breadboard modules with frog eggs were so exposed (Fig. 5.18), and the eggs were
found to develop normally.
A problem more serious to the frog egg experiment than most of the others was that

93
Figure 5.15 Frog egg package components

of the prospective hold time from fertilization to weightlessness. It was necessary to expose
the eggs to the weightless environment before the first cell division occurred. At that time it
was not feasible to fertilize the eggs in space, and since at normal temperatures the first cell
division occurs within 2.5 hr, it was necessary to determine a tolerable low temperature that
would inhibit initial division over the expected 12-hr assembly and launch operational time.
This temperature, found to be 6°C,-was required in the flight hardware until launch. Another
peculiar problem was the scheduling of an actual flight date and the almost inevitable change
of that date. The experimenter had to be prepared with biological material on relatively short
notice without regard to seasonal availability of frog eggs. Techniques of laboratory mainten-
ance were devised to ensure a supply of reproductively active donor frogs at any launch date.
It was further necessary to "fix" (preserve) samples of eggs at predetermined stages of
development. Hardware was designed to withhold the very toxic fixative from the specimens
until fixing was commanded, as well as to isolate it throughout flight from the spacecraft
environment. Some design testing was facilitated by the delivery of several preprototype
units before developmental hardware became available. A frangible glass ring, sealed and en-
closing the fixative, was tested in this hardware (Fig. 5.19) and discarded as an unacceptable
method. Various materials for use in the O-ring seal between egg and fixative chambers were

94
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Figure 5.16 Biosatellite 11 Launch, Sept. 1967, showing clean room operations (wheat
seedling hardware in foreground), Kennedy Space Center.
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Figure 5.17 Breadboard modules of acrylic plastic for frog egg experiment, illustrating
effect of available oxygen on development.
 .

Figure 5.18 Breadboard modules with frog eggs mounted on drop table for reentry simulation.

tested for toxicity and permeability before one was found acceptable. Actuation of fixation
and mixing of preservative and media was also studied with this hardware (Fig. 5.20). It was
noted that although many materials did not exhibit toxic effects in an open system, a closed

96
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Figure 5.19 Preprototype frog egg hardware showing glass fixing chamber insert (since
discarded).

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Figure 5.20 Preprototype frog egg modules, mounted to test actuation and mixing.
system (i.e., a sealed module) had the effect of amplifying toxicity. Thus, tests conducted
with more realistic forms of hardware yielded far more significant results.
By the time of developmental hardware delivery, many of the basic questions concerning
experiment support had been answered for the design of developmental hardware. But final
clarification of requirements was made possible through the test series outlined in Table 5.1.
Prior to these tests, the hardware was apportioned to the investigators for biocompatibility
testing in their laboratories. The initially acceptable acrylic hardware for the frog experiment,
as delivered, was found to be toxic. Cleaning and outgassing procedures had to be tested and
defined to ensure consistently compatible modules. With the assurance of biocompatible
hardware, the team of engineers, scientists, and technicians began the operational testing and
documentation that culminated in the flights of Biosatellites I and II.
Some elements in the development of the frog egg experiment were common to the other
experiments: (1) a determination of sample sizes and support requirements; (2) a period of
materials testing and launch vibration, acceleration, and noise testing; (3) experimentation to
ensure compatibility of flight constraints with experiment objectives; and (4) development
of laboratory techniques to provide on schedule the required specimens.
Certain other hardware difficulties are noteworthy. The amoeba plastic modules required
a very rigorous cleaning and chemical treatment for acceptability as nontoxic; Habrobracon
specimens proved quite susceptible to vibration, and module mounting was critical. Drosophila
modules had to be selected for tightness of lid over base. Flour as a medium for Tribolium was
discarded and felt padding substituted. At first, time-lapse cameras and their actuating
mechanisms were recalcitrant in operation in the pepper plant experiment (Fig. 5.21); similar
difficulties often were encountered in the actuations of the frog and amoeba experiments. All
such difficulties were overcome, and the hardware was fully acceptable by flight time.

TWENTY-ONE-DAY BIORHYTHMS AND GENERAL BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS

Overall Design Configuration

The experiment payload consisted of three separate experiment packages for housing the
Arabidopsis experiment, the tissue culture experiment, and the two rat experiments.
Arabidopsis. Major parts of this package were five plant modules with nutrient cups,
a light assembly, two cameras, a clock, a seed module, a squib-activated seed-irrigation device,
and the housing. Size, weight, and power requirements were approximately 1 ft 3 , 13.8 Ib,
and 10 w.
The plant modules, made of Lexan, were transparent to allow light to enter and for
photography. The nutrient cups at one end of each module contained agar, which supports
the plants' growth. The light assembly provided 150 to 175 fc of light at the surface of the
agar to promote good plant growth. A wide-spectrum Grolux bulb with a reflector was used
in the light assembly.
Two identical 16-mm time-lapse cameras with partially overlapping fields of view were
used. Each camera photographed four of the five plant modules with three of the five
modules common to both cameras. Thus, the three common modules were photographed
stereoptically. Pictures were taken once every hour. An Acutron timepiece was placed in
the field of view of both cameras to show the time in days, hours, and minutes of each
exposure.
98
Figure 5.21 Camera and bracket for pepper plant experiment.

The seed module contained seeds, cemented to a sponge, which was kept dry until the
desired irrigation command was received (planned for the middle to later portion of the
flight). The seed module was not in the field of view of the cameras. The squib-actuated
seed-irrigation device ensured that germination would begin.
99
 Tissue Culture. This experiment package contained two identical microscope-camera
assemblies, each of which took time-lapse, phase-contrast photomicrographs of living cells
for 21-days at Og, and a controller for maintaining cell temperature between 93°F and 99° F.
It was a sealed unit 5.5 X 9.3 X 3.9 in. and weighing 5.5 lb. In the photooptics portions of
the package, 20X objecti"e, phase-contrast microscopes were used with incandescent lamps
capable of producing proper exposure of film frame in less than 2 sec. Each camera carried
115 ft of 16-mm film.
The film-advance system was driven by electric motors. Each camera shot one frame
per min for 100 min each 12 hr.
The cell nutrient media system had electric-motor-driven pumps, which changed the
cell nutrient media each 12 hr. Capacity of the system was 70 0.1-ml feedings.
The thermal control system used electric heaters and was capable of maintaining cell
temperature between 93°F and 99°F for ambient temperatures between 70°F and 95°F.
Power required was a function of ambient temperature. For 75°F ambient, 7.2 w average
was required during the 100-min photography cycle and 3.3 w average during the remainder
of the 12hr.
Rat. Designed for eight 250-gm rats for studies of biorhythms and body chemistry,
this package consisted of five basic assemblies of systems: a lighting assembly, a feeder sys-
tem, a waste-collection assembly, a data acquisition system, and a structural assembly. The
lighting assembly had two lights in each of the eight cages. The second light was for redun-
dancy and operated if the primary light failed. Switching was initiated automatically by a
light sensor in each cage. A light controller provided for a day-night cycle of 12-hr lights on
followed by 12-hr lights off. On real-time commands from ground, it could also
1. Introduce phase shifts in the day-night cycle by delaying the start of the next 12-hr off
period by 6 hr
2. Hold lights on continuously
3. Return to the 12-hr on, 12-hr off cycle
Cage lights provide an intensity of 2.5 to 6.0 fc in each cage incident to the floor..
The feeder system provided each rat with liquid diet on demand. However, the feeder
programmer limited the maximum frequency of delivery to once every 90 sec. The amount
per delivery could be adjusted during assembly and test to a value between 0.5 cc and 1.5 cc.
The food was dispensed into a special feeding bowl; the rats were trained to actuate the
feeding bowl switch. One bottle of food was used for each rat. The number of food deliv-
eries for each rat was stored in a memory device every 10 min for transmission to ground
during station passes.
The rat cage atmosphere and temperature were controlled by the GMA of the space-
craft. Other means of waste collection in the rat experiments package included a ducting
arrangement to provide air flow through the rat cages and through the debris traps and
particulate-matter filters. The debris traps contained a microbistatic agent of low volatility.
The data-acquisition system for this package consisted of antennas and receivers in
each cage for reception of signals on body temperature and activity from small telemetry
transmitters implanted in each rat, and thermistors for measuring the temperature of the
air entering and leaving the cages. Light sensors provided cage-light status data. These data
also were stored in a core memory every 10 min for transmission to ground during station
passes.
100
 The structural assembly houses eight rats in individual cages, and is arranged to allow
easy accessibility by the rats to the feed system and provide antenna pickup of implanted
telemeter signals from the rat.
Development History
A great deal of ground-based experimentation was accomplished in the development of the
three proposals in this category before the cancellation of the supporting mission. The
experimentation and testing preceded, contributed to the design of, and ultimately made
use of the developmental hardware illustrated in Figures 5.22 through 5.24.
The rat experiment evolved examples of the studies implemented in response to unique
requirements for bioscience experiments. In addition to the many baseline studies per-
formed by the experimenters in their laboratories, the following specific factors were of
concern to supporting Biosatellite personnel, biologists, and engineers.
While a liquid diet is more practical for spacecraft design than a solid diet, particular
dietary requirements were to be satisfied, regardless of the form of the food. A nutrition
study involving kinds of liquid diets, concentrations, and caloric content was conducted
with rats of different ages and an acceptable diet was specified.
To determine the effects of telemeter implantation, mock sensors were implanted and
their physiological effects on rats studied as a function of age and lighting regimen.
An investigation was made of the usefulness of measuring oxygen consumption as an
indicator of physiologic condition and rhythm. A closed system designed to measure con-
sumption by solenoid valve openings (in response to demand) was fabricated and used
successfully.
Tests utilizing developmental hardware were conducted to answer the question of
whether noisy switches or activity of rats in adjacent cages cue biorhythms.
The effects of altered gravity on the biorhythms and body composition of rats were
studied. Rats in developmental hardware were exposed chronically to g loads on a centri-
fuge, and experiment end points were studied. Similarly, to investigate the physiological
effects of high noise levels (launch) on rats, the animals were exposed to the noise of a jet
engine and their hearing responses studied. Rat behavior and operation of the liquid diet
feeder were studied in aircraft flying Og trajectories.
Animals in hardware were exposed to simulated launch transients (vibration, accel-
eration, and noise) at different times of day and rhythms measured to determine the time
at which possible phase-determined effects on biorhythms were least disturbing. Perform-
ance of the developmental hardware with biologicals under closed-system conditions was
investigated at the contractor's laboratories under simulated mission conditions. This test
incorporated the Arabidopsis and human tissue cell experiments, which also underwent a
series of studies to determine hardware support requirements, mission constraint effects,
and reliability of biological end points under such conditions. Through these testing and
design efforts, specifications for flight hardware were completed before the mission was
cancelled.

101
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in center.

102
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Figure 5.23 Arabidopsis package, 21-day flight (prototype).

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Figure 5.24 Tissue culture, 21-day flight (prototype).

103
PRIMATE MISSION EXPERIMENTS

The principal investigation of the primate mission was correlative analyses by digital com-
puter of electrical brain waves with the animal in various states of sleep and alertness, in-
cluding focused attention, eye-hand coordination, and short memory trials. In addition,
coinvestigators were to measure other physiological parameters on the same animal. The
basic experimental techniques and implanted body sensors were demonstrated in laboratories
but had not been automated. Urine catheterization for 30 days of continuous service had
not been developed. This later accomplishment by Dr. A. Cockett of Harbor General Hospi-
tal has pediatric applicability. The urine analyzer was a unique development for this space
flight.
Like the three-day experimenters, these investigators equipped and staffed complete
laboratories for preparing animals and equipment, both in Philadelphia and at KSC to sup-
port test and flight operations. Many days of 24-hr action schedules were supported at both
field locations. Difficulties surmounted included identifications of faults on both sides of
systems test interfaces, electrical damage to experiment components from accidental tran-
sient of spacecraft power, and reschedules for test or flight readiness due to equipment fail-
ures (and, in one case, launch complex schedule conflict).
Animal Preparation
The monkeys used in the Biosatellite program were procured by ARC from several vendors
who obtained the 400-plus animals from their native habitat in Southeast Asia. Specifica-
tions for the monkeys included good physical condition, a weight range, and negative reac-
tion to at least one tuberculosis (TB) test. On arrival at ARC, the animals were placed in
separate quarters for a quarantine period of 6 weeks. During this time they were given a
thorough medical examination, tested three more times for TB (both avian and mammalian
strains), and tested for microfilaria. They were checked for malaria and the positives were
treated and retested until they became negative. Stool cultures were made for Salmonella
and Shigella. Positive individuals were treated, and only when negative were they allowed
to enter the resident colony. During the quarantine period, the tails were removed. If the
canines had erupted they too were removed; otherwise this surgery was delayed to a later
date. When monkeys had spent the required six weeks in quarantine and were found nega-
tive to three TB tests, microfilaria, malaria, Salmonella and Shigella tests, they were trans-
ferred to the resident colony. Medical records, including all laboratory results, x rays, and
history of illness and treatment, were maintained and kept current throughout the animals'
residence in the ARC colony. (Fig. 5.25).
Animals were selected from the resident colony for use in tests at ARC or for shipment
to one of the universities involved in the Biosatellite program. Candidate animals for system
tests or for flight operations were sent to UCLA to begin experiment preparation. The
initial phase was to begin training of the animals to suck water from flight-like dispensers
and to adapt them to restraint. Behavioral task training followed, and animals that responded
acceptably to the training regime were implanted with EEC sensors.
On completion of the EEC implants, the subjects were exposed to a rigorous training
program for approximately 12 weeks. Proficiency in the two tasks was accomplished dur-
ing this period and baseline EEC data were acquired. The adolescent animals still of

104
 •
-——
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X,
'
-

Figure 5.25 ARC monkey colony.

acceptable size, weight, and general health that performed the tasks at prescribed levels of
proficiency were selected as test or flight candidates.
Ten preliminary test and ten flight candidates were selected for shipment to the test
site and launch site at T - 30 and T - 60 days, respectively. Training was continued at the
field sites to maintain task proficiency. Baseline-data collection also continued. At T - 15
days, five final candidates were selected on the basis of a detailed evaluation of their physi-
cal condition, general behavior, task performance proficiency, and other criteria.
Urinary catheterization of the five candidate animals was performed on T - 14 and
T - 13 days. Radiographs of the skeleton for bone-density measurements were made at this
time also. Following this surgery the animals were maintained in the Biosatellite restraint
configuration. On T - 9 and T - 8 days they were removed from restraint for insertion of

105
vascular cannulas, EKG sensors, and impedance pneumograph leads, and then returned to
new restraint suits (of the same type) and couches that had the necessary instrumentation
for monitoring the cardiovascular measurements. This concluded the surgery on the sub-
jects, and intensive care and monitoring of all animals continued. Radiographs of bone
density were made again.
On T - 3 and T - 2 days, each candidate was subjected to fluid compartment and total
cell mass measurements using radioisotope injection and total body K40 techniques. The
last preflight radiographs were made at this time.
At approximately T - 36 hr, an animal-selection committee was convened. All possible
data on each of the five candidates were accumulated and subjected to review and evaluation
by the committee. On the basis of this review, the test, flight, and backup animals were
selected.
Final preparations of the flight and backup animals, already in flight restraint garments
and couches, consisted of bladder flush and bubble evacuation from the catheter, attachment
of feces collector to restraint/couch subsystem, and collection of final prelaunch baseline
data prior to transport of animal to test area or gantry.
Primate Hardware Design

Early planning for the primate experiment established areas of responsibility for the experi-
ment hardware. Development of life support and environment control was assigned to the
spacecraft contractor. Experimenter responsibilities included sensor implants, their associ-
ated signal conditioning equipment, psychomolor lask hardware, urine catheter, and urine
analyzer. ARC was responsible for the animal's restraint system.
The capsule arrangement evoived with the primate facing forward (both at launch, and
during reentry). The psychomotor panel was given a priority location directly in front of
the animal, positioned for easy reach and eye focus. The panel displayed the Nixie tube
buttons for the delayed matching (DM) task and the rotating concentric discs for the visu-
oniotor (VM) task. Figure 5.26 shows the panel mounted in the forward section of the
capsule. A view of the capsule (lower section) general arrangement is shown in Figure 5.27.
The psychomotor logic and control unit was a separate capsule component (referred to as
the "housing") and contained the electronics for the psychomotor task operations and its
associated data formatting. The housing also had control interfaces with a number of space-
craft components within the capsule, such as the camera, tape recorder, and feeder. Thus,
the psychomotor housing was a central component in the integration of capsule hardware
functions.
The animal was instrumented with physiological sensors including implanted electro-
encephalogram (EEC), electromyogram (EMG), electrooculogram (EOG), electrocardiogram
(EKG), impedance pneumogram (ZPG), and brain and body temperature electrodes. The
EEC electrodes (ten individual measurements) were deep implants tlirough the top of the
skull, potted into a head cap of Kadon. Short leads were implanted in muscle tissue for EOO.
EMG, EKG, and ZPG measurements. The brain-temperature sensor was installed as part of
the head cap assembly, while the body-temperature sensor was attached to the urine catheter
below the bladder.
The animal was also instrumented with blood pressure sensors connected to implanted
catheters, which extended to four separate cardiovascular sites: the central artery, the

108
 •
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Figure 5.26 Forward capsule cap showing tester panel.

tibular artery, the pulmonary artery, and the central vein. The blood pressure measurement
hardware was mounted on the animal couch assembly. This instrumentation was connected
mechanically to the four teflon catheters that entered the body at the animal's thigh. Pres-
sures were measured at the transducer assembly, which was external to the animal. A set of
solenoid pumps injected a small volume of heparin into each catheter line at 1-min intervals
to maintain the catheter tip (within the animal) clear of any clogging or clotting.
Signal conditioners for the low-level physiological outputs were located on the back of
the animal's couch to minimize lengths of signal leads and provide practical interfaces for
the animal/couch assembly with the rest of the flight system. Figure 5.28 shows couches
being built up in their assembly fixtures for flight, with a view of the "backpack" hardware,
including heparin pumps, transducer blocks, and signal conditioners for the USC experiment.

107
 (/

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Figure 5.27 Lower capsule section.

The couch was mated with the animal when sensors were implanted, prior to installa-
tion in the spacecraft, so that it was necessary for the capsule design to accommodate direct
couch access for both launch and recovery operations. The couch assembly also included
the feces can, and a storage tank for four teflon bags containing heparin solution.
The animal's restraint system evolved from many tests to determine factors of long-
term confort, instrument and implant protection, and physical support and safety for the
animal during launch, reentry, and recovery loads. ARC worked closely with the Wright-
Patterson AFB in this development, with Wright-Patterson providing the garment manufactur-
ing technology and the flight units.
The forward portion of the animal's restraint garment was a nylon suit which covered
the body from the neck area down, with arms free. Legs were closely held in a forward

108
 -\
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Figure 5.28 Couches in buildup.

position, with the feet located by a nonmetalic rest at the end of the couch frame. The
footrest had a center divider that prevented the animal's feet from crossing over, thus pro-
tecting the galvanic skin response (GSR) leads (later dropped from the experiment). The
footrest also prevented the animal from exerting a force with his feet directly on the skin of
the capsule. The forward portion of the suit zipped into position on the couch, attaching
to a trampoline style backrest laced along the full length of the couch rails (Fig. 5.29). The
"soft" character of this restraint maximized the comfort factor while still adequately pro-
tecting the animal's implants and the spacecraft interior. The restraint also served to locate
the animal over the feces can, which was attached by a flexible duct (to allow vertical
movement) to the restraint.
The urine catheter was mated to the urine transport system at the side of the couch.

109
 \
.

•v?*i.
-:rr.: -_
' 1*
~s>- ,«
•» • ' » •%•»-

'
•
•
.•
*~ -
••^^••^iii*^ -i ii i «i i i^iiiii t • jiMi' nig

Figure 5.29 Couch lacing.

Here, urine was collected, measured, and transferred downstream at hourly intervals to the
urine analyzer located in the adapter. The analyzer, designed and built by JPL, featured
highly miniaturized hardware elements to sample and measure concentrations of calcium,
creatine, and creatinine. Calcium concentration from samples and knowledge of total urine
quantity on a related timeline provide the basis for calculating the total calcium excretion
through urine during the mission. Measure of the combination of creatine and its anhydride,
creatinine, provides an index to the rate and degree of muscle atrophy.
When the urine system pumped its measured 10-cc quantities, the JPL instrument with-
drew a 1-cc sample downstream. These samples were collected over a 6-hr period, at the end
of which the analysis cycle began. Calcium in the sample was detected optically after mixing
with a chemical reagent, calcein, which produces a fluorescent complex; concentration is a
function of the flourescence intensity.

110
 Creatine and creatinine were obtained by initially measuring free creatinine optically
from a color development of urine mixed with picrate solution. A portion of the same sam-
ple was treated with acid at high temperatures to convert the creatine to creatinine, and the
color development process was repeated. Creatine was determined as total creatinine minus
original creatinine.
The spacecraft was equipped with two types of dosimetry for monitoring of mission
environment: nuclear emulsions and particle-sensitive plastic. The plastic dosimetry was
added as a later item to measure heavy ionizing particles. All dosimeters were located in
proximity to the animal.
Experiment Equipment Development History

Hardware development for the primate experiment was accomplished through the combined
efforts of the experimenters, ARC, and the spacecraft contractor (GE). The experimenters
were responsible for development of the physiological data sensors and their associated
signal-conditioning equipment, the behavioral task equipment, certain life support logic and
control functions, the urine catheter implant, and the urine-analysis instrument. ARC, with
the Wright-Patterson AFB, developed the couch and restraint garment for the animal and
much of the information defining the animal's anthropometric and metabolic characteristics.
The latter were required for design specifications for the capsule layout and the environ-
mental control and life support subsystems. The spacecraft contractor developed the pellet
feeder and water dispenser; the feces collector; the urine-collection, -measurement, and
-transport system; capsule lighting and photography; capsule environmental control; and the
spacecraft data system. (Spacecraft development is described in Section 4.)
The first capsule layout arrangement had the animal positioned facing aft, providing
him the most favorable support for reentry and surface impact forces. However, a position
facing forward would allow a more practical capsule arrangement, and when it was shown
acceptable by centrifuge test, the forward position was adopted. This change did not seriously
affect experiment hardware development since most work was still in very early stages.
The two behavioral tasks required by Dr. Adey's experiment were incorporated into a
single panel mounted directly in front of the animal's position in the capsule. Work on the
panel and its controlling logic was intensified in 1965, when UCLA contracted with aero-
space firms for breadboarding and development. UCLA designed the basic signal conditioner
in-house. At this same time, USC began work with the cardiovascular instrumentation. A
major development was the automated heparin injection system, which pumped small
quantities of heparinized saline solution through the catheters at intervals preventing clot
formations at the catheter tips. This precaution served to protect the implants from blood
clotting for the mission period.
An early objective in the experiment hardware development was the conduct of an
integrated demonstration using development hardware and an instrumented animal. A cap-
sule mockup, with spacecraft life support components and experiment hardware, was pre-
pared early in 1966. The demonstration was attempted in March but was quickly aborted
when major problems developed, primarily due to electromagnetic interference (EMI). After
the addition of numerous filtering and suppression devices to the equipment, the test was
repeated in August, and continued for approximately nine days. It was terminated when
data artifacts were judged intolerable.

111
 These disappointing tests focused attention on the problems of integrating the numer-
ous capsule hardware components, the need for careful electrical isolation of the animal,
and the destructive potential of the animal. The animal electrical isolation problems were
solved by coating the interior surfaces with nonconductive paint, and blocking conductive
paths from surfaces that could not be painted (such as the water nipple) with insulative
materials from the ground. This effectively left the animal electrically floating and allowed
a vehicle groundpoint to be established to which all electronic components and cable shields
with the spacecraft could be commonly tied. Also, mechanical protection for cabling and
areas of the capsule interior from animal abuse was found necessary.
At this stage in the development, the Pace/Rho urine-analysis experiment was added
to the primate mission requiring in-flight measurement of urine constituents. Allocations
for space and weight for the urine analysis instrument were necessarily quite restrictive since
the spacecraft design was well advanced. The design and manufacture of the instrument was
undertaken by a small group at JPL. Spacecraft integration was effected with the ground-
rule that a failure in the analyzer would not compromise the rest of the mission. Provisions
included commandable gas and electrical shutoff, cornmandable urine bypass, and electrical
fusing.
Experimenters furnished hardware components to the spacecraft contractor for devel-
opment tests in the development spacecraft (103) system. These tests helped further identify
the integration and EMI problems that had first appeared in the tests at UCLA. Suppression
devices and improved grounding schemes were added and the experiment hardware was
begun in its qualification phase. Also, a redundant reward light was added to the psycho-
motor. Core body temperature, which used a sensor implanted in the abdomen, was dropped
from the plan because of persistent difficulties with infection at the skin penetration.
In October 1967, a major system test (referred to as 601) was undertaken by the
experimenters at UCLA, supported by the spacecraft contractor and ARC. This test was
planned to run for 30 days using a fully instrumental animal in a simulated capsule equipped
with experiment and spacecraft hardware of the latest engineering design. This test was
intended to demonstrate the biocompatibility of the system and provide the experimenters
with baseline data. The test ran with reasonable success, but areas of major difficulty re-
mained. The urine-transport system became blocked several times during the test, and it
was necessary to break down the connections and purge the system to clear it. Also, the
urine analyzer failed to operate.
Priority was given to consultation and study on the urine system. Recommendations
for corrective change in the urine system and on the animal preparation centered on achiev-
ing and maintaining system sterility. These difficult changes were implemented. An in-
creased engineering force at JPL began a rework of the urine analyzer. Improvements
were made to the instrument (miniature electric) motors that controlled the mechanical
and hydraulic functions. Extensive materials-compatibility and -applicability studies and
tests were made to solve problems of chemical leakage and materials failure.
Original flight diet plans specified the use of vegetable protein-base food tablet com-
patible with the complex spacecraft food dispenser. However, failure of the urine transport
system in testing was largely due to the precipitation (out of urine) of calcium carbonate and
calcium phosphate, which resulted in blockage of the urine line and loss of urinary calcium
before it was measured in the urine analyzer. Studies established that the diet in use caused

112
 L jki

the animal to produce a basic (pH > 7.0) urine that tended to precipitate these ions from
solution. Through the combined efforts of the experimenter, ARC and GE, a new diet was
formulated, which used animal protein in the form of casein as a base. A quick and effec-
tive response to the problem of manufacturing this diet (to the stringent specifications
required by the feeder design) was obtained from the Pillsbury Co., as a subcontractor of
GE; their technique for "matrix" mixing and forming of the diet produced a pellet that
met the feeder's mechanical requirements. Animals were tested on this new diet, and al-
though it caused loose stools, it was otherwise acceptable and in particular was effective in
bringing the urine to a more acidic condition.
A second system development test, referred to as 602, was conducted in the summer of
1968, with essentially the same objectives as for 601. Hardware used was updated to current
flight configuration. Systems performance was reasonably satisfactory. The urine system was
examined on day 27 because of suspected blockage, but the difficulty was not precipitate
buildup, and the system had remained sterile. The JPL urine analyzer operated after initial
startup difficulties; however, the chemical analysis data showed unacceptable scatter. During
the test, the animal suffered discomfort and loss of foot circulation at the location of the
GSR lead attachment. The GSR measurement was dropped subsequently from the experi-
ment. EMI problems affecting the psychomotor logic persisted and were more closely in-
vestigated in systems tests at GE.
Hardware system tests in the 203 qualification spacecraft progressed with EMI remain-
ing the most critical problem. Both UCLA's integrated experiment electronics assembly
(IEEA) and JPL's urine analyzer were found to need additional EMI protection from tran-
sients on spacecraft unregulated power lines and from noisy timing lines. GE added a sup-
pression module to the capsule network as one of the major fixes in this area.
Also, at this time manufacturing difficulties were experienced with the UCLA experi-
ment hardware due to mechanical problems in the design of logic cards and printed circuit
boards. A program was established for module rework and test while maintaining valid
"interim" hardware at GE to support the system test schedules.
As the major spacecraft system tests with fully instrumented animals approached,
solutions to the urine analyzer's problems were found. A suitable material for the chemical
storage bags was demonstrated. Also improvements to the miniature drive motor bearings
and brushes increased confidence in this critical part. Chemical reagents were carefully
specified and placed under strict control. Instrument analyses, both with "spiked" solutions
and monkey urine, began to correlate reasonably well with laboratory results.
At this point, the significant experiment hardware development was essentially com-
plete. Yet a number of uncertainties remained that required totally integrated animal space-
craft system tests for better definition and ultimate solution.
Aerospace Ground Equipment

The couch design, the order and nature of experiment preparation, and the number of
animals carried through the complete countdown dictated some of the requirements for
supporting AGE. Heparin-injection systems were built up for the five flight-type couches
only. Since continuous heparin injection was required following USC cardiovascular sur-
geries (on days T - 9 and T - 8) until the instrumentation was removed postflight, animals
were coupled with flight couches at that time. From that point, the animal/couch assembly
was handled as an integral unit and formally controlled as flight-rated hardware. Supporting
113
hardware was sufficiently flexible to allow its use in a variety of experimental procedures
while providing protection to instruments, implants, and structure from abuse by the animal
or accidental damage by personnel.
Six complete primate transporters and the capsule simulator assemblies were built and
controlled as flight AGE. The simulator assembly, an enclosure built up around the basic
animal/couch unit, provided for capsule adaptation, psychomotor proficiency training, feed-
ing and watering, day/night lighting, and access to physiological data during the countdown.
The transporter facilitated convenient and safe transfer of the animal and couch within the
laboratory and to the launch complex while maintaining him in an enclosed environment.
It was used for the same purpose at the recovery site. Ventilation and air supply for the
transporter was furnished by an astronaut-type cryogenic ventilation system. The capsule
simulator is shown in Figure 5.30. Figures 5.31 and 5.32 illustrate the transporter buildup.

"^v
-t.^«sr

\
^-^^
- r~~r?
' I- .
^'"""wy-

L
•

'•
li t • J A^'f
1
fc- 451
Figure 5.30 Capsule simulator.

114
 L

Primate couch assembly

Pulser bracket

Viewing window cover Portable infusion

pulser
Captive screw latch

Roller arm
Thermometer latch

Toggle clamps (2)

Air outlet quick Ball lock pins (2)

disconnect
receptacle

Band clamp for

water bottle

Container lid

Latch hooks (6)

Container bottom

Urine catheter grommet Urine catheter grommet Lifting eyes

seal - lower half seal - upper half

Figure 5.31 Transporter buildup sketch.

Special fixtures were provided to support the primate/couch during x ray, whole body count,
and the couch hardware buildup. A unique sling device, designed and built by ARC, allowed
the animal/couch assembly to be carefully moved into the capsule. This item is shown in use
in Figure 5.33.
UCLA's checkout console controlled power timing and command functions for test
and checkout of the UCLA flight hardware. It was used for acceptance checks at GE and in
the field for hardware prior to installation in the spacecraft. A prelaunch tester was designed
to permit synchronization of the psychomotor logic and clock functions with the spacecraft
programmer timer, while the psychomotor was installed in the spacecraft. This was per-
formed during the vehicle launch countdown, just prior to animal insertion.
The urine-analyzer test console was used for individual checkout and test of the urine-
analyzer instruments. It provided the elements of the spacecraft interface necessary for
demonstrating satisfactory instrument operation prior to installation in the spacecraft.
Figure 5.34 shows the test console during tests on a urine-analyzer unit (case removed). The
portable unit made certain functions of the instrument accessible for monitoring and adjust-
ment after spacecraft installation.

115
 Couch

Platform

Base

Figure 5.32 Transporter buildup sketch.

The portable heparin pulser, supplied by USC, generated a pulse each 60 sec that
operated the couch heparin pumps prior to the animal/couch installation in the spacecraft.
This unit.was installed into the capsule simulator and transporter assemblies.
The primate electrical simulator was a signal generator device that could be connected
to an assembled couch in the spacecraft for the purpose of checking the physiological data
channels, end to end. The simulator generated sine wave signals simulating primate EKG,
EMG, EOG, and ZPG at selectable amplitudes and frequencies, which fed directly to couch-
mounted signal conditioners. Output was monitored through spacecraft telemetry. Use
of the simulator allowed system checkout and evaluation on the basis of a known input.
The low-level signal output of this device was difficult to validate, and thorough evaluation
of data quality through the system therefore was a frequent problem.
The USC data console provided for semiautomatic cardiovascular data recording from
the five flight candidate animals in the laboratory at specified intervals throughout the
animal preparation. This record was part of the prelaunch baseline data for the animals used
in selection of the flight animal and in evaluation of flight results.
The UCLA training and data-collection console was the central control station for the
animal's psychomotor panel operations during countdown. The control was equipped with
television monitors for observing the animals in the capsule simulators, and for control of
the DM and VM tasks. Physiological data were collected daily from each of the flight

116
 .
i »

• - • f

J
Figure 5.33 Primate installation for endurance test.

candidate animals. These data were encoded digitally and recorded on magnetic tape for
subsequent analysis as baseline information.
Ini addition
auuiuuii to
lu the
me specialized
spcwiaiucu AGE,
t\\J&, many laboratory
lauuiaiuiy instruments
iiisiruiiicius and
aiiu equipments
equipnici were
used toi carry out tne
the expenmen
experiment preparation. Major items included the tne wnc
whole body
body cc
counter
used by/ UCB
TTPR in
in their
thpir pre-
nrf- and
3nrl postflight measurements nf
nnstflipht mRflsnrRmfints: of tntal
total body
hnHv muscle
miitrlp measurement
mMsiirf t
(for determination of body fluid volume) by scintillation count of K 4 0 . Figure 5.35 is aview vi
of the whole body counter with a monkey shown in the entry. An x-ray unit was used to
assess bond density by more extensive application of the technique used for astronauts.
System Test Objectives and Results

The first UCLA 30-day test (601) was conducted to test the compatibility of an instru-
mented primate with the spacecraft and experiment hardware. An engineering mockup of

117
 „ '

. --
V r- 3 --'
- A' -

•-' |4l1

/
' -- ^
tv-" '

Figure 5.34 Urine analyzer and test console.

the capsule was used and prototype GE and experiment capsule hardware installed. Space-
craft GMA, power, and telemetry systems were simulated. This test indicated that the pri-
mate could perform satisfactorily for the 30-day mission. The most significant problem
was the previously mentioned buildup of calcium precipitates in the urine subsystem, which
led to changes in the primate diet and requirements for sterilization of the urine subsystem.
Objectives of the second UCLA 30-day test (602) were the same as the first with the
addition of obtaining baseline data on the primate under simulated flight conditions. Paral-
lel recordings were made of both the PCM data and direct analog sensor signals to validate
telemetry of physiological data for the experimenters' specialized analyses. The same cap-
sule mockup was used, and the latest engineering component hardware was installed. The
new casein diet was provided. The primate performed satisfactorily, but the test was
terminated on the 28th day, due to an apparent urine catheter blockage. Subsequent

118

r—
 - >>•_** .

P
~~

.
lit

•'
,;••*
- • - • - . • - - .•:• - .• • • • : •

Figure 5.35 Whole-body counter.

analysis of the urine-transport system showed it to be satisfactory. The blockage was be-
lieved to be caused by bladder tissue pressing on the catheter tip. Through surgical proce-
dures, an optimum-size catheter tip was selected for insertion in the bladder. The JPL in-
strument was operated during the test; however, the instruments analyses did not compare
favorably with lab analyses. Development of experimenters' procedures for countdown,
orbital operations, and postrecovery were initiated.
Primate installation checkout (PICO) test was conducted in the spring of 1968 to
demonstrate the compatibility of electrical, pneumatic, mechanical, hydraulic, and experi-
ment interfaces. The monkey was prepared using the procedures developed in 601 and 602
tests, and was placed in the closed qualification spacecraft (203) capsule for a period of
three days. All major test objectives were satisfactorily accomplished.
The 203 vibration test was conducted using a fully instrumented animal with flight-
level vibrations. Evidence from real-time physiological data telemetered from the spacecraft

119
during the vibration period and from detailed posttest examination of the animal showed no
difficulty with these stresses.
A 30-day endurance test was the final qualification test for the spacecraft, but it also
provided baseline data on the primate and valuable training of personnel in their functions
during all mission phases. The first animal inserted in the capsule became very ill (with
symptoms typical of toxic environment; Section 4 outlines the followup analysis effort)
and was removed on the 8th day. He was replaced with the backup animal, and the test
continued. The capsule was reopened on the 26th day due to suspected blockage in the
urine system. The catheter was found to be free of blockage, and the urine system was
operating properly, so the capsule was immediately closed, and the test continued. The
second primate was removed on the 28th day when the urine pump failed due to loosening
of a set screw. The animal was taken to the lab and placed in a continuation of the baseline
routine for an additional 2 days to complete the 30-day test period.
An instrumented animal was prepared and installed in the flight III (501) spacecraft
prior to its placement in the thermal-vacuum chamber. During the three-day chamber test,
the spacecraft was cycled through expected temperature ranges, removed from the chamber,
and operated for 24 hr in ambient environment. This 24-hr test was extended to provide an
opportunity to obtain urine samples for correlation with the JPL instrument results.
A slowing of the animal's heart rate during the 4-day period of confinement in the
capsule later was recognized as a normal reaction to isolation. The JPL instrument still did
not produce satisfactory analyses during much of the test.

120
 6. SPACECRAFT SYSTEM TESTS

Systems acceptance and qualification tests were defined by GE and approved by ARC in
the integrated test program plan (ITPP) introduced in Section 4. "Qualification" testing
demonstrated that Biosatellite spacecraft were capable of performing in the environmental
conditions expected in a mission sequence. For example, prototype hardware was tested
to shock and vibration stress level 1.5 times the predicted flight condition. Acceptance
tests demonstrated the mechanical and electrical compatibility among flight hardware sub-
systems and the flight experiment hardware, as well as the compatibility of the assembled
vehicle and associated aerospace ground equipment (AGE). In all systems level tests the
experiment hardware was included in the applicable mission configuration. As part of
qualification-testing for the radiation and general biology mission, live biological specimens
were exposed to their vibration, acoustic noise, water shock, separation shock, and thermal
environment. In qualification tests for the primate mission, a live monkey was couched in
the spacecraft for the endurance test.

RADIATION AND GENERAL BIOLOGY MISSION SPACECRAFT

System Qualification Tests

Electromagnetic Interference. The spacecraft was tested to demonstrate operability

and resistance to interference, and to measure susceptibility and transients. Radiated and
conducted interference generation were measured over a wide frequency range to establish
that the spacecraft operated within specifications. The vehicle was subjected to injected
energy to establish that radiated and conducted susceptibility did not degrade spacecraft
performance. A transistorized ignition circuit was used to induce radiated transients on
the main power bus. During these tests the adapter-inverter power supply failed when
average voltages ranged from 0 to 3 v induced on orbital bus. A design change was made
to improve the low-frequency regulation of the power supply. The programmer timer
jumped during the conducted susceptibility run. Two filters were added to the timer to
improve its noise immunity.
Magnetic. By design and specification, the magnetic field strength of the spacecraft
could not exceed 1.5 mG at the location of the magnetometer when it was deployed in the
direction of the longitudinal axis of the magnetometer. The spacecraft magnetic field
strength was measured at the probe, both in a nonoperating and operating mode. During
conduct of this test, the prototype spacecraft was dropped about 3 ft when a cable severed
as the vehicle was being oriented to a new position in the AGE handling equipment. The
heat shield was repaired and the handling equipment modified; no other effects were noted.
Temperature and Humidity. The spacecraft was placed in a temperature/humidity
chamber and exposed to cyclical temperature/humidity environments. The tests started
at 50°F and ambient RH, raised over a 2-hr period to 95% RH and 100°F, maintained
these conditions for 6 hr, and maintained 95% RH with a reduction in temperature to 50°F
121
 within 16 hr. This test was repeated for two additional cycles. No adverse effects re-
sulted.
Vibration. The spacecraft was attached, through a prototype of the launch
vehicle adapter, to an electrodynamic exciter, to demonstrate the vehicle's capability
to withstand a vibration environment up to 1.5 times the predicted powered-flight en-
vironment. Electrical performance tests were conducted before and after vibration
exposure. Sinusoidal and random vibrations were applied in the longitudinal
and transverse axes. Live biological specimens were prepared and loaded for the longi-
tudinal test. Several times during the vibration tests, wires were broken at the terminal
board connections; these were returned to the plant for correction. Pinched leads were
noted in the radiation source holder, and this component was redesigned. Failure of a
fuse-activated relay was attributed to previous exposure of the relay to the firing current.
Acoustic Noise. The spacecraft and biological specimens were tested in an acoustic
chamber for their resistance to, and performance in, an acoustic noise environment similar
to powered flight conditions. Electrical performance tests were conducted before and
after acoustic noise exposure, and experimenters reexamined their specimens. No adverse
results of significance were noted.
~ Thermal Vacuum. The spacecraft with live biological experiments was exposed in
a vacuum chamber to conditions approximating the thermal vacuum environment of space
jhts for 72 hr. Electrical performance tests were conducted before and after the simu-
lated orbital sequence. During the test it was found that the attitude-control jets fired
spontaneously, and lower-than-expected temperatures were noted in the environmental
control subsystem. A design change was made in the attitude-control programmer, and a
heater was added to bring the experiment temperature within specification.
Impact Loads. The capsule was dropped into a tank of water from a height that
resulted in impact velocity approximating the parachute-retarded descent. Three drops
were made to demonstrate that the capsule would survive water impact loads. Electrical
performance was measured before and after water impact shock loads. Live biological
specimens were installed for the third drop, after which the capsule was left in the water
for 12 hr to demonstrate capsule flotation. The flashing light and recovery beacon were
operated. No adverse results of significance were noted.
Shock Forces. Separation of the spacecraft from the launch vehicle imposed high
shock forces on the spacecraft. These were simulated on the spacecraft to verify that the
vehicle was structurally sound and that it would operate as designed. The live biological ex-
periments were installed in the spacecraft and the spacecraft inserted in an altitude chamber.
With the chamber evacuated to an equivalent of 80,000-ft altitude, explosive bolts forcibly
separated the spacecraft from the launch vehicle adapter and simulated launch vehicle mass.
Electrical performance tests were conducted before and after shock exposure, and it was
determined that the live biological experiments were undamaged by this shock environment.
No problems resulted from this test.
Systems Acceptance Tests
The system acceptance test plan for the general biology vehicle is outlined in Fig. 6.1.
Acceptance testing started with performance checks of each subsystem prior to mating with
122
 SYSTEM ACCEPTANCE TEST FLOW PLAN
3 DAY Configuration SYSTEMS TEST
SUB SYSTEMS TESTS
MECHANICAL PAYLOAD VIB IATION POST VIBRATION THERMAL ALTITUDE FINAL CONFIDENCE BUYOFF
RECOVERY ELECTRICALLY MECHANICAL SIMULATED ELECTROMAGNETIC
SI RUCTURE ELE AL
ELECTRICAL ATTITUDE ATTITUDE LIFE ENVIRONMENTAL TRACKING OEORBIT INSTALLATION TEST TEST TEST AND SHIP
LAUNCH TEST INTERFERENCE PROPERTIES

-^
AND POV\ HO CONTROL CONTROL SUPPORT CONTROL TELEMETRY AND AND MATED TEST MATE
TESTS AND
1ANKAGE DIST 'ION STATIC DYNAMIC COMMAND SEPARATION AND MAGNETIC
PERFORMANCE
FIELD TESTS
FORE 10 OY

o /
(
1. Harr
N
)
jntinu-
^r
^-| ^

1\
ity, and
ity, hi-pot. and

A
megi
1
2. Sens (opera
CAPS JLE tion cation) 1

1. Joi it inspection
O(
\
\
1 . L^
r\ \J
_O .
\-S
O)
•Cj"~ _/*
1. Circuit resistance
1. Harr Operation test of 1. Thermostat
2. Tut ing, tankage, gas management operation 2. Event times, voltage
and valve leak assembly (temp, 2. Heater current current

^
^
3. Th« rma! loop drain 3. Beacon performance
pressure, 02 -N2,
leal age 1. Transmitter frequency 4. Hashing light
supply, humid-
4. Cap sule leak check and power S. Redundant channel Vehicle test run in
ity, and circula-
2. SCO calibration and checks

o
THRU ST CONE tmnl
ounj mated configuration

( \
pre-emphasis
3. Multiplexer linearity
_s~\. 1. Vehicle tested in
mated configuration \ T/C
with live experiments
All life cell and ex-

///
\ ) 4. Recorder performance
5. R/V event simulation
\J^ "\ 1. All sections
mated-less
2. Subsystems energized
on int power
\
\
periment sensors mon
itored on T/M
Pre test checkout of
vehicle in chamber
using all test cables
1. Harr 1. Circuit resistuce payload 3. RF signature
1. 801tie and valve 6. Carrier checks for 3. All experiment com- and chamber penetrations
2. Event times, oltage 2. Mechanical (interference) tests mands utilized
leal spurious signals Live experiments
current AGE used run from lowest AOAP Vehicle functional
7. VSWR test installed
as required vehicle fundamental operation performed Vehicle operated on
ADAP TER frequency to 10 GC

o \J^
per simulated launch internal power during

1. Tank , tubing, and 1. Harr
valve leak 2. Sens
2. Valv i operation 3. Regi
3. Ther mal loop
leakige 4. Prim
5. Bare
1. ACS tensor alignment
(
\
r\ \
r ^~X (O
-TV-
^s
4. Magnetic field
measurement
test procedures exposure to specified
3-day thermal altitude
environments
\J~
1. Circuit resistance t. All subsystems and 1. Vibrat on fixtures Mechanical and electrical Operate all subsystems
1. Transmitter frequency 1. Weight, center of gravity, products of attacMandbio- inspection required to maintain
t 2. Event times, voltage sections interconnected
1. Vehicle tested in electrically
and power current 2. Systems test run on inertia and moments of inertia run on sateili; mounted Tank tubing and valve experiment
each of above vehicle section combina mated configuration-internal 1 Buyoff
2. Multicoder linearity 3. Earoswitch closure external and internal to shake leak check Remove experiments
tionswith following exceptions: power utilized as required 2. Log book
3. Receiver test calibration power 2. Pre-tes theckout Alignment checks of Vehicle disassembled
inve ofveh * on shaker 2. All sensors and subsystems 3. Calibration book
(frequency, band- 3. All sensors stimulated WT and CG only on cap-R/B ACs sensors cleaned and inspected
wer 3. liveexuriments Repeat electrically operated on external power 4. Ship
width, sensitivity. response measured following test
sour ntiofl combination 3. Box, pack and final continuity
rejection) through T/M irutallel mated tests
closure |2. Fixture installation and alignment on each shipped section
4. Timer test 4. Thermal stimulus 4. Vehin. iperated
calib 3. Dummy experiments, pyros, retro, through oowered
5. Beacon performance applied to capsule
6. Carrier checks for monitor response and batteries installed flight tints at
spurious signals S. Exercise all commands Dynamic balance perlormed on R/V specif iff vibration
7. Decoder test through RF link and completely assembled levels
8. VSWR test on proto- 6. Simulate position and biosatellite 5. Opera: subsystems
type vehicle rate errors require 'to maintain
experirints
S / 7. Simulate separation
/ / deorbit and recovery
1. Vehicle test run in
6. Testingl«fformed
on 3 a>i
TEST AREAS
/ \. Entire adapter on sequence
/ rati table 8. Each subsystem mated configuration 7. Remov experiments
2. Orbital subsystems 8. Vehicle-toned and SYSTEMS VIBRATION
ional logic 2. Rate sensing tests checked through T/M
tests 3. Rate control tests- link by air and hard energized on internal tested i 'lowing
2. Static calibration switching lines wire power SYSTEM TEST PHASE vibratic
THERMAL
of IR sensors and 4. Deorbit attitude 3. All launch events and
PNEUMATICS ALTITUDE
magn itometer switching lines conditions checked by —— Mechanically mated
3. Syste •n response to "5. Verification of roll telemetry Pneumatically mated
4. All RF transmission MECHANICAL RATE TABLE
simul ited position rate bias —— Electrically mated
and n te errors *6. Rate damping ability air link PROPERTIES
4. Positi tt pressure *7. Pointing accuracy 'These tests require uncoupled air bearing 5. All commands utilized a»— Direction of test flow
tests *8. Yaw bias vs pointing operation. Performed on 3-day flight 6. Test run with no hard- ^^_ Direction of hardware
tometer pro- accuracy vehicles only. wire connections to flow-not involving test
ner tests "9. Limit cycle operation test equipment

Figure 6.1 System acceptance test flow plan for the general biology (three-day) vehicle.
the spacecraft. The spacecraft was tested by operating it through a simulated mission se-
quence including a vibration test at anticipated flight .vibration levels and a three-day thermal
vacuum test. Live biological experiments were included in tests of the general biology vehicle.
During this phase of the acceptance testing, no problems of significance were found.
Table 6.1 enumerates the anomalies noted in the in-house subsystem and system testing.
The major problem revealed in subsystem testing was a short in the telemetry coaxial switch
which damaged the adapter-inverter power supply. The short was due to an interference fit
in the mounting of the switch, which caused chafing of wires to the switch. Repositioning of
the switch eliminated the problem. In system tests, the radiation source holder failed to
open due to interference between the aiming rod and structure which was corrected through
a design change. The inverter power supply was damaged during a trouble-shooting procedure
and was replaced. The reentry vehicle's separation switch assembly would not fire an explo-
sive switch due to the improper installation of relays; these components were replaced. Due
to improper assembly the frog egg package drew excessive current.

Table 6.1 Biosatellite I subsystem acceptance test results.

Anomalies
Subsystem System
Category test test

p Procedures, specifications, operator error,

AGE malfunction 6 14
D Design deficiency 1 2
C Component failure 5 14
N Normal operation, data misinterpretation 0 1
W Waiver 0 5

After completion and formal review of the in-plant acceptance testing, the flight space-
craft was shipped to Cape Kennedy for final prelaunch testing. A walk-through exercise was
held to demonstrate the adequacy of field facilities for both the spacecraft and experiment,
proper mating of the spacecraft and launch vehicle, and performance of personnel involved
in the launch operation as specified in the countdown. The walk-through spacecraft was put
through the same field cycle as planned for the flight spacecraft, with the same experiment
loading time constraints. Dummy ordnance was installed, and the spacecraft was mated to
a simulated launch vehicle guidance section mounted in the gantry. The problem of wire
breakage recurred: several wires were broken at their point of connection to the terminal
boards in the walk-through capsule and T/C, necessitating the recrimping of about 100 wires.
It was therefore necessary to rework these very inaccessible boards in the flight spacecraft
before launch.
Table 6.2 indicates the anomalies found during the exercise with the walk-through
vehicle and in checkout of the flight spacecraft (Fig. 6.2). The major problem noted in the
walk-through exercise was that of wire breakage. Microswitches in the frog egg package and
amoeba package could not be reliably adjusted by normal procedures when the packages
125
Table 6.2 Biosatellite I walk-through exercise (301) and spacecraft checkout
(302) results.

Anomalies
Spacecraft
Category Walk-through checkout

p Procedures, specifications, operator error, 5 3

AGE malfunction
D Design deficiency 1 2
C Component failure 3 3
N Normal operation, data misinterpretation 0 1
W Waiver 8 4

, Ir^w
•?rtr^
•? K\
^ -' f.~
. "
L

~ i ,
pr^.M1.::^ <. ^- L ,
• r^Mj-^r —
?
p "> • C
•-..1 v Sfl^

Yr\
/ / _ a
Figure 6.2 Biosatellite I electrically mated check, Hangar "S" KSC.

were disassembled for installing the biological specimens. The problem was resolved by
specially training a selected individual for final preparation of the packages.

126
Requslification Testing

As a result of anomalies observed during the Biosatellite I flight, an extensive series of com-
ponent, subsystem, and system level tests were performed prior to flight II to determine
and verify the reasons for the anomalies and to verify the design changes incorporated in
the spacecraft and in the prelaunch and on-orbit operations procedures. These design changes
were primarily within the deorbit, attitude-control, and telemetry and command subsystems.
System level investigations, development, and flight proofing were performed on the qualifi-
cation spacecraft. Additional special engineering tests on the attitude-control, telemetry and
command, and deorbit subsystems were performed to investigate special characteristics.
Following the special tests to correct the anomalies found in the first flight mission,
acceptance tests were repeated on the second Biosatellite flight spacecraft. (They had been
performed prior to its earlier use as walk-through and backup for Flight I.) Table 6.3
summarizes the results of the in-plant subsystem and system acceptance testing and field
checkout. No major problems developed in subsystem acceptance tests. In system tests,
the greatest problem was spurious firing of jets in the attitude-control subsystem. Improved
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) isolation was achieved by adding filters in the attitude
programmer and rerouting leads in the component.

Table 6.3 . Biosatellite II subsystem and system acceptance test results.

Anomalies
Subsystem System Field
Category Test Test Checkout

p Procedures, specifications, operator error, 5 14 23

AGE malfunction
D Design deficiency 3 3 0
C Component failure 14 13 8
N Normal operation, data misinterpretation 0 1 3
W Waiver 0 7 9

In field checkout, the spacecraft was electrically damaged due to improper installation
of a latching relay module. Several days' delay was incurred replacing components and
rechecking the system. The G switch in the recovery subsystem was found reversed, delaying
the final countdown for correction (Section 8).

PRIMATE MISSION SPACECRAFT

Systems Qualification Tests

The system qualification testing for the primate mission spacecraft followed the same pattern
as that for the radiation and general biology system qualification testing. The flow plan is
outlined in Fig. 6.3. Data from the humidity, acoustic, shock, and separation shock qualifi-
cations tests on the general biology vehicle were used to establish the qualification of the
primate mission vehicle. Electrical, mechanical, and functional mating the experiment hard-

127
ware, spacecraft, and live primate was incorporated early in the program to ensure against
incompatibilities during the remainder of the testing. Also included in the system qualifi-
cation test plan was a 25- to 30-day endurance test with a live primate in the spacecraft
and a mission sequence simulation. This test was incidentally to provide part of the required
experiment baseline data.
Primate Installation and Checkout (PICO). The primate installation and checkout
test which included an abbreviated mission sequence, demonstrated the compatibility of the
electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic subsystems, and their capability to sustain a live primate
and provide the required experiment data. This test also provided for development of experi-
ment preparation, installation, and procedures, and allowed the principal investigator to
check the complete experiment telemetry data system through his specialized computer
analysis of brain wave patterns. The spacecraft was powered by external AGE power supplies
rather than a fuel cell. This test demonstrated the necessity of changing the fiber optics
system and the capsule lighting arrangement to provide for better camera coverage of both
the primate and the calendar clock.
Electrically Mated. In the electrically mated test, the spacecraft was mechanically
•wparuted into five sections: the adapter, the T/C, the aft capsule, the capsule rack, and
ihe capsule forebody. These five sections were electrically, pneumatically, and hydraulically
mated through the use of extension cables and hoses. This configuration allowed access
to spacecraft harness connectors and components not normally available. For six days the
.pucccraft was operated on external power with the voltages on all of the power buses set to
the high side of their specifications. The spacecraft then was operated on nominal voltage
levels, followed by a simulated fuel cell failure with no power on the main vehicle power
bus and the auxiliary power bus set to the lowest voltage specification of the orbital
battery. A complete mission sequence was performed on the spacecraft. During this test
it was found that the fuel cell controller was erratic; therefore, transient suppression cir-
cuitry was added.
Mechanically Mated. The next test mechanically mated the five sections of the
spacecraft into the flight configuration. This test included the activation, maintenance, and
deactivation of a prime fuel cell using hydrogen and oxygen gas supplies. A full mission
sequence was performed on the vehicle. A three-day abbreviated mission sequence was
performed to demonstrate the capability of the thermal control subsystem to maintain a
stabilized capsule environment under ambient conditions. A thermal primate simulator was
used to provide heat and moisture output in the closed capsule. An emergency separation,
deorbit, and recovery sequence under simulated conditions of fuel cell failure was included.
During this test, it was found that the described outputs of a live primate could not be met
with the simulator installed in the spacecraft, requiring changes to both the primate
definition and to the primate simulator. During this first activation of a prime fuel cell in
a spacecraft, the readings of the hydrogen and oxygen differential transducers for monitoring
gas to the fuel cell did not meet specifications. While a satisfactory explanation was never
established for these readings, no adverse performance was related, so the condition was
accepted through flight III.
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). EMC tests were made with the spacecraft
mechanically and electrically mated in flight configuration, with the exception that the
128
 CAPSULE

Tests
1. Purge coolanol loop with Tests
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY
O O
EMC PREPARATION MECHANICALLY MATED TEST c52 C REMOVAL AN freon & nitrogen 1. Proof pressure (1.5 x operating). S/C LEAK TEST
O Configuration
Electrically mated-open capsule Configuration
COMPONENT IlilST; .LATION 2. Fill system with coolanol 2.
3.
4.
Fill H20 system.
Check H20 accumulator switches.
Check H20, metabolic, & urine tanks
Determine
O
Mechanical mated using test cap Spacecraft
for pressure rise.
TtjU Leakage rate
5. Exercise mechanical overflow valve.
1. Conducted interference Tests
6. Measure H20 liquid leak rate.
2. Transient detection 1. System operation pre launch, launch H20 FILTER INSTALLATION
orbital operation with simulated

O
3. AFconducted susceptibility H 2 PROOFS. LEAK C R Y O T A N K INSTALLATION ECS PUR SE& FILL

O O
H20 FILL & PNEUMATIC TEST

O
URINE* COOLANOL PROOF & LEAK MECHANICAL ALIGNMENT CHECK

O
fuel cell ARGON FILL
4. Transient conducted susceptibility
5. Transient insertion 2. System operation through separation, C J O
deorbit & recovery with simulated ADAPTER Tests Tests Tests Tests Fill cryo tanks with liquid argon
Check alignment of ac sensor, nozzles,
Payload fuel cell failure 1. ftoof pressure (1.5 x operating) 1. Proof pressure (1.5 x operating) 1. Purge co jlanol loop with Replace H20 filter, fill water system
evaporative boiler vent.
Passive primate simulator 2. (heck joint leakage 2. Check joint leakage. freon & litrogen. determine leakage
Install JPL analyzer Payload 3. Measure system leak rate 3. System leak rate 2. Fill with coolanol.
Thermal simulator
4. Transducer calibration

SPACECRAFT CONFIDENCE

O O
LEAKAGE. INSPECTION, AND LIGHTTEST THERMAL-VACUUM REFURBISHMENT

O
(Inc. Lighting) SPACECRAFT CONFIDENCE PRE-LAUNCH CHECKOUT

O O O
FC INSTALLATION, S/C WEIGHT VIBRATION THERMAL-VACUUM
Configuration
Install fuel cell Configuration Configuration Test & rework 1. Install new orbital battery Configuration Configuration
Spacecraft with dummy retro-rocket and
Determine weight of spacecraft Open & closed capsule inert pyrotechnics, operating fuel cell, spin
Open & closed capsule 1. Verify that leakage is within specification after 2. Install live and inert squibs Open and closed capsule With test cap, simulated fuel cell
vibration 3. Install new psychomotor N2 tank, spin and despin tanks pressurized
and despin tanks pressurized at fittings.
Tests Tests 2. Establish post/vib light intensifies in daylight/ (prog& logic) Tests
Thrust axis only for fuel cell
1. Establish spacecraft operational status Tests 1. Establish spacecraft operational status and nightlight 1. Establish spacecraft operational status Tests
and obtain baseline data by exercising 1. Spacecraft will be subjected to longitudina' obtain baseline data by exercising the 3. Inspect for vibration damage and obtain baseline confidence for T/V 1. Verify thermal and operating performance
d X l i Illylll ICVCI IdllUUIII VlUldUUII W l l l l
spacecraft through a shortened 30-day test ui jpaiciian wiiiie expusea to in irmai-
30-day mission profile which includes primate installed. mission profile which includes the following vacuum environment.
the following flight sequences: 2. Spacecraft will be subjected to 1.5 times flight sequences: Payload 2. The systems and/or assemblies will be
powered flight vibration Isvels to verify a) pre-launch Active primate simulator exercised:
a) pre-launch
b) powered flight its structural and operational integrity. b) powered flight a) Partial 02 pressure control
c) booster separation 3. Verify proper system operation with c) booster separation b) Total pressure control
operating fuel cell during thrust axis d) orbit
d) orbit c) Water dispenser
e) de-orbit vibration. e) de-orbit d) Urine collection and transport
f) re-entry 4. Verify primate installation procedure f) re-entry
g) recovery for flight. g) recovery Payload
5. Verify tracking beacon operation.
2. Establish pre vib light intensities in Thermal primate simulator
Payload Ptyload
daylight/nightlight Mechanical primate simulator, fully trained Active primate simulator
primate for longitudinal axis random acceptar. •
levels only.

/"">^ REFURBISHMENT AND STERILIZATION/—^ LIGHTING TEST /~\ 25/30 DAY AMBIENT ENDURANCE / \ POST ENDURANCE CHECKS S~*\

1. Install newfc Configuration

Test: verify light intensity
2. Install new batteries Spacecraft mated and rocked
3. Install inert pyrotechnics Operating fuel cell
4. Change P02 sensor Special nose cap
5. Calibrate P02 transducer Tests
6. Replace LI OH cannister 1. Spacecraft system operation within specificat on
7. Calibrate C02 sensor limits for a 25 to 30-day period while in amb.int
8. Change calendar clock battery external ground condition during a simulated
9. Refurbish trace gas contaminant mission profile from pre-launch through
10. Vacuum capsule recovery, will be demonstrated.
11. Refurbish, re-install & JPL checkout 2. Pre-launch checkout provides baseline contnj> ice
12. Refurbish & sterilize urine S/S for endurance test.
13. Reload camera Payload
14. Reload tape recorder Active simulator fully instrumented, and fully FIGURE 6.3. Primate Spacecraft System Acceptance Test Flow.
15. Reload pellet feeder trained primate (3 days).

Figure 6.3 Primate vehicle system qualification test flow.

capsule was opened to allow access for inserting and detecting signals. Internal spacecraft
power was provided by a fully activated fuel cell that operated for the duration of the test.
Interference and susceptibility tests were made at frequencies and amplitudes simulating
extreme conditions. A modified mission sequence was performed with transients to
determine effects on system performance. It was found that the fuel cell controller, the
water dispenser, the life support controller, and the attitude-control programmer were sus-
ceptible to electromagnetic signals. Suppression circuits and filters were used in the com-
ponents and the spacecraft to eliminate adverse effects. During these tests, experiment
hardware furnished by UCLA was assembled in the capsule. Establishing coordination of
transient sources and corrections between the experiment hardware and spacecraft hardware
was a challenging technical management task.
Vibration. Vibration tests were made to establish that the spacecraft and a live
primate were not adversely affected by the anticipated flight vibration environment (Fig.
6.4). A simulated launch countdown was performed starting at approximately T - 39 hr
and continuing through liftoff. At T - 0 the spacecraft systems were set to launch mode,
and the spacecraft was vibrated in a longitudinal direction with a flight level random input.
Included in this test were primate installation, fuel cell activation on gas, and cryogenic
tanks loaded with liquid argon. The only AGE connections used were those required for
fuel cell and cryogenic tank operation. After this primate vibration test, the animal was
removed and a simulator installed to provide mass simulation. Sinusoidal and random
vibration runs were made in each axis at levels 1.5 times expected flight environment. No
significant difficulties occurred during these tests.
Thermal Vacuum. To assess the capability of the primate mission vehicle to operate
in the expected orbital thermal/vacuum environment, the capsule was placed in an environ-
mental chamber and operated through a mission sequence. Of particular interest was the
ability of the GMA to provide and maintain the specified capsule atmospheric conditions.
The orbital phase of the test included simulated orbital station pass operations. A fuel
cell thermal load simulator was used, and the thermal primate simulator provided the
variable heat and humidity. Samples of the capsule atmosphere were extracted for
evaluation of the GMA. Physical separation of in-flight disconnects was tested by firing
live pyrotechnics in the vehicle in-flight disconnect assemblies. No significant problems
were found during the thermal/vacuum qualification test.
Endurance. A flight-configured spacecraft, including a fully instrumented primate,
was prepared and operated for an endurance test period of 25 days. This test included a
"dress rehearsal" experiment preparation, including surgery on the primate. A simulated
mission profile was started at T - 39 hr and included activation of a prime fuel cell on
gaseous H2 and O2. The orbital phase of the test included simulated station contact
operation, based on 90-min orbits, with extra data verifications spaced approximately 30
min apart. A special urine "fraction collector" allowed laboratory analysis of the primate
urine in parallel with the automatic Pace/Rho unit analysis. The primate was removed in
very poor condition on the tenth orbital day and replaced by a second primate for the
remainder of the test. The test was successful in that it demonstrated spacecraft endurance,
but it did not satisfactorily explain the deteriorated condition of the first animal. Toxic
contaminants in the capsule atmosphere were suspected, and a major study and new materials

131
 ^.f* fjp s m

- • ••

-.» '

PI
p*2 ••' l-
f
x X >s \\ \i SU'- •
P^X ^EF
-«. -n• • i\\-«-*"•
"• (

ft ;
Jai •-
•»' •/•n ^™*
•

i
•-^CL_
•^^-'v''-
- - '""

i .
• —* Ai.-jj_

Figure 6.4 203 Spacecraft primate installation for system qualification vibration testing.

controls were undertaken (see Section 4). Insufficient capsule lighting was provided by the
light assembly, and it was therefore redesigned.

132
 Summary. As was experienced in the general biology mission, the mating of the
biological experiments and the spacecraft hardware posed unusual engineering problems.
For the design of adequate system hardware, it was necessary to define primate interfaces
in engineering terms. Development of simulators to serve as mechanical, electrical, and
thermal representations had a significant time and cost impact on the project. During the
project, the engineering definition of primate input and output also was changed. Since
AGE requirements, design, and fabrication necessarily followed spacecraft design and
fabrication, the AGE to support the qualification testing was sometimes late. This required
workaround plans and changes to test procedures with commensurate delays. Thus, the
qualification testing was performed at a reduced level of efficiency.
System Acceptance Tests
The acceptance test plan for the primate mission spacecraft is described in Fig. 6.5. Results
of the in-plant systems acceptance tests for the primate mission flight vehicle are indicated
in Table 6.4. In the electrically mated test the major problem was the occurrence of
numerous transients in spacecraft components. Suppression circuits and filters were added
as required. At the start of the vibration test, a glycol coolant line was inadvertently
connected to the oxygen system. This error was responsible for several days of schedule
loss while the spacecraft was partially disassembled and refurbished. Universal fittings
were removed from the AGE so that such misconnections could not recur. Otherwise,
there were no major problems in the mechanically mated test or the thermal/vacuum test.

Table 6.4 Biosatellite III System acceptance test results.

Anomalies
Electrically Mechanically Vibration Thermal/Vacuum
Category Mated Test Mated Test Test Test

P Procedures, 37 36 45 17
specifications,
operator error,
AGE malfunction
D Design deficiency 6 12 24 1
C Component failure 7 5 10 9
N Normal operation, 5 7 13 7
data misinterpretation
W Waiver 0 0 0 4

A spacecraft confidence test was designed to provide a comprehensive evaluation of

spacecraft performance after receiving at the field site. Special emphases was placed on the
thoroughness and schedule adequacy for this operational phase because development and
qualification cost and schedule problems had precluded complete analysis of qualification
test data before shipment of the flight unit and prior check of field operations could not
be made with its prototype. AGE interfaces were utilized as much as was possible with a
mechanically mated spacecraft. Simulators were used where possible, subsystems were
simulated over their ranges of operation.
 The confidence test was subdivided into four major phases: prelaunch, launch, orbit,
and reentry. The prelaunch phase included a system leak test; system operation on external
and simulated internal spacecraft power; real-time operation of the spacecraft programmed
life support and experiment events; controlled play and evaluation of the DM and VM tasks;
interchange of primate couch assemblies with the spacecraft powered as per countdown
procedures; closed capsule environmental testing; subsystem prelaunch tests as per countdown
procedures; RF power and frequency measurements of all on-board transmitters; and pneu-
matic and hydraulic preparation of the spacecraft as in preparation for flight.
The first of the system confidence tests performed at Cape Kennedy on the primate
mission vehicle was a leak test to confirm the integrity of the pneumatic and hydraulic
subsystems after shipment of the spacecraft. Hydrogen and oxygen, metabolic water, fuel
cell water, recovery oxygen, and nitrogen subsystems were all checked. It was found that the
metabolic water subsystem leaked in excess of specification, necessitating repair.
The launch and orbital phases included verification of all spacecraft powered-flight
events through booster separation; verification of all programmed life support and experiment
events; evaluation of Pace/Rho experiment operation; operation of the spacecraft attitude-
control subsystem in all flight modes; exercise of all fuel cell peripheral control components;
observation and cycling of the environmental control subsystem; end-to-end evaluation of
experiment telemetry channels through the use of an active primate simulator; stimulation
of the capsule atmospheric control and regulation components; operation of spacecraft
time-programmed events for approximately two days of spacecraft clock time. In the Hangar
S test sequence, delay was incurred in analysis and correction of coolant flow constriction,
as noted in Section 4.
After the confidence test, the spacecraft was moved to the ordnance and cryogenic
building where, in addition to explosive confidence testing after ordnance installation, cryo-
genic hydrogen and oxygen were loaded into the system for the first time. Safety procedures
were validated, and the spacecraft performed using its internal fuel storage.
The spacecraft was taken to Complex 17A and mated to the Delta launch vehicle on
May 29. Subsequent operations are outlined in Section 8.
In addition to the planned preflight validation test sequence at Cape Kennedy, special
tests were conducted on the capsule atmosphere as part of the followup study from the
endurance test. Also, after installation of an improved lighting assembly, a lighting and
camera resolution test was made inside the capsule.
Difficulties and delays were encountered repeatedly in cryogenic fill and topping.
Obstructive freezes, probably of water condensate, occurred in each of the four procedures
(in Hangar S with inert gases, in the ordnance and cryogenic building, and both sequences on
the launch complex) and was never controlled satisfactorily even in the launch countdown.
On the launch complex when the capsule was opened, gas pressure had accumulated
inside sufficiently to propel the 140-lb assembly to the limit of interconnecting cables. The
helium gas came through a leaking valve from the cryogenic oxygen tank where it had been
pressurized as a purge after tests in the cryogenic facility. As noted in Section 8, the re-
sultant broken cable and other damages caused delay, special reviews and tests.
Section 8 includes a description of the prelaunch countdown for the primate mission.

134
 REMOVE JPL

o o o
INSTALL JPL ANALYZER FOR

o
MECHANICAL RE-INSTALL JPL
ELECTRICAL MATE (288 hr), REFURBISHMENT S~\ MATING S~\MECHANICALLY MATED TESTS |20 ANALYZER FUEL CELL COMPATIBILITY (120 hr) ALIGNMENT (100 hr) SPACECRAFT CONFIDENCE (60 hr) BRATION(248hr) SPACECRAFT CONFIDENCE (58 hr)

'Configuration "Configuration Tests 'Configuration Configuration 'Configuration

Mechanically disassembled Mechanically mated using test cap 1. Verify Alignment Open and closed capsule Spacecraft with dummy retrorocket and inert Open and closed capsule
Configuration
Electrically mated 2. Mock-up cryotank installed Urine sterilization pyrotechnics.
Electrically mated Tests
Tests 3. Install new psychomotor tests, Operating fuel cell-thrust axis only.
Adapter vertical 1. Establish spacecraft operational status and obtain
T«sts 1. System operation in mechanicall'i mated configuration. (prog & logic) Tests
1 Subsystem compatibility in system configuration 1. Establish spacecraft operational status and Test baseline data by exercising the spacecraft through
2. Pre-launch, launch & orbital phas; tests. Tests
2 Real time life support sequence. obtain baseline data by exercising the space- 1. Spacecraft will be subjected to powered a shortend 30-day mission profile which includes
3. Separation, de-orbit & recovery piase tests. 1. Verification of capability of vehicle systems to support fuel
3 Pre-launch, launch & orbital phases. craft through a shortend 30-day mission profile flight vibration levels to verify its structural the following flight sequences:
4. Firing circuit resistance test. cell activation & de-activation.
4 Separation, de-orbit & recovery sequences. 5. Real Time life support sequence test. which includes the following flight sequences: and operational integrity. a) pre-launch
2. Establish compatibility between fuel cell & fuel cell controller. 2. Verify proper system operation with operating
5 Stimulate all sensors & Verify response via telemetry. 6. Closed capsule environmental per'Ormance test. 3. Demonstrate capability of vehicle to operate on fuel cell a) pre-launch b) powered flight
6. Repeat steps 2, 3, & 4 with simulated fuel cell failure. fuel cell & primate during thrust axis vibration. c) booster separation
7. Repeat step 3 with simulated fue cell failure. power. b) powered flight
c) booster separation d) orbit
Payload e) deorbit
Payload Payload Payload d) orbit Fully instrumented & trained primate-thrust axis
GTS active simulator Mechanical simulator Mechanical simulator e) deorbit f) re-entry
Mechanical primate simulator
Mechanical simulator Thermal simulator f) re-entry g) recovery
g) recovery
Payload
Payload Active primate simulator with
Active primate simulator UCLA signal conditioner

Mechanical sinuUtor
Thermal simuljto

-O
Tests
LEAKAGE & INSPECTION (40 hr)
o THERMAL-VACUUM REFURBISHMENT (64 hr)

Refurbish for primate

O
SPACECRAFT CONFIDENCE (114 hr)

'Configum on
o 3-OAY THERMAL-VACUUM (250 hr)

Configuration
O
REFURBISHMENT AND STERILIZATION (20 hr) S~\

Change P02 sensor

SPACEC RAFT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (116 hr)

Tests
o FINAL CONFIDENCE (96 hr)

'Configuration
o
1. Verify that leakage is within specification. Refurbish JPL & re-install Open in, clossd capsule Prime-mated Calibrate P02 transducer Spacecra, t, CG, WT, moments & products of inertia 1. Open & closed capsule
Change P02 sensor Replace LIOH cannister Satellite r '-entry vehicle CG, WT, moments & products SRV separated from adapter
Calib. P02 & CO; sensors Testi Tests Calibrate CO; sensor Reentry (thicle. CG. WT
Replace LIOH can if required 1. <sh spacecraft operational status and obtain 1. Verify thermal and operating performance of Change calendar clock battery Tests
Urine sterilization ie data by exercising the spacecraft through spacecraft while exposed to thermal-vacuum Refurbish trace gas contaminant control 1. System operation in mechanically mated configuration.
Change calendar clock batt. if required tend 30-day mission profile which includes environment with operating fuel cell and Sterilize urine system 'Standard preps 2. Pre-launch, launch & orbital phase tests.
Vacuum capsule 'lowing flight sequences: instrumented primate. Vacuum capsule 3. Separation, de-orbit & recovery phase tests.
H20 fill
Refurbish trace gas contaminant 2. Urine sample during 24 hrs post T/V Remove JPL for refurbishment Load tape recorder 4. Firing circuit resistance test.
all launch 5. Real time life support sequence test.
Control, if required b) p •vered flight Load camera
Payload Load pellet feeder
c) b ister separation
Fully instrumented & trained primate. Urine transport prepara tion Payload
d) o lit Active simulator
e) d Kbit Water dispenser preparation
f) r ;ntry Evacuate metabolic tan k and urine
g) r overy GiViA preparation
N 2 fill
Payload
Active imate simulator

Figure 6.5 Primate vehicle system acceptance test flow.

>
 7. LAUNCH, TRACKING, AND DATA SYSTEMS,
AND RECOVERY DEVELOPMENTS

LAUNCH VEHICLE

The two-stage Delta DSV-3G was the launch vehicle for the radiation and general biology pay-
load mission (flights I and II). The two-stage Delta N was the launch vehicle for the primate
payload mission (III). Second-stage restart capability was planned with the DSV-3G launch
vehicle for flights after the 3-day mission, but was eliminated when the later model exceeded
all Biosatellite requirements for payload capability with direct ascent to injection.
The payload capabilities of the DSV-3G and Delta N launch vehicles for ranges of concern
are presented in Fig. 7.1.

300

Delta N
with restart

. 200

100

MOOO 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Useful spacecraft weight, Ib

Figure 7.1 Launch vehicle payload capability. These data

assume: Eastern Test Range launch; initial flight azimuth
of 108°; orbit inclination of 33°; Nimbus fairing; no fairing
insulation; 99.6% first-stage propellant consumption; second-
stage velocity reserve of 600 ft/sec; nominal sequence of
launch events; attach-fitting weight of 70 Ib; and (for re-
start) 100-nm Hohman transfer injection altitude.

Launch Vehicle Design

The three-stage improved Delta, originally selected, was not used because it would have
necessitated the roll stabilization of the third stage. The initial spacecraft design was
reconfigured when the two-stage improved Delta DSV-3G was selected in December 1964
as the launch vehicle for the six flights. The two-stage improved Delta consisted of a
modified liquid-propellant Thor booster first stage, augmented by three "strap-on"

137
Thiokol solid-propellant motors to provide the liftoff thrust to place the Delta spacecraft on
the ascent trajectory, and a Delta second stage to provide the thrust and guidance control to
inject the spacecraft into the required geocentric circular orbit. A DSV-3G configured
attach fitting was developed to mate the spacecraft to the vehicle, and a shroud originally
designed for Nimbus protected the spacecraft from the external environment during powered
flight.
. In December 1966, notice was received by the Biosatellite project that plans were pro-
ceeding by the Launch Vehicle Project Office to upgrade the Delta launch vehicle capa-
bilities to include an increase in the size of first-stage tankage and a change to higher-per-
formance solid-propellant augmentation. The improved Delta was to be phased out by late
1968. Nomenclature for the new two-stage configuration is the long tank Delta (DSV-3N).
Biosatellite flights 1 and II utilized the DSV-3G, while flights III, D, and F were to use the
DSV-3N vehicle.
Comparative outboard profiles of the improved Delta and long tank Delta are shown
in Fig. 7.2. Special modifications made to the launch vehicle for the Biosatellite project
<J1C UUUUICU idici ii uiis act nun.

\
\
\
I
% ~T
Second stage

i\ T
I
\i
?4
1
Adapter
transition
y. Second stage 1/x

V, \ 1274.. >25 in.

gl Adapter
32 transition
1
11C 1.5 in.

A f\ A
f
i
A ;

\ Engine section Engine section

^ /P^ tt «_£
^^

Improved delta Long tank delta

(DSV-3N) (Delta N)

Figure 7.2 Comparative outboard profiles of improved Delta and long

tank Delta vehicles.

Improved Delta First Stage. The first stage is a modified liquid-propellant (LOX/RJ- 1 )
Thor booster powered by an MB-3 Block III Rocketdyne gimballed-engine system rated at
138
172,000 Ib of thrust at sea level. Propellant weight is 100,658 Ib. The Thor is augmented by
three strap-on Thiokol TX 33-52 solid-propellant motors, each rated at 54,000 Ib of thrust
at sea level. Their total propellant weight is 22,092 Ib. The gross weight of the first stage is
135,784 Ib. The combination of main engine and boosters provide a liftoff thrust of 330,000
Ib. Guidance is by a gyroreference package provided by Minneapolis-Honeywell.
Long Tank Delta First Stage. The long tank first stage is 173 in. longer than the
standard Thor because of the lengthened oxidizer and fuel tanks. Thrust rating remains at
172,000 Ib. Augmentation is provided by three strap-on TX 354-5 Castor II solid-propellant
motors, each rated at approximately 52,000 Ib of thrust at sea level. Liftoff thrust remains
at 330,000 Ib.
Improved and Long Tank Delta Second Stage. The second stage is an Aerojet General
AJ 10-118E liquid-propellant (IRFNA/UDMH) engine system rated at 7,800 Ib of thrust in a
vacuum. Propellant weight is 10,661 Ib, and gross second-stage weight is 13,048 Ib. The
second stage is inertially guided (Minneapolis-Honeywell) by a precise programmed autopilot
system. A WECO ground-based guidance system is used during powered flight to provide
radio guidance for orbit-shaping refinement. A newly configured attach fitting was used to
mate the Biosatellite spacecrafts to the second stage of the launch vehicle.
Launch Vehicle Modifications
Spacecraft Fairing. The spacecraft is enclosed in an RF transparent fairing to protect
it from aerodynamic effects in the atmosphere. The fairing is jettisoned during second-stage
powered flight at an altitude of at least 60 nm. The standard "Nimbus" type fairing is 224 in.
long and 65 in. in diameter and can be used on a two-stage improved Delta and the long tank
Delta. When assembled, the fairing is a hollow, thin-walled, fiberglass structure of circular
cross section. Two spring-loaded nose latches are mounted inside the shroud, holding the
fairing halves together. The spring compression is relieved and the mechanisms unlatch when
explosive bolts are blown. With no insulation, the fairing weighs approximately 535 Ib. It
has been used to protect the Nimbus meteorological satellite, the S-27 (Alouette) satellite,
EOGO, (the eccentric orbiting geophysical observatory), and GEOS (see Fig. 7.3).
This fairing was much larger than required, but could be produced without development
or qualification cost. Four access panels were made in the fairing prepared for Biosatellite
to accommodate cable connections, coolant and gas service lines, antenna releases, etc. Also,
a special umbilical fitting was built into the fairing for automatic release of coolant and
vacuum lines just before launch.
Electrical Interface. The electrical wiring provided for spacecraft use in each half of the
launch vehicle fairing consisted of ten twisted and shielded wires, four single conductors, and
one shield tie in each half. Electrical continuity to the spacecraft via wires from the fairing
were not required after liftoff. Due to Biosatellite's complexity, previously available capacity
was substantially increased for these prelaunch control and power circuits.
Attach Fitting. The 54-by 14-in. conical attach fitting (Fig. 7.4) described here was
developed by the Delta project for initial use with Biosatellite. The structure incorporates
eight equally spaced load-carrying aluminum fittings fastened to two aluminum end rings.
Four of these fittings are spacecraft tiedown points, and the remaining four alternate

139
 Clearance for
fairing separation Improved delta Long tank delta
HI spring cartridge
Fairing split
and cartridge 14 (Ref)
line •

(Ref) /-\2 R Sphere

17 in. diameter

*—38 in. diameter

A

4 in. diameter
Air conditioning separation
outlet door cartridgs
access 2 places

Air conditioning
umbilical
inlet door

65 in. diameter

2-1/8 in. diameter

vents (4)

57 in. diameter

Air conditioning
outlet door

Separation
cartridge Double skin
View B-B access door

9.5 (Ref)

4 in. diameter electrical disconnect

access doors 2 places

Figure 7.3 Standard Delta fairing and spacecraft envelope. Special spacecraft access through
fairing as coordinated with and approved by Delta project for Biosatellite is not shown.

140
 -'.*l_J
TV

•x,-•-
.f
-
t

.
•
8
''/
I
V. \

'
• -

figure 7A 54- by 14-in. conical attach fitting assembly.

fittings house the separation spring thrusters. Separation is effected by simultaneous firings
of the four explosive nuts, which secure the spacecraft to the attach fitting.
A switch pad was included on the attach fitting at the separation plane to interface with
a spacecraft separation switch that initiated several programmed functions and reported via
telemetry in the spacecraft.
The base of the attach fitting is bolted to the top of the Delta second-stage guidance
compartment. Insulating
' support was added to the compartment's top surface to prevent

141
coupling of the orbital beacon antenna during preflight checkout and launch. Figure 7.5
shows the Biosatellite spacecraft mated to the attach fitting on the launch vehicle.

'

'

.•-
: ;
- . •
;
•

•
-
- •-

'
•

'

" *

!*S

Figure 7.5 Spacecraft mated to the 54- by 14-in. conical attach fitting in the complex 17
launch service enclosure.

142
 *mt*
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regulated 125- 250 p«

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unit mm » r
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Clean room
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(clean room) and / Ceiling lowered to
X ft. x 43 ft
AGE pneumatic allow crane travel
ARC.
equipment area
offices

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change area jsystems ten area ^,0^.,.. G.S. Work U GS
tl ft x 43 ft. eree fl office

Toilet V^
10 ft wide /
12 ft high -<
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Peraonnei jc •tale T travel B
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**>dow lOftwidelmin.A 20 ft. x 50 ft
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Shop air— • Inspection If "\ 1
Fenced area 10 officer
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i_^__fl— Zerax 720 _ . electrical A
storage aree 10 r" AGE work area C
window ~^^^^
(handling equip. Instru- Reproduction ' 0* 26 ft. x 22 ft.
ct shipping containers) mentation
lab 1~— jj— Micro-film ABA Conference
^, Grounding bus \. printer o gQ i room
*^l 1T4 in. x % in. 20ft. x 18ft
Shop air __
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f
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Stock room in,off,ce *£ 11 fix ?,".;"
Boll 10
12ft. ||12ft-

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»op air __ f 10
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QC Engineer- 1 Rest
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~i ".a r ing office "

1
P 1

Rooms Rooms
1 • 480V, 3».2W. 2P, 15A recp R & S'AP FA 122
2 • 120V. H,3W.30Arecp R & S ' 375G
A • 120V, 1$. 30A
8 - 208V. 3»,30A First floor Second floor

Figure 7.6 Hangar S facilities plot plan. 143

 Late Spacecraft Access. To meet biological experiment requirements to launch within
4 hr following completion of spacecraft preparation (Biosatellite flights I and II), the im-
proved Delta booster was modified to allow very late arming of the solid motors by means of
"turn on" plugs. Fairing explosive bolts were modified to avoid lockwiring. Procedures for
final vehicle preparation were drastically changed and documented, and practiced in detail.
Rails for aligning the fairing halves prior to closure were extended to allow workspace for
spacecraft biologists and technicians to complete work late in the countdown.
Spacecraft power was not to be interrupted longer than 5 min during fairing installation.
Extra cables were built into the launch complex, and special jumpers were strung through
openings in the fairing halves to facilitate quick removal of facility service and replacement
with circuits mounted within the fairing and connected to ground equipment through the
Delta second stage and its umbilical mast.
Vibration and Noise. Three-day mission and 21-day mission experimenters were vitally
concerned with vibration and noise environments, respectively, for their potential effects on
biological processes to be observed in weightlessness. Since few data from other missions
existed and variation among individual flights was great, two triaxial vibration transducers
and a sonic transducer were installed inside the attach fitting for Biosatellites I and II.
Sufficient bandwidth was made available in one of the regular Delta telemetry links to
handle these added data. For Biosatellite III, our primary concern was to assess low-frequency
vibrations for which cryogenic tank mountings had minimal design margin over predictions
for the new vehicle configuration, so only six low-frequency channels in existing vehicle
telemetry links were used to record spacecraft environment.

LAUNCH SITE FACILITIES

Three basic facilities at Cape Kennedy were needed to prepare for launch of the Biosatellite
spacecraft. These and the biological laboratory complex are outlined in this section.
Spacecraft Checkout Facility

The spacecraft checkout facility, Hangar S, was made available for receiving, inspection,
checkout, and assembly of the spacecraft. It also provided general offices, storage area, and
shop facilities. The general configuration is shown in Fig. 7.6. Early modifications of
Hangar S detailed specifically for Biosatellite included a clean room with an adjacent test area
for checkout, electrical power safety cutout to permit handling hydrogen, and special plumbing
for gaseous hydrogen and oxygen system operations.
Ordnance and Cryogenics Test Building

The spacecraft was housed in this explosion-proof building for installation of the retrorocket
and other prytechnic devices and during testing of the Biosatellite D spacecraft cryogenic
tankage system (see Figs. 7.7 and 7.8). The building had been designed as a spin-balance
facility for solid motors, including Delta third stage, and became fully available with con-
struction of another updated balance facility.
A hydrogen-detection and -alarm system was installed to automatically cut power in
case of leakage; air purge was designed to protect nonexplosion-proof electrical equipment;
continuously purged oxygen and hydrogen vent lines were installed; and conduits, wall

144
 TCU Hard line terminations - • Adapter 6 ft. Wide roof opening • Laminar flow room
hose kit in clean room -

N2 Outlets

Satellite assy
& C/0 stand

TCU Alternate hard

line terminations

Retro-rocket
align fixture

TV Camera

O2 Gas
cart

cart

Ground buss

GMA II Service
& test stand
(To be moved out
Transport • of exit area once
fixture transport is out.
assembly Move to center A- 115V 30A 1*
Portable H2 (Not in area of room for load- B - 208V 30A
3*
detector head during testing) ing cryogenics) C - 1 1 5 V 15A

Figure 7.7 Floor plan of Ordnance and Cryogenics building for primate mission.
145
Figure 7.8 Launch Complex 17, Cape Kennedy.

penetrations, mountings, and utility modifications were made for specialized equipment. The
project furnished a 100,000 class transportable clean room within the building for exposure
of critical pneumatic systems during installation of pyrotechnic devices.
Launch Complex
AFETR Launch Complex 17 was utilized for final spacecraft checks, including field exercises
and launch simulations to perfect procedures for Biosatellite countdowns. Biosatellites I and
III were launched from Pad A and Biosatellite II was launched from Pad B of Complex 17.
Specialized accessories were relocated for flight II because Pad A was then under modification
to accommodate the long tank Delta. Requirements for these facilities were prepared by the
General Electric Company as the "Launch Site Facilities Specification" (GE Specification No.
S0060-10-0001) and incorporated in the project's "Base and Range Support Requirements
Document" (ARC Document No. 883-13-11).
Major modifications to the launch complex were required for Biosatellite. Air-conditioning
refurbishment of the three-level "greenhouse" atop the service structure was accomplished.
GSFC serviced both launch pads with a large single-pass conditioner, a long desired improve-
ment, which proved excellent foresight when flight II was moved to Pad B.

146
 Other special launch pad changes included hydrogen detection and power cutoff, purges
and vents for oxygen and hydrogen systems, plumbing for gases and vacuum lines, work plat-
forms for late access to the capsule, an air-driven bridge hoist for payload handling within
the enclosure, and electrical provisions for an unprecedented array of checkout equipment.
The regular air conditioners for spacecraft fairing were augmented to produce 0°F dewpoint
air at normal temperatures to prevent prelaunch icing of Biosatellite coolant coils on con-
figurations carrying a fuel cell. Vacuum pumps were installed on the umbilical mast to
maintain low pressure on spacecraft hydrogen and oxygen vents through a special umbilical
to the moment of launch. This same umbilical assembly carried coolant circulated from
project equipment on the ground with temperature monitoring and bypass shunt controls
built into the facility. The previously available standard umbilical cable was increased in
number of circuits as a general complex improvement, but it was sized for Biosatellite re-
quirements. Spare capacity was fully employed and some compromise was made by the
time flight III was served with the enlarged system. Additional parallel cables were mounted
on the service tower to minimize interruption of service during final prelaunch preparations.
Experiment Laboratories for Biosatellite I and II
A biological laboratory at Cape Kennedy was needed to provide approximately 100 experi-
menters and 25 NASA staff members with adequate space and support to prepare the flight
experiments. The 8,000-sq ft north annex to Hangar S was refurbished for the purpose early
in 1966.
Environmental control throughout the laboratory rooms with both temperature
(70°F ± 5°F) and relative humidity (50% RH ± 10% RH) was provided, with nonrecirculated
air in laboratory areas. Emergency power was made available from standby diesel generators
stationed at the laboratory complex 60 days before each flight to protect living specimens.
Three-day experiments were accommodated as outlined below.
Lysogenic Bacteria. Approximately 60 sq ft of bench space was provided. Separate
incubators and refrigeration, distilled sterile water, and ice and dry ice were furnished. A
"tent" of plastic was erected over a table to fabricate a "sterile" culture and hardware
assembly area.
Parastitic Wasp, Habrobracon. Approximately 105 sq ft of bench space was needed
for specimen preparation and experiment runout. In addition, a 15- by 10-ft incubation room
was used. A temperature and humidity control requirement, recognized late in the program,
was satisfied with heaters and water set out in pans on the floor. The requirement called for
80°F and 70% RH. Carbon dioxide in K bottles was used as an anesthetic for wasps. Two
refrigerators were needed for culture bottles.
Flour Beetle, Tribolium Confusum. Thirty square feet of bench space was needed.
Two incubators were furnished for holding and developing cultures. A drying oven, shared
with other experimenters, was used for drying the desiccant bags needed in the above incu-
bators to keep humidity low (20% RH). Laboratory space was shared with the habrobracon
experiment group.
Frog Egg, Rana Pipiens. The frog-egg experiment had unique requirements to adjust
the breeding season with the launch date and ensure egg fertilization just before launch.
Hundreds of frogs were kept in two large (4- by 10-ft and 4- by 12-ft walk-in cold

147
rooms at near freezing temperatures. Specimens required constant attendance. The building
was modified further to handle the heat discharged from refrigeration equipment.
Vinegar Gnat, Drosophila Melanogastor. Approximately 150 sq ft of working bench
space was provided.
Control No. 1 and Radiation Storage Area. Approximately 300 sq ft in two small
rooms was devoted to build up of experiment control hardware and storage and handling of
radiation sources.
Amoeba, Pelomyxa Carolinensis. Approximately 210 sq ft of working bench space was
needed to prepare cultures, clean and assemble hardware, and maintain specimens. A 20-
by 30-ft room was shared with the Neurospora experiment, which used minimal space. A
fume hood, pH meter, centrifuge, ultrasonic clearner, three incubators, and numerous reagents
and glassware were furnished.
Neurospora Crassa. Since this experiment was prepared largely at the home laboratory
in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, support requirements were minimal. A refrigerator for storage of
cultures and a small plastic scrubbable clean room were provided.
Tradescantia. Approximately 105 sq ft of working bench space was needed. An environ-
mental (reach-in) chamber was used for precise control of the environment for flight and
control specimens. A humidifier was added to keep the room at an acceptable humidity level.
Pepper Plant, Capsicum Annuum. A 40- by 10-ft trailer was converted to a growth
chamber for the preparation of plants. The temperature and humidity requirement necessi-
tated air conditioning with water sprays. Laboratory space also was provided for hardware
preparation. An environmental control chamber was used for ground control specimens during
flight. Special high-intensity fluorescent lighting was installed both in the room and in the
chamber of maintenance of the plants. Hundreds of gallons of bottled distilled water were
used for the pepper plant experiment.
Wheat Seedling, Triticum Vulgare. The three groups of investigators shared 400 sq ft
of laboratory, including 200 sq ft of working bench space, for wheat seedling experiments.
It was necessary to stop ventilation and raise the humidity to 90% RH during certain stages
of activity. A humidifier was added, and the laboratory entrance was restricted.
Utility Area. A 12-cu ft autoclave, automatic dishwasher, deionizing tank system, and
one glass still were furnished. As shown in the floor plan (Fig. 7.9), the remainder of the
Hangar S north annex space was devoted to office and conference facilities for experimenters.
Experiment Laboratories for Biosatellite III
The primate flight experiments required considerable reconfiguration of the experiments
laboratory facility. In the summer of 1968 project personnel prepared a change requirements
document after meeting with experiment, KSC, and representatives of the Army Corps of
Engineers.
While the originally stipulated modifications to the Hangar S north annex included many
basic features in anticipation of the primate flight, three years of further development in flight
experiment preparation procedures increased known requirements for later changes. Basic
utilities, air conditioning, and general layout of partitions were unchanged. The x-ray room,

148
 Control 1 —
Radiation
control
JH
spora
and
amoeba
groups
Drosophila

Froq eo<j group

Tribolium angle
and group
habrobracon
seedling

Lysogenic
bacteria
1
1
group

u 1i_ . [' -
North Annex

Figure 7.9 Configuration of the North Annex of Hangar

Sfor Biosatellites I and II.

for example, had been prepared and used initially for 3-day radiation source handling. Power,
water, and drainage had been provided in adjacent parking and drive areas for up to six animal
colony trailers in a cluster, and for a specially equipped biochemistry laboratory trailer out-
side the north annex laboratory to be assigned to the University of California.
Five individual isolation rooms for flight-candidate monkeys were constructed with walls
of acoustical biostatic material, and with carefully balanced single-pass air and separately con-
trolled temperature and humidity controls.
Scrubbable flight preparation and surgery rooms were prepared with epoxy coating on
ceiling, walls, and floors. Stainless stell shelves and furnishings, surgical lamp, and surgical
table were provided, plus oxygen and gas anesthesia supplies. A hospital filter was installed
in the air-conditioning inlet to the surgery.
A computer room for control of proficiency training was prepared with conduits to iso-
lation rooms and newly buried conduit to the animal colony trailers. The x-ray machine and
film-developing equipment were installed in predesignated rooms. A 30,000-lb shielded whole-
body radiation counter was placed in the University of California laboratory.
A covered interconnecting dock with three stainless-steel-lined animal trailers, an office
trailer, and a cage-washing facility were erected. Later additions included an exercise yard and
screening to prevent animal escape.

149
 Additional space was required for Biosatellite III experimenters. Work space for the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory's urine analyzer was assigned in the south side of Hangar S, in a room
vacated earlier by the completed Lunar Orbiter project.

TRACKING AND DATA SYSTEMS

The spacecraft was designed for compatibility with STADAN ground support systems. No
hardware changes in the ground support system for flight operations were intended in the
beginning, and extensions of relatively standard equipment capabilities eventually fulfilled
all requirements. Development effort consisted of tailoring the GSFC Multisatellite Operations
Control Center (MSOCC), development of computer software, expansion of data-handling
facilities (especially in South America), intense scheduling of existing resources in STADAN
and other global operational systems, and procedural innovations.
Support requirements for the project were documented to GSFC with headquarters'
endorsement in NASA's 1965 Support Instrumentation Requirements Document (SIRD) as
revised and updated through May 1968. Supplementary individual specifications were sub-
mitted by the project office defining the project operations control center, recovery control
computation, quick-look data processing, postflight data processing, and deorbit monitor
operations requirements. Also, prior to the first flight, an "On-Orbit Operations Require-
ments" document was submitted by the project and utilized in prelaunch exercises as a
STADAN operators' reference guide. GSFC responded with their "NASA Support Plan" in
standard format, and with headquarters' approval, followed with revisions and updates
corresponding to major SIRD revisions. Very comprehensive on-orbit operations plans
(e.g., Biosatellite D Operations Plan 1-60 of March 1969) based on the project's early docu-
ment and subsequent informal submissions, were published by GSFC as reference works and
operators' general instructions prior to each flight.
Requirements were constantly under reevaluation to maximize mission return and
reliability, with full advantage of existing resources and with minimum cost impact. A
continually vexing conflict arose in planning for economical accomplishment of objectives es-
sentially within the existing operational capabilitites on the one hand, and on the other, ex-
pression of valued requirements unrestrained by immediately practical considerations so that
GSFC could effectively develop current and future global system improvements.
Compatibility was designed in accordance with the GSFC Telemetry Standards of
November 1, 1962; their later requirement for a spacecraft clock to simplify ground data
processing was never implemented because of its disproportionate cost as a contract modifi-
cation. It was impractical to transport the prototype spacecraft; therefore, a breadboard of
flightlike components was specially assembled for compatibility-verification tests in 1965 with
STADAN at Blossom Point, Maryland. These tests were highly satisfactory, but showed that
the higher data bit rate of the primate mission would prevent accurate metric tracking of the
telemetry in case the beacon failed. A later weight- and power-conservation proposal to
eliminate the backup tracking beacon was denied on this basis at the T&DS manager's
request. Before Biosatellite III, GSFC established a mobile compatibility check unit for
use with the flight spacecraft in the factory or at the launch site, further improving confi-
dence in the higher bit-rate system.

150
The Global System

Orbital altitude and inclination with the equator were chosen to ensure adequate data
availability. The total network used for the primate mission is shown in Fig. 7.10. Basic
collection of telemetry data for all missions was planned for the North-South American
chain of STADAN stations at Fort Myers, Florida; Quito, Equador; Lima, Peru; and
Santiago, Chile. Fort Myers had the most voice/data links available with GSFC and sup-
ported the most critical operations during all flights. Rosman, North Carolina, served as
backup for Fort Myers; in spite of its lower workload, however, the Rosman station could
not be accepted by the project as prime because of its significantly reduced coverage time.
A portion of Rosman's unique 1-mHz data link was utilized for the primate flight to display
the whole spectrum of physiological data to investigators. The Lima station was maintained
by GSFC largely because of Biosatellite's data-recording requirement for every orbit.

•^o »•*>

* Includes stadan site at Kauai, MSFN site at Kokee Park, and USAF site at Kaena point.

Figure 7.10 Biosatellite global tracking, telemetry, and control network for Biosatellite III.

For three-day flights and for early calldown of the primate flight, the range and range-
rate annex of the Manned Space Flight Network station at Carnarvon, Australia, was specially
readied to command the receive data from the Biosatellite during the critical period just prior
to separation and retrofire of the R/V. The existing range and range-rate antenna, radio
equipment, and operating facility were utilized; command-modulation, telemetry-decommu-
tation, and data-transmission equipment were added.
151
 Johannesburg, South Africa, was to make first contact with spacecraft after launch from
the Eastern Test Range (ETR). Also, since Johannesburg is approximately antipodal to
Hawaii, the spacecraft was equipped with a fixed timer designed to be activated there to
effect recovery near Hawaii on almost any orbit through that area.
The ETR telemetry station on Antigua Island was tasked to receive, record, and retrans-
mit telemetry data during ascent and injection phases of all flights. At Cape Kennedy, ETR
facilities were interconnected with the project's telemetry station and with data circuits to
GSFC to provide for monitoring of the entire launch phase.
Separation and deorbit functions telemetered on 240.2 mHz were to be received by
airborne receivers from the Navy's Pacific Missle Range (PMR) staged on Guam for Bio-
satellites I and II, and on Okinawa for Biosatellite III. Two instrumented WV-2 Constellation
aircraft were deployed for each flight, but for Biosatellite II they could not be committed
until just before launch. Deorbit monitoring was mandatory for Biosatellite II because of
the failure of Biosatellite I, so an available Air Force ETR ship docked at Perth, Australia,
was requested to participate. Equipment was loaned by NASA for one aircraft covering each
flight and for the ship Coastal Sentry to receive and record 136-mHz orbital telemetry data
containing attitude control and other spacecraft parameters of interest. After launch delay
had compromised recovery planning for Biosatellite II, Australia's Woomera Test Range tele-
metry station was requested to prepare to record data in the relocated deorbit area. This
arrangement which proved successful, was reinstituted as a contingency precaution for the
first 18 days of Biosatellite III.
Special additional telemetry-data recordings were planned with available global resources
for the primate flight. The objective was to produce a maximum amount of data while the
animal was engaged in psychomotor tasks, programmed at 1400 and 1800 GMT each day.
Several telemetered EEG records could not be included within the onboard tape recorder
capacity. All STADAN sites having command capability were scheduled to turn the telemetry
transmitter on and off and to record data. For other facilities having only receive-and-
record capabilities, the telemetry transmitter was left active at the last preceding command
station contact. Manned Space Flight Network stations at Guam, Kauai, and the Canary
Islands were scheduled. STADAN facilities were prepared at Tananarive, Madagascar, and
Orroral Valley, Australia. Special arrangements were made for ETR support on Antigua and
Ascension islands and for a PMR aircraft to record data from the ground at Samoa during the
early half of the mission enroute to Okinawa for later deorbit monitoring readiness. Arrange-
ments were instituted through the Office of International Affairs to enlist support of a
Japanese station at Kashima and a British station at Singapore. Previous operational arrange-
ments were relied on to gain support of Woomera for on-orbit data collection. The global
strategy was to establish chains of coverage on meridians approximately 120° apart so space-
craft travel between them would be only 30 min or less.
Priority for Biosatellite operations was sanctioned by headquarters as "first" for early
and late flight phases plus any periods of spacecraft malfunction or after an orbit in which
data were not recorded. The GSFC standard ground rules were moderately extended to pro-
vide first priority throughout the short three-day flights. The Orbiting Astronomical Obser-
vatory (OAO) spacecraft was an important competitive consideration for Biosatellite III, but
South American stations had been specifically developed to minimize this conflict.

152
Project Operations Control Center at GSFC

The project's decisions and instructions for the global tracking system and recovery forces
were to be made and communicated from a control center. A MSOCC to serve a variety of
flight projects, each for limited durations, was planned and developed by GSFC concurrently
with development of Biosatellite. Design of the center was strongly influenced to accom-
modate the demanding projected requirements of Biosatellite.
Space for the large operations staff and adequate communications facilities were the most
difficult features to resolve before the first flight. The project's early estimate of requirements
could not be accommodated without important changes to GSFC plans in a critically scheduled
building. Temporary arrangements were made for auxiliary analysis personnel in the final days
before first launch. Personnel-load projections were found understated in Biosatellite I; further
improvements were made for Biosatellite II, and Biosatellite III experimenters were furnished
a data-receiving and -analysis center in a building separate from the main operations building.
The Biosatellite III (largest total) configuration for project control and spacecraft analysis is
shown in Fig. 7.11. Figure 7.12 is a photograph of the project's control room during flight of
Biosatellite III.
Equipment for data processing and communications in support of the project, located
within the total MSOCC, included data-transmission system receiving terminals (two); PCM
telemetry demodulation systems (two); an SDS-930 computer (primary and backup for
Biosatellite III); full duplex teletype; and a high-speed printer, pen recorders, and high-speed
oscillographs. Displays in the operations control room consisted of status and schedule boards,
command and telemetry channel identification matrixes, maps, and computer-driven real-time
data. A digital GMT clock was prominent, and a digital countdown clock was provided to
coordinate operations during the brief orbital contacts. Computer-controlled online displays
were in development as part of the MSOCC, and, while not an early recognized requirement,
they proved extremely valuable in flight management. Twelve channels were displayed only
from Fort Myers for Biosatellite I. Twenty-four channels were displayed for Biosatellite II,
and data transmission was increased so that every orbit produced real-time visibility in Bio-
satellite III. During Biosatellite III, two arrays of cathode-ray-tube (CRT) display (12
channels each) also were made available to all Biosatellite work areas on closed-circuit tele-
vision.
An experimenters' analysis center was established for the estimated 10 duty personnel
directly concerned with management of the primate experiment. An existing facility in the
GSFC Data Reduction Laboratory required only the addition of communications terminals
and improved pen recorders.
Physiological data, and EEG records in particular, are not satisfactory in normal rolls
of pen-recorder paper. Because analysis depends on comparison of different epochs of
relatively rapid paper records (moving at approximately 1 in./sec), the accessibility of "fan-
fold" records and the stability of inked traces as compared with melted wax were extremely
important. The newest GSFC equipment with these features was assigned to the experimenters'
analysis center and to Santiago, Chile for Biosatellite III.
Communications
Voice and teletype arrangements for Biosatellite consisted of components of the regular NASA
Communications (NASCOM) global system, augmented with leased circuits. The configuration

153
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Figure 7.11 Multisatellite operations control center.

154
 f^^ll
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Figure 7.12 Biosatellite project operations control center during private mission.

was enlarged with the increased complexity of Biosatellite III, but was relatively constant in
basic STADAN, Air Force, launch, deorbit, and recovery coordination services from the
beginning. The Biosatellite III complex, the largest to date for unmanned space flight, is
diagrammed in Fig. 7.13.
The most critical developmental problem was posed by the requirement for voice and
data circuits to South American stations for Biosatellite III. The operational histories of
Biosatellites I and II showed the high importance of close data monitoring in the control
center during flight, and the feasibility of quick effective response by long-distance voice
communications with the tracking station. Improvement over the teletype-data transmission
serving the earlier flights was necessitated by the additional complexities of an instrumented
primate animal, an active atmospheric control system, and a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell,
designed with more contingency command options and 12l/2 times increase in telemetered
data rate. General network development by GSFC was accelerated under the combination
of OAO and Biosatellite requirements. Four communications satellite circuits, two each to
Quito and Santiago, were leased as soon as they became available, and existing radio voice/

155
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data circuits were extended between tracking stations and transmitter terminals so that both
primary and secondary frequencies could be utilized in emergencies. (Development of data-
handling systems using standard 3-kHz circuits is outlined in the next subsection.)
Special lease and interface arrangements with Department of Defense (DOD) circuits
were made to accommodate several requirements peculiar to the Biosatellite mission. A voice
and a teletype circuit were extended to the Air Force Satellite Test Center in Sunnyvale,
California, for coordination of recovery support services. Three voice circuits were extended
td Hickam AFB from NASCOM's Honolulu switching facility for the recovery field coordina-
tion, postflight laboratory communication, and deorbit monitoring information. Inter-
connections with DOD and extension of local NASA circuits on Guam provided for reliable
operational coordination with the deorbit-monitoring aircraft for Biosatellites I and II. DOD
circuits in Okinawa were used for Biosatellite III. Two voice circuits were extended from the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to UCLA's Brain Research Institute for specialized computer
analyses in support of the principal investigator on the primate flight.
Telephone terminal instruments and local extensions of both administrative and oper-
ational systems were added in the control center and analysis centers at GSFC for Biosatellite.
NASCOM's operational circuits were increased from three to five in the project operations
control center to accommodate the variety of functions and rapid succession of contacts.
About two dozen telephone handsets and half as many administrative extension lines were
added for the representatives of numerous organizations attending flight III.
Operational Telemetry-Data Handling
Original planning called for a project representative at Fort Myers and at other possible tracking
sites to read and interpret data, especially of the attitude control system. This undesirable
dilution of technical talent from the control team was precluded, however, by the existing
capability for real-time display of analog data at GSFC during Fort Myers contacts. Also, a
computer for data processing was planned for the MSOCC. Processes were developed as de-
scribed below, and the existing and improved modes of data transmission at GSFC were ex-
panded and adjusted to Biosatellite requirements, especially for the primate flight.
Biosatellite I and II were supported with real-time data during the five or six daily
consecutive contacts at Fort Myers. The full data bit stream (1,792 bps) was transmitted over
a regular 3-kHz circuit with excellent and consistent fidelity. A similar arrangement was es-
tablished at Carnarvon for Biosatellite II, using equipment shipped from other STADAN
locations. Data from Cape Kennedy and Antigua from the countdown through orbital injec-
tion was also transmitted over 3-kHz data circuits.
Small computers previously installed for OAO at Quito and Santiago were employed for
Biosatellites I and II. Existing interfaces with telemetry ground stations at those sites and
their punched paper tape outputs permitted data captures of three full frames (256 words of
7 bits each frame) to be received in the control center 10 min after each contact.
As noted, the primate mission, with its greater complexity and high data rate, presented
a difficult challenge. Original planning was to receive data in the control center from Fort
Myers' contacts in tape replays through the data line with the recorder slowed 8 to 1. Within
the 85 min between contacts, receipt of a typical 5-min contact would require 40 min. Online
reaction capability by the control team at GSFC became an urgent requirement, however,
after experiences of the initial flight. Concurrently, the GSFC data-transmission policy was
standardized and restricted to synchronous operation at raw data rates not above 1,792 bps,

157
so even the 8-to-l slowed replay was not possible. (The purpose of the new policy was to
match criteria for guaranteed performance of international carriers who participated in the
NASCOM system.)
As a first approach to the primate mission data problem, software was planned for the
programmable PCM telemetry station at Fort Myers, which, together with an output buffer
designed and installed previously for the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO) satellite,
could sample selected words. A complicated set of ground rules based on equipment limita-
tions was to be observed in selecting data from the telemetry format. After several months
of proposals and counter proposals between Ames and GSFC, a "bastard frame" of data was
developed that would (1) provide for optimum surveillance of the spacecraft from each set
of six consecutive raw data frames, (2) require only slight equipment change, (3) not overtax
the program storage capacity of the ground station at Fort Myers, and (4) comfortably
pass through the standardized data transmission system. (See Fig. 7.14.) Feasibility of the
software was quickly demonstrated.
In response to the project's formal request for similar data transmission from Santiago
and Quito, which would result in real-time surveillance of about 95% of normally planned
contacts, GSFC procured and installed small general-purpose computers capable of duplica-
ting the bastard frame sampling and the synchronous buffer feature of the newly standardized
data-transmission system. Hence, real-time spacecraft data in a consistent format were avail-
able in the control center for most orbital contacts via the newly acquired data circuits.
Physiological data, except for temperature and respiration, could not be accommodated in
the single format. The computers at Quito and Santiago were prepared with alternative soft-
ware that substituted into the bastard frame the psychomotor panel operation and limited
additional experiment data. Rosman, which overlapped most of Fort Myers' field of contact
with the spacecraft, was scheduled to receive and retransmit the full 22.4 kbs data stream in
a 1-mHz wideband circuit to the experimenters' analysis center at GSFC. Two physiologists
were sent by the principal investigator to Santiago to aid in monitoring the orbiting animal's
progress between sequences of Rosman data capture.
Launch phase data from Cape Kennedy and Antigua were formatted in an existing online
computer at the Air Force telemetry station for compatibility with the Quito and Santiago
computers. High-speed data transmission from Antigua was handled in the ETR's regular
40-kHz data link, but real-time monitoring of Delta launch vehicle data beyond the Cape's
horizon was sacrificed.
Daily samples of primate flight telemetry records in six-track computer tape format were
required at the UCLA computer facility for the principal investigator's analysis of brain waves.
Frequency spectral density and correlation characteristics were developed and specially
charted to assess the animal's condition during flight. Arrangements were made with JPL to
receive data via GSFC standard data-transmission systems from tape replayed at 16-to-l
speed reduction. Three 30-sec epochs were to be selected from each Fort Myers' pass with
online monitoring and quality control by the receiving facility. In the final weeks before
flight, experimenters requested increase of such data flow for maintaining comprehensive bio-
rhythm assessment. Increased scheduling at reduced priority was provided for two 30-sec
epochs at Quito and Santiago for every second orbit.
Plots of UCLA's analyses were returned to the experimenters' analysis center via a data
quality voice line on a CRT photographic plotter driven by fm audio signals. Terminal equip-
ment for this link was furnished by UCLA.
58
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 Processing and display of telemetry data in the project operations control center in-
volved major computer programming effort by GSFC. Pen recorders driven directly from
demodulation systems were available in the adjacent equipment room for attitude control
system, command acceptance verification, and the limited Biosatellite III physiological
data. But all data were digitally processed for control team assessment. Lighted wall
displays and a 600-line/min printer served all flights. More real-time display was distributed
by.closed-circuit television from CRT equipment during Biosatellite III.
The online program in the control center produced a digital computer tape of all data
for subsequent further processing and printouts of calibrated data in every channel. The
program was designed to update as soon as each frame printout was completed or later if
so instructed. The printout was designed for easy comprehension of each parameter, with
data grouped by subsystem, and with both raw and calibrated values; an example from
Biosatellite III is shown in Fig. 7.15. Flags were added to data outside prescribed limits
and to data from words containing parity error.
Digital data tape produced online was processed offline to provide, in list form, the
parameters selected after each contact by control centers, at desired rates up to the maximum
received through prescribed time intervals. Another offline process developed for Bio-
satellite III searched the data for changes in status of 24 parameters and produced a compact
(usually one page) list of initial and final conditions plus changes during the telemetered
period. Raw data received in the control center for processing constituted the full data stream
for Biosatellites I and II, but only the bastard-format serial bit stream for Biosatellite III.
Another computer was programmed to serve the separate GSFC data reduction
laboratory in Building 23 where experimenters monitored the Biosatellite III progress.
Five nonstandard subcommutators were contained in the spacecraft data. All but one was
nonsynchronous, and all carried data of particular interest to investigators. On a "strongly
desired" basis, GSFC was able to meet requirements of a specification provided by the
project.
Command/Control Preparations
Fast, reliable, and accurate response to control decisions was required for the 5-min contacts
during flight. Fifty-four separate commands were available for Biosatellite I, and 70 were
designed into the primate mission system; existing equipment and basic procedures were
used. An early decision was made to use punched tape in the standard command encoders
at tracking stations to reduce likelihood of human error in dial settings or button selection
on consoles. Chad-type punches replaced chadless wherever necessary to provide for local
preparation or receipt of special command sequences via teletype.
Punched mylar tapes, more durable than paper, were prepared in sets that contained all
useful commands and several strips of frequently used sequences of commands. They were
arranged in an array on a board specifically designed for positive identification and quick
access. Each command station was provided with a set.
Command modulation sets were interconnected with voice communications through
frequency dividers such that a unique tone sequence was superimposed on the coordination
link with the control center whenever a command was sent. While the command could not
be individually identified, this feature became an important aid to project controllers in
quick comprehension of control operating status.

160
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 Anticipating the length and complexity of Biosatellite III, a computer program was
prepared for use at GSFC by which teletype instructions for detecting functional verifi-
cations in telemetered data. Project controllers thereby could produce regular "pass assign-
ment messages" (see "Operational Developments" below) with only minimal definitive
inputs.
Recovery Control Computation
Reliable and flexible readiness was maintained for project controllers to effect recovery of the
Biosatellite capsule through all flights. A computer program, specified by the project, pro-
duced regular catalogs of recovery opportunities meeting prescribed criteria; the command
sequence, timing, and recommended location for commands were listed for each recovery
option. Also, punched paper tape containing command sequences with full redundancy for
cross checking at recipient stations was automatically produced for release to teletype circuits.
Since programmed criteria could not account for storms in the recovery area or various com-
promised operating conditions, the recovery controller had a computer input worksheet from
which he could obtain within 10 min the complete set of instructions and commands based
on his mathematically minimal definition of particular recovery and command conditions.
The program contained definitions of the earth's geometry, the earth's magnetic field,
an atmospheric model, spacecraft retrorocket and drag characteristics, and other features
needed to adequately describe recovery conditions. In addition to commanded settings of
magnetometer bias and timer and commanded "start" time, the program defined the relative
targeting accuracy to be expected in each recovery option, the relationship of the sun to
infrared horizon scanners at deorbit, and navigational track references for recovery aircraft.
GSFC's regularly produced "minute vector" tape describing Biosatellite's orbital trajectory
provided the input data.
"Nominal and early" recovery criteria inlcuded protection of the Hawaiian Islands and
major airlanes from intrusion. Emergency catalogs provided for targeting near available
global retrieval resources in case of catastrophic spacecraft failure, and for command of the
backup fixed timer from Johannesburg in case of programmer failure. A typical catalog page
defining a recovery opportunity near Hawaii and the sequence of commands it requires is
shown in Fig. 7.16.
This unprecedented operational recovery support preparation was completed and
checked without undue difficulty, and its flexibility proved more valuable than had been
most optimistically anticipated (see Biosatellite II operations).
Postflight Data Processes

Spacecraft engineering data from orbital PCM telemetry was presented in convenient form
for analysis after each flight. Environment definitions were provided to experimenters, al-
though the actual biological observations were restricted to recovered specimens on Bio-
satellites I and II. For the primate flight, computer tapes in specific formats were produced
for UCLA, JPL, and GE.
Commands were tabulated as recorded with GMT. Preference for integrating command
records into computer tapes of telemetry data could not be reasonably met with GSFC's
data-processing system. Fm/fm data from the deorbit and recovery sequence were
accepted in simple oscillographic form for analysis. Primary fm data tapes also were used

162
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 make more refined investigations of the deorbit failure of Biosatellite I. Also, fm data
superimposed on the PCM carried for infrared bolometer observations from Biosatellite II
were accepted as oscillograms on 35-mm film.
Reduction of the huge quantity of PCM data was the most challenging postflight
processing problem. Processes for Biosatellites I and II featured simple time sampling and
statistical summarizing of many channels, but the resultant reports exceeded 15,000 pages
of computer tabulations each. Programming for the process was "generalized" as described
in GSFC Report X56569-231, dated June 1969.
The primate flight had the potential of producing 100 times as much as the earlier
mission: though part of the data format was physiological information to be processed only
by the experimenters, the flight was planned for 10 times greater duration, and the data
rate was \2 l /2 times as fast; contacts were planned somewhat more frequently, and each one
was 50% longer.
The generalized software became a serious restraint in attacking the problem, and
resources were not planned by GSFC for a complete new process for Biosatellite III.
Further, data could not be examined to develop a reduction rationale until the new spacecraft
was nearly flight ready. However, adjustment was contrived by GSFC in response to the
project's request to strongly edit engineering data with the highest response rates. Each
raw value was compared with the last value printed and the two immediately following values
and was flagged for printing if it differed from the previous printed value by two PCM
quantums or if it was the first of three consecutive values, each differing from the last print
by any amount. The result was moderately successful with 12,000 pages from 8'/2 days of
flight and excellent visibility of every phenomenon of interest. But greater improvement would
appear essential for future similar operations.
On Orbit Operational Developments
Biosatellite control was more dependent than most space science projects on the specialized
knowledge and support of the project by tracking station operators. Staffing by the project
at key sites, which is normal for the more complex spacecraft, was not practical with our res-
ponsibility of maintaining a strong control team at the control center 24 hours a day. Com-
prehensive reference and instruction manuals were compiled in the form of NASA-GSFC
operations plans published before each flight. Special instructions encompassed command
handling and precautions, command verification, means and priorities of communications with
the project operations control center, contingency command procedures, and data interpre-
tation and reporting.
Visits were made before the first flight to each of the primary sites-Fort Myers, Quito,
Lima, Santiago, and Johannesburg. Project representatives (who would be controllers) intro-
duced the spacecraft and explained the unusual cooperative requirements between remote
site operators and central controllers to operate a recoverable system in low earth orbit and
ultimately, to support a monkey. The project was rewarded with invaluable interest and
responsiveness, which generally prevailed through the three flights.
In addition to the regular command tape preparations described above, special precautions
were required with selected commands identified as "critical" that irreversibly committed
important onboard resources in the spacecraft. Each primary site was furnished with one or
two specially prepared sequences of 38 commands on a tape that, initiated in an extreme
emergency at the proper time, would complete all programmer adjustments and arm the
firing circuits for reentry in a preferred target area within one orbit.
Four means of communication were established between the project controllers and
station operators. In ascending order of precedence, there were:
1. GSFC's operations plan containing the project's flight plan and detailed instructions, both
general and orbit by orbit.
2. Updated teletype messages in formats prescribed in the operations plan to adjust that plan.
3.- "Pass assignment messages" teletyped 30 min before each contact, detailing the script
with GMT for commands and observations intended during the typical 5-min contact.
4. Voice instructions to the station operators during contact with the spacecraft.
GSFC made special provisions in their operating policy for response to direct teletype and
voice contacts from project controllers without network controllers' interposition.
Exercises were staged by GSFC in cooperation with the project controllers conducting
flight operations. Two of the global systems exercises before each flight were combined with
introductory meetings designed to acquaint all operating participants on every shift repre-
senting Ames Research Center, the principal investigator and coinvestigators, and the space-
craft prime contractor, as well as the various tracking and data agencies with their procedures
and interfaces. Systems test data were replayed through the data-handling equipment at the
tracking station with transmission to various processes and display at the control center, while
command instructions were simulated by a script keyed to the test data.

RECOVERY*

Recovery Tests
During the definition stages of the program, it was decided that the primary method of experi-
ment capsule retrieval would be by midair recovery, with a secondary method consisting of
retrieval from the ocean surface by ship or helicopter. In accordance with advice given by
the USAF Space Systems Division (later SAMSO), the Biosatellite's main descent parachute
was designed to be structurally compatible with air recovery requirements of the retrieving
aircraft. These requirements consisted of (1) providing a descent rate for the chute-capsule
system at 10,000 ft of 25 ft/sec, (2) providing a chute system with minimum oscillation, and
(3) reinforcing the chute with four heavy lateral rings, substantial enough to withstand the
forces applied during air recovery.
The Air Force air recovery system consisted of a JC-130-type aircraft fitted with recovery
equipment. This equipment comprised a motorized winch wound with half-inch nylon line
and attached to a loop arrangement incorporating several hooks trailed below and behind the
aircraft. On contact with the parachute canopy, the hooks engaged at least one of the rein-
forced members of the chute (laterals). The motorized winch paid out line, much like a
fishing reel, and was braked at the proper time. The trailing system was then winched into
the aircraft.
Based on initial specifications, the main descent chute was designed and sized to provide
a stable (less than ± 3° oscillation) target with a descent rate of 10,000 ft of 25 ft/sec with a
suspended weight of 275 Ib. This design resulted in a parachute with an inflated diameter
of approximately 22 ft. To verify descent rates, a series of air recovery tests was performed
over the period May 1964 through April 1966. Capsule weight was projected to increase
•Public release of some information in this section, although unclassified, would require specific concurrence
by the Air Force according to their early stipulation.
165
from 275 Ib to an anticipated 325 Ib during this period, which further justified this testing
program. In all, 37 tests were performed in which descent rates were measured, and of these,
27 tests involved aerial recovery at suspended weights from 275 to 400 Ib. Reliability was
shown to 325 Ib, and two of the four overweighted tests were successful.
The air recovery tests were performed under the direction of the Ames Biosatellite
project office with the cooperation and aid of several DOD agencies, including the USAF
SAMSO, the AFFTC, Edwards AFB, California; the DOD Joint Parachute Test Facility, NAS,
El'Centro, California; and the PMR, NAS, Point Mugu, California.
Special Development Programs

Early in the project development, it was recognized that due largely to the requirement to
deliver the recovered capsule to the postflight laboratory within 6 hr after deorbit, a new
method must be developed to retrive a capsule floating on the ocean surface reliably and
quickly by a fixed-wing aircraft. Existing DOD resources were surveyed with the following
conclusions:
1. The 6594th Test Group (the organization charged with air recovery of Biosatellite), al-
though with limited capability for surface-to-air pickup of data packages using a balloon
station, had no experience with packages the size or weight of the Biosatellite capsule.
2. The U.S. Air Force Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service (AFRRS) was developing a
man-rated balloon station for their rescue mission, using specially equipped HC-130-type
aircraft that would be suitable for Biosatellite retrieval. This capability, however, was not
expected to be operationally qualified or deployed to field units in time for Biosatellite
lor II.
As a result of these conclusions, the project office developed, with Air Force cooperation,
a balloon station system that could be deployed by swimmers or scuba divers and that could
ensure a reliable retrieval of the Biosatellite capsule by recovery aircraft of the 6594th Test
Group.
A helium-filled balloon configuration was selected that was capable of supporting its
own weight and that of a pick-up bridle and 200 ft of tether line in calm air and in winds up
to 30 k. The balloon system was air dropped and deployed by two persons.
A satisfactory system was developed in June 1966. Retrieval aircraft and crews were
furnished by the AF SAMSO. Range facilities of AFFTC, Edwards AFB, and Salton Sea,
California, and at PMR, Point Mugu, California, were used. Combined qualification and train-
ing demonstrations were conducted in the open sea. This balloon station was the first
operational system for water-surface retrieval of weights in the 300- to 500-lb range with
fixed-wing aircraft employed by the ARRS.
In July 1968, the ARRS rescue-balloon system had become fully operational and was
deployed to field units. Feasibility demonstrations with this system on a simulated Biosatellite
capsule had been performed in September 1966, so it was relied on without need of proficiency
exercises for Biosatellite III.
Air Force crews were furnished with special equipment to care for the capsule during
return flight. A mounting frame for inverting and handling the 280- to 320-lb capsules was
provided, and each aircraft carried kits containing thermometers, radiation detectors, gas sam-
ple bottles, emergency air bottles and regulators, vent-removal tools, and special ducting for
conditioned air.
166
Laboratories

In March 1965, negotiations were initiated with the AF SAMSO to place six 10- by 40-ft
laboratory trailers at Hickam AFB, Hawaii, to serve as the postrecovery experiment laboratory
and capsule disassembly area. After coordination with the Hickam Office of Civil Engineering
and the Army Corps of Engineers, a dock was erected and the trailers installed with power,
water, and telephone services. The complex consisted of one trailer designated for capsule
disassembly, four trailers for assignment among the flight experimenters for their use in post-
recovery analysis, and one office trailer.
This facility served adequately until plans for the primate mission were formulated. At
this time a 20- by 60-ft structural steel, prefabricated, air-conditioned building was erected to
house the 15-ton, whole-body scintillation counter and the x-ray equipment on solid concrete
bases. Also, the existing complex was modified to accommodate a self-contained biochemistry
laboratory trailer provided by the University of California at Berkeley (UCB).
For the primate mission, the postflight laboratory consisted of one trailer each for capsule
disassembly, emergency surgery and flight animal isolation, animal instrumentation and
electronic shop, laboratory, offices, and for housing a small colony of primates. A seventh
trailer contained specialized laboratory equipment from UCB, and the newly constructed
building contained the whole-body counter and the x-ray machine and developing room.

167
 8. BIOSATELLITE FIELD AND FLIGHT OPERATIONS

FIELD ORGANIZATION AND PROCEDURES

All phases of operations for Biosatellite were planned in parallel with the development
of hardware and supporting capabilities. The operations staff within the project organi-
zation at ARC was responsible for developing requirements and guiding Goddard Space
Flight Center (GSFC), Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and the Air Force in their develop-
ments of support facilities and procedures. The operations staff also provided technical
guidance to the prime contractor in his development of procedures and staffing for on-
orbit operations. Test personnel, in the ARC project office and in the prime con-
tractor's organization, were responsible for planning and conduct of operations with the
spacecraft itself and interconnected ground equipment at launch and recovery sites.
Personnel who had been responsible for development of the spacecraft also exercised
management control and engineering support of field operations.
Experimenters and their staffs were responsible for their respective biological
specimens and specialized hardware in the field. They were required to document in
detail their procedures so that government quality-control inspectors could ensure ad'
herence to plan, and so that time phasing could be developed among experimenters and
with other activities. Experimenters' procedures also were constrained to maintain in
bonded storage all prime hardware that might be used for flight.
Personnel from the ARC project offices were maintained in the field at least for
the 60 to 90 days each spacecraft was there. Figure 8.1 shows the organization to which
assignments were made.
Procedures both for spacecraft and experiments initially were developed and
tested in conjunction with systems tests in the spacecraft factory. At substantial expense
in terms of personal sacrifice as well as travel and consumables costs, and with unpre-
cedented support by the launch vehicle agency and his contractor, complete dress
rehearsals were conducted at KSC before each flight sufficiently early to establish con-
fidence in launch-day procedures. A live radiation source was used in demonstrating
three-day flight readiness, and a live monkey was fully prepared in the field before the
primate flight countdown. •
The operations at KSC depended on highly unusual services available there in
support of unmanned space projects. Some outstanding features are listed below.
1. Power and air-conditioning services were so critical that 24-hr watches were required
of technicians when biological specimens were being maintained for flight, and
during certain operations with the fuel-cell-powered primate spacecraft.
2. Scientists usually remain more in the background when their physical science experi-
ments are being readied for flight. For this project, however, experimenters came
to the launch site in large numbers to work with laboratory equipment. They re-
quired unusual supplies, instrument calibration services, and general services, and
most of them were unaccustomed to a flight operations base, compared with the
university or research laboratory working environment.
169
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3. Seemingly small routine factors became critical. Insect poison spraying of facil-
ities, which is standard in the Cape Kennedy area, was strictly forbidden around the
Biosatellite laboratory. Air-conditioning inlets were protected from vehicle exhaust
or other fume sources.
4. A long list of required consumables, which met stringent specifications, ranged from
very large quantities of distilled water (not normally available nearby) to high-purity
liquid hydrogen for the fuel cell, delivered on precise schedules.

BIOSATELLITE I FLIGHT OPERATIONS

Organization

Biosatellite I operations organization, effective beginning with the countdown, is shown

in Fig. 8.2. The mission director was represented at launch by assistants in each sub-
division of responsibility so he could be relatively free of time-constrained activities to
concentrate on problems and decisions referred to him. During countdown, he received
status reports and specifically approved initiation of critical milestone procedures when
commitments to the subsequent schedule were sharply increased.
The experimenters' representative was formally selected by his colleagues. He was
required to report by phone from the launch service tower to the mission director for
the group's approval of the flight readiness of experiment assemblies as handled and
installed to the point of capsule closure.
Through the laboratory director, engineering and biology specialists and the quality-
assurance inspector reported on the preparation of the individual experiments before
mounting into spacecraft subassemblies. The assistant mission director for experiments
maintained a continuing evaluation of the experiments' potential for data return as
reported by the experimenters.
The assistant for spacecraft maintained contact with the test conductor in the tele-
metry ground station and with the spacecraft prime contractor's representative. Global
readiness of tracking, telemetry, control, and recovery support was monitored by the
flight operations director at GSFC, who coordinated with his representative in the mission
director's center at Cape Kennedy.
The KSC launch director in the blockhouse was served with a "hot line" circuit to
the mission director for formal coordination of major events and readiness for launch.
Biosatellite I Prelaunch Procedures
Spacecraft Procedures. Two spacecraft were manufactured for flight readiness
before launch of Biosatellite I. Spacecraft 301, later launched as flight II, was used to
check out all procedures and facilities to be used with the flight spacecraft (302) during
prelaunch operations at Cape Kennedy. The 301 also was fully prepared to be used as
a backup spacecraft in the event of a major failure in the 302 system.
. Spacecraft 301 arrived at the Cape on September 15, 1966, and was delivered to
Hangar S for inspection and incoming confidence tests. The spacecraft underwent various
electrical and mechanical checks in Hangar S before delivery to Launch Complex 17A on
October 7 for mating with a dummy vehicle interface section and a simulated prelaunch
sequence. October 12 was designated F - 0 (launch) day with a simulated countdown

171
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starting at 0050 EST. Experiment packages were prepared, assembled onto racks, and
inserted; and the fairing was installed. During this exercise, numerous procedural
problems were identified and were subsequently corrected. The 301 spacecraft was
removed from the gantry on October 14 and returned to Hangar S.
On October 27, 301 was taken to Area 39 to verify electrical and mechanical
compatibility with facilities there. The communications links between the spacecraft
and the Hangar S ground station via video circuit and links were checked and verified.
After repeated electrical and mechanical functional checkouts, on December 5,
301 was returned to the ordnance area for final preparation as the backup spacecraft.
Ordnance was installed, weight and center-of-gravity measurements made, and final
assembly completed by December 13.
Spacecraft 302, the flight spacecraft, arrived at ETR on October 1, 1966. The
incoming confidence test verified the integrity of the spacecraft as it was received.
The spacecraft electrically mated test, started on October 14, exercised all
spacecraft systems by cycling them through the entire mission sequence including pre-
launch, launch, orbit, separation, deorbit, and recovery phases. The spacecraft remained
mechanically disassembled and electrically mated for this test, which was the primary
and most comprehensive system test performed at the field site.
Pneumatic-leak tests were started on October 20. The thrust cone (T/C) pneu-
matic leak test verified the integrity of the T/C spin and despin pneumatic assemblies
at operating pressures. The attitude-control pneumatic assembly, the capsule, and gas-
management assembly (GMA) were also tested in this sequence. The spacecraft final
confidence test was started on November 3 on the completely assembled spacecraft
by cycling its systems through selected mission sequences.
The 302 spacecraft was transported to the ordnance facility on November 14;
spacecraft ordnance installation was started on November 17. The retromotor was
aligned on November 22, and its igniter installed the following day. The explosive
and final confidence test demonstrated that the spacecraft would operate properly
following the installation of all flight hardware and ordnance.
The 302 spacecraft was transported to Launch Complex 17A and mated to the
launch vehicle on November 30. On December 2, an F - 0 day simulated launch was
conducted. Teams of experimenters, launch vehicle technicians, and base and range
support agencies participated. The fairing was installed and the gantry was retired.
A radio-frequency interference (RFI) test was then conducted to ensure against
interference among spacecraft, launch vehicle, and ground-support radio energy
sources.
The spacecraft precountdown checkout was started on December 7 to verify
spacecraft readiness for final countdown.
Experiments Procedures. Experimenters began their field operation with the
planting of pepper plant seeds 6 weeks before the first field exercise in the launch com-
plex, 11 weeks before launch. Subsequent plantings were timed to provide for the 2-
week reschedule capability required for the actual launch. Four pairs of gamma
radiation sources (one for flight and duplicate for ground-control specimens) with 60-
day half-lives were ordered at proper strengths 8 weeks before launch to accommodate
at proper strength the 2-week range of launch dates.

173
 The early objective of field efforts was to perfect the ability of the whole launch
preparation team to reliably meet the schedule designed to place specimens in the
weightless state at their proper states of biological development. Most critical were
wheat seedlings whose roots and shoots begin to grow soon after moistening, and the
frog eggs in which cell division following fertilization would be undesirably advanced
by launch time in any event. Figure 8.3 shows the experiments preparation sequence.
Least sensitive packages were prepared and mounted on their subassemblies first, and
those to be kept chilled, such as lysogenic bacteria and frog eggs, were among the last.
Assembly of experiments was flawless, with delivery slightly ahead of schedule.
Simulated Launch and Countdown. Early in October, the approximately 100
specialists directly involved in experiments preparations were assembled at Cape
Kennedy, based in the Hangar S north annex, to practice their procedures against the
countdown clock and to ensure that sources of services and supplies were known and
satisfactory for preparation of viable experiments. A multitude of minor changes in
both experiment and spacecraft procedures resulted.
A "simulated launch," repeating the procedure with improvements on December 2,
produced 100% readiness to the satisfaction of all experimenters and the project manage-
ment. At 0830 on F - 2 day, December 12, spacecraft checks were begun, using the
launch countdown procedure, up to the point of payload installation. The attitude-
control-system storage tanks were topped off to flight pressures during these checks.
Minutes to launch
-800 -7 DO -6 00 -500 -4 30 -3DO -2i30
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Prepare package Mate to assembly • Final prep t — » Install in spacecraft

Figure 8.3 Biosatellite II experiment assembly and installation.

174
 Scheduled spacecraft battery servicing was not needed and was cancelled on F - 1 day.
No other spacecraft activity was conducted on this day.
The launch countdown was initiated with a communications check at 2340 EST,
December 13, 1966 (T - 880 min). Spacecraft electrical and telemetry checks were performed
and the capsule leak detector prepared and calibrated. Additional tests were completed at
0315 (T - 665) and the spacecraft power was turned off for vehicle ordnance tasks.
Experiment specimens simultaneously prepared for backup hardware in case of quick
turnaround and additional biological material from each experiment group were used in
ground control tests. Flight-type experiment hardware was used in the three sets of controls.
The experiment preparations and payload assembly were completed in Hangar S, and
the forward and aft payloads arrived at the launch pad on time at 0714. The spacecraft
antenna ties were cut, and the spacecraft terminal countdown was started at 1120 (T- 180).
The spacecraft was transferred to internal power at 1410:20 EST (T-9 min, 40 sec).
Terminal countdown continued through liftoff without difficulty.
Biosatellite I On-Orbit and Recovery Operations
Organization. Flight control of the Biosatellite after liftoff from Cape Kennedy was
centered at the project operations center at GSFC (see Section 7). The ARC project manage-
ment group was responsible for conduct of the flight, with operational support by GSFC and
other organizations. The organization of technical personnel for operational purposes was
designed to utilize their specialized experience, with only secondary regard for their relative
managerial responsibilities outside the operational sphere. Additional personnel from other
ARC organizations provided for staffing 24-hr per day at GSFC. All key positions were
manned in two 12-hr daily shifts to minimize dilution of experience and to concentrate the
most qualified personnel on the flight. The bulk of the purely analytic engineering support
of flight operations was furnished under a modification of General Electric Company's (GE)
contract. Engineering data management and bookkeeping was also tasked to the spacecraft
contractor. Experimenters were represented on the Biosatellite I control team by two of
their associates and an experiments specialist from ARC.
The major challenge in organizing for flights was to provide for clear response to space-
craft conditions within the 5 min the vehicle would be above the horizon for a typical
tracking station contact. GSFC required a single project spokesman to interface with the
network at all times during flight, who would speak directly to a single operations engineer
serving the project at each station, via a conference circuit established by the GSFC network
controller. This arrangement was highly satisfactory throughout all three flights.
Another operating organizational problem, interfacing with the 12 individual principal
investigators on Biosatellites I and II, was resolved as part of a more general earlier arrangement
whereby one of them had been elected by the group as their spokesman on matters of common
interest with the project management.
Operations organization is charted in Fig. 8.2. The mission director, a senior ARC
official was free of time-constrained assignments to focus on problem areas, to resolve com-
plaints or appeals of cooperating organizations, and to prepare public and top management
information. The flight operations director was the single project spokesman to tracking
stations. As supervisor of operations, he was responsible for timely and clear instructions
staffed for spacecraft, experiments, and operational considerations. He was seated next to
the spacecraft controller with whom he consulted through each contact while giving command

175
instructions to, and requesting data readouts from, remote stations. The contractor's space-
craft engineer was seated next to the controller, also as an "online" participant.
Experiments controllers were routinely concerned with ensuring completion of com-
manded and programmed events related to experiments and in maintaining environmental
conditions for biological ground controls at Cape Kennedy in accordance with actually ex-
perienced flight conditions. Their major responsibility, however, was to advise in case of
contingency on the experimenters' considerations in tradeoff decisions. The flight of Bio-
satellite I was uneventful for experiments controllers, except for revision of the schedule for
actuations of the amoeba experiment due to a launch anomaly in that package.
The GSFC support staff with their spectrum of services, although shown in Fig. 8.2
under a single tracking and data systems (T&DS) manager, was closely integrated throughout
the project group responding within preestablished guidelines. The T&DS manager resolved
problems and maintained updated command tapes and operating procedural profiles at the
tracking sites as plans were refined during flight.
Recovery and deorbit monitor controllers also were devoted to coordination of support
outside the control center. They were the spokesmen for their respective interest with the
Air Force and the PMR. A liaison engineer was sent by the project to the Air Force control
center to provide on-the-scene assessment and supporting information should details of
retrieval-readiness conditions become factors in a delicately balanced question of emergency
call down. Daily status reports were exchanged between field and control centers, and were
made available to the Air Force management representative in Sunnyvale, California.
Flight Safety. Safety analyses were documented for considerations of (1) the radiation
source to be flown, and (2) parts planned or expected to survive reentry to the earth's
surface. The likelihood of injury to persons or property by the radiation source was estimated,
before flight, at less than 1 in 100,000 (ARC Document 883-13-02). This estimate was based
on such considerations as:
1. Likelihood of not landing in a controlled area
2. Proportion of land in the suborbital geography
3. Relative densities of populations on land areas
4. Structural integrity of protection around the source
5. Low energy and short half-life of the source
6. Likelihood of the finder exposing himself to the source in a dangerous way
The analysis of the radiation source was presented to representatives of the Department of
State, Department of Interior, and.the Atomic Energy Commission in a meeting arranged by
the NASA Headquarters program office. The report was accepted by the ad hoc group. They
noted that the source was minor, not requiring review by the White House staff, and agreed
with our plan to proceed. Recovery-handling crews were specifically equipped and trained to
handle the capsule in the event of the source holder failure to close before the end of the
flight.
The reentry safety analysis showed less than 1 to 10,000 likelihood of damage to life or
property due to impact of reentering components. The report (ARC Document 883-13-03)
was accepted by NASA Headquarters based on its favorable comparison with previously
accepted risks of this type from Saturn and other space flights. Provisions were specifically
written into computer software which was to produce recovery control commands (see Section 7)
to protect the Hawaiian Islands, major air lanes, and other land masses from targeting for reentry.
176
 Flight History. The first Biosatellite flight, after excellent on-orbit performance during
its intended 3 days, completely failed its objectives when the retrorocket would not ignite for
reentry. All experiment objectives depended on examination of recovered specimens.
• Relative humidity had been observed slightly below its 40% lower limit for some hours
before liftoff, but rose promptly at launch to midrange. One minute before launch an anomaly
was observed in the amoeba package. An "arm" command from the control equipment at
Cape Kennedy caused fixation of some modules and feeding of others that had been programmed
1 'hr later, after launch. On subsequent confirmation that events programmed by a set of cams
were indexed ahead by one operation, the flight control team, through coordination by experi-
ment controllers with investigators of amoeba and interconnected neurospora experiments, ad-
justed the sequence of ground commands to optimize data return after the 24-hr programmed
period was completed.
Injection was very close to the nominal 170-nm altitude circular orbit desired: 173 nm
apogee and 167 nm perigee. Separation was smooth, and functions were promptly initiated
as programmed for the event. In particular, the attitude-control system, previously untested
in free flight, demonstrated classic response. Extension of the 10-min telemetry transmission
timer, commanded from Fort Myers during ascent, was successful. The backup command for
separation events at Johannesburg 20 min later was cancelled, and the attitude-control system
was turned off in favor of subsequent brief control periods while the spacecraft was in contact
with command stations.
After the first orbit, on contact with Fort Myers, rotational rates v/ere found high with
saturation of the pitch channel above 1.5°/sec. The attitude-control system was commanded
to its active mode and turned off again after eliminating rotation within 2 min. Meanwhile,
the tracking beacon spontaneously ceased functioning early during telemetry contact, a con-
dition verified by the Rosman STADAN station. A prepared standard command tape sequence
was requested to "turn beacon off," "select primary beacon," and "turn beacon on." The
spacecraft beacon responded to the first trial. It was also noticed that the command accept/
reject indication, as telemetered, moved to full scale, stayed, and erratically returned to zero.
Normal operation calls for only 1- to 2-sec full-scale excursions for each command.
Diminishing buildup of rotational rates was observed over the next four orbits, with
rate-control mode effective in cancelling the motion during each contact. Camera operations,
experiment fixes and feedings, and tape-recorder operations were verified as programmed.
Routine operations were continued. Typically a teletype message was sent after conference
in the Control Center to each STADAN station 30 min before contact. Voice circuit was es-
tablished in the final 10 min and telemetry was commanded on as the spacecraft reached 5°
to 10° above the horizon. "Rate sense" mode was commanded to activate gyro output
amplifiers showing rotational rates. After 30 sec of examination by the Control Team, "rate
control" was commanded, except when no significant buildup had occurred. A few seconds
later all axes would be inside the 0.3°/sec control deadband, and the control system commanded
off. Telemetry was turned off as the spacecraft approached the horizon, usually after 5 or 6
min.
At Santiago, on orbit 7, power to the gyroscopes in the attitude-control system was cut
off without command during the contact. Primary gyro power was commanded on at Lima
next orbit, with immediate success. Command sequences failed to load registers in a test of
the one-word storage programmer and of the magnetometer programmer during a contact with
Quito on orbit 9. The next contact, in which command instructions were loaded individually,

177
rather than by a prepared punched tape, was fully successful. Tape sequences subsequently
were prepared with 1 sec idle time between successive individual commands, and response was
reliable thereafter. Sequences of maximum rapidity had been a recognized condition in
planning the operation, but tests on laboratory equipment had shown acceptability before-the
flight.
The erratic behavior of the telemetered command accept/reject channel persisted, so the
secondary command receiver was tried. Results were the same. Functional response to
commands was good throughout the flight, however.
On orbit 30, after "rate sense" mode of attitude-control system operation was commanded,
the spacecraft began a "partial deorbit mode" whereby gas was released in roll nozzles as if the
system were searching for the horizon, but without the horizon sensor activated and without
rate limitation. Gas discharge was limited, however, to that contained in tubing downstream
of the storage latch valve. The subsequent command to "rate control" mode was consistently
effective. This anomaly was a recognized risk from preflight testing, with unknown cause but
controllable characteristics. Double "rate sense" commands were transmitted in an unsuccessful
attempt to prevent recurrence.
Deorbit attitude-control mode with orientation referenced to the horizon and geomagnetic
field was commanded on orbit 44 at Fort Myers. At contacts with Johannesburg, Fort Myers,
and Carnarvon, extremely unstable operation of attitude control in this mode was demonstrated.
Performance appeared from the few data samples to improve in darkness and to deteriorate in
daylight. Deorbit had been planned such that the spacecraft was about to emerge from darkness
into daylight, and precaution based on the engineers' expressed preference.
The spacecraft was well aligned when the reentry capsule separated from the adapter on
orbit 46, as programmed by ground command. Spinup for stabilization during retrofire was
slightly slower than specified, but there was no indication of retrorocket effect. Despin and
separation of the thrust cone followed on time. Subsequent tracking of the reentry capsule
showed it to be in essentially unchanged orbital flight after separation. Further operation of
the attitude-control system over the next 3 days until depletion of the onboard battery added
the data essential for analysis of the system's intermittent performance.
The Air Force recovery aircraft returned to their base after tracking in the direction of
the receding recovery beacon signal until continuation in orbit by the capsule had been
positively confirmed. A subsequent operation, outlined in the next section, was planned in
an unsuccessful attempt to recover the capsule when it decayed from orbit 2 months later.
Experiment controls 1 and 2 at Cape Kennedy were run simultaneously with the flight
with a constant temperature and humidity maintained by the large environmental growth
chamber located in the pepper plant lab and in several refrigerator-size incubators. Tempera-
tures and humidities were maintained near spacecraft specification midranges.
Control 3 duplicated flight temperature and humidity as closely as possible on a 4-hr
delay. Control 1 used a flight-type capsule with external air conditioning and was the only
control to include a live radiation source of the same strength as the flight source. The doses
received by most of the packages duplicated the flight condition within 2% or less. Important
data were gathered for radiation and hardware comparison, and baseline data for Biosatellite
II. Some of the experiment controls were continued for as long as 2 months to their meaning-
ful conclusion. Base support at Cape Kennedy was provided for 2 wk past launch to some
experimenters. Other work was completed in home laboratories by investigators.

178
Biosatellite I Pcstf light Search
In early January 1967, a failure analysis subcommittee observed that the recovery subsystem
with its homing radio beacon and parachutes might operate after the Biosatellite I reentered
the atmosphere. One of the two batteries powering that sequence was protected by an
deceleration switch that would not close until orbital flight was ended. Based on this possi-
bility, it was decided to attempt to locate and recover the capsule. Reentry was predicted to
occur in 60 to 90 days. NASA formally requested the Air Force Systems Command to coor-
dinate a search effort. The North American Air Defense (NORAD) Space Defense Tracking
Network was assigned to track and predict reentry time and place. Tracking data augmentation
was arranged by NASA with various other government agencies.
A search and recovery plan was developed jointly by Ames and the Air Force Satellite
Control Facility (SCF), Sunnyvale, California, calling for support from the Aerospace Rescue
and Recovery Service, the National Range Division, and other agencies. The search was iden-
tified as operation "Lost Ball." Control was established at the SCF in Sunnyvale.
Optimal utilization was planned of available aircraft having the ability to search for the
homing beacon carried by Biosatellite I. Coverage was planned of the maximum area of
politically and geographically accessible regions of the earth between 33.5° N and S lat. The
problem was to provide coverage within the constraints of aircraft operating ranges, crew rest
requirements, and gradual convergence of the predicted deorbit location as its time approached.
C-130 type aircraft were identified for staging to several advanced air bases in the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Other C-130 and EC-121K aircraft were scheduled to be on strip
alert at various bases around the world. A hot line was established by NASA in the SCF with
the Department of State operations center in Washington to coordinate clearances into
foreign national air space and bases as might be required and practical.
The DOD management agency for support of NASA's Manned Space Flight was tasked
to help, specifically to provide global communications and search aircraft from available
resources. Their communications specialist sat in the control center most of the final 72
hr arranging required circuits.
On February 15, 1967, the vehicle reentered in the Australian area, where three C-130
aircraft had been staged. In the final six hours, they were assigned flight patterns over the
continent and over the Tasman Sea and the southeast Indian Ocean along the suborbital
track. Unsuccessful electronic and visual searches of Australian land area were made based
upon a possible signal detection. The Australian government was most cooperative in prompt-
ly arranging additional search by light aircraft at minimal expense, before it was concluded
that the signal recording had been extraneous. The most likely impact point was on the
eastern half of the continent or in the Tasman Sea.
At this time, NASA representatives in Australia reported very strong public reaction, in-
cluding at least two statements in the Australian parliament, to the hazards of space flight.
Cited were the dangers of infesting the land with the scourge of the "fruit fly," not previously
known in Australia, and similar potentials. NASA was urgently tasked to clarify the identity
of the Drosophila, which was unrelated to the infamous mediterranean fruit fly, as the harm-
less vinegar gnat. Reassurance was given for the biological safety of the entire capsule.
This search effort was the first known of its kind. A number of stresses were developed,
especially in the unusual application of NORAD's computational capability and in the
management of military aircraft operations in international areas without opportunity for
advance planning. These were surmounted and, with our good fortune, the hoped-for search
179
coverage of the defined reentry corridor was attained within life expectancy of the beacon's
battery power supply. We were to learn before Biosatellite II, however, that through a major
component-installation error the reentry sensing switch had been inoperative (see page ! 82).
Operation Lost Ball (NASA Biosatellite I) Final Report, No. SSOTP8-67-25, May 3, 1967,
was published at the Air Force. It contains recommendations for improvements for future
similar operations.
Biosatellite I Analysis and Review
Spacecraft performance up to the time of its failure to deorbit appeared generally successful
in providing a weightless automated laboratory for its biological experiments. A failure H
analysis review board was instituted by the Project manager, composed of management person-
nel of Ames, the General Electric Co., and Headquarters, and of consultants from JPL and
Goddard. It was convened 3 wk after the flight to examine all evidences of anomalies in
addition to the deorbit failure, and to oversee and report to NASA's top management on
development of corrective measures. Failures and anomalies listed by the Board for follow-
up action were:
1. Retrorocket ignition failure
2. Attitude-control instability and partial mode switching .
3. High rotation rate (estimated 2.2°/sec during early part of flight after the first orbit)
4. Spontaneous control effects without ground command, and erratic response of the com- \
mand accept/reject signal
5. Low temperature in the aft portion of the capsule
6. Low humidity in the capsule during the prelaunch and first orbit period
7. Advanced sequencing of the amoeba experiment package
8. Erratic temperatures measured on neurospora packages
9. Spin rate of capsule for retrofire 20% below design objective
Modifications and tests planned as a result of observed anomalies required return of the
301 spacecraft to the factory, and ultimate delay of its launch until September 1967. The
above problems were corrected for flight II. The major changes are described with develop-
ment of the subsystems in section 4; minor adjustments are noted below.
Failure of the retrorocket ignition was attributed to an open circuit between the deorbit
programmer and the ignition squibs. Telemetry records had shown adequate voltage and
switch closure on the circuit, and appeared to lack the typical loading characteristic on the
voltage level.
The specific cause or causes of unstable performance of the attitude-control system in its
deorbit attitude control mode could not be determined. Several contributing factors were postu-
lated, and a variety of tests and studies were made. Hypotheses included sunlight in the field of
view of infrared scanners, thermal blanket interference with the horizon-sensor field of view, elec-
trical noise, cold cloud temperatures in the field of view, earth presence circuit sensitivity, and
signal loading. Corrective improvements were implemented for each. Partial mode switching of
the attitude-control programmer was attributed to internal electromagnetic and conducted transient
interference.
The high rotation rate after the first orbit was attributed to outgassing of plastic foam in-
sulation in the spacecraft. This relatively innocuous problem could be controlled through oper-
ational procedures with the rate-control modes.
180
 Anomalies of the tracking, telemetry, and control subsystem included apparently un-
provoked command executions, an erratic accept/reject monitor, and a slight frequency shift
of the telemetry transmitter. All of these anomalies were attributed to a mismatch of the
telemeter transmitter with the vehicle antenna and a feedback of the energy with compo-
nents in the command modulation frequency range from the shared antenna. The observed
problems were simulated in bench tests with severe mismatch.
The environmental control subsystem anomalies consisted of low. Tradescantia and lyso-
genic experiment temperatures during orbit and low relative humidity in the capsule during
prelaunch. The low temperature exposure was attributed to the late elimination of a 2.2-w
wheat-seedling heater that had interfered with seed development. To compensate for this
deficiency in Biosatellite II, the aft cover heater thermostat setting was increased from
62° ± 2°F to 66° ± 2°F. The low relative humidity was found to be caused by condensation
on the frog-egg coolant lines connected during countdown until launch. Insulation was in-
stalled in the coolant lines inside the capsule and proved by test.
The experiment subsystem anomalies involved the amoeba and Neurospora experiments.
At 1 min before launch, when the actuating cam for the amoeba experiment was commanded
to its "zero" position, the first fix-and-feed operation programmed for 1 hr later was indicated
to occur. Subsequent flight monitoring showed activation of the remaining four events
(planned for plus 12 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr, and 65 hr), each to be indexed to the next earlier event
time. The wrong zero set apparently was caused during electrical checkout of the package in
preassembly procedures. A cutout was made in the cam cover to allow for visual inspection,
and the field test instruction was corrected for component assembly and required cam in-
spection.
Temperature indications on three of the five Neurospora packages were inconsistent with
surrounding data. Two began erratic indication during the final 4 hr before launch, and the
third became questionable late in the first day of orbit. The problem was corrected by a re-
design of the thermister installation in the experiment and the elimination of autoclaving after
the thermisters were installed in the experiment.
Thrust cone spinup for retrofire was 39.4 rpm (instead of 50 rpm). Vacuum tests had
not been performed, and it was postulated that insufficient margin had been allowed for gas
impingement on the cone from tangential nozzles. The gas load was changed to a 60/40 ratio
of nitrogen and freon from the previous 90/10 ratio.
Another failure mode existed in the spacecraft but was not recognized until payload
assembly for Biosatellite II: The accelerometer switch for activating the recovery parachute
was installed inverted due to an error in the assembly drawing. The problem was identified
in a final review by spacecraft engineers in the field for possible failure modes that might
have been missed in acceptance testing, followed by observation during payload assembly.

BIOSATELLITE II FLIGHT OPERATIONS

Organization
Biosatellite II field operations were organized as outlined for Biosatellite I. Because of the
previous failure, however, additional key personnel were involved from the spacecraft con-
tractor's plant to provide additional monitoring of all preparation activity and assist with
experiments coordination.

181
Prelaunch Procedures and Countdown
Launch pad 17A used for Biosatellite I was under modification for a larger Delta, so opera-
tions were transferred to 17B. Small differences made a comprehensive checkout in that
launch tower necessary from the project's viewpoint. The qualification spacecraft (number
201) was taken to Cape Kennedy in addition to the flight unit (number 301) for interface
checks. Experimenters repeated the exercise of their procedures because of the seven months
time elapsed since the first flight experience.
A major safety planning effort was undertaken to develop and document equipment and
procedures so that the Air Force Safety officer would allow direct resistance measurement of
the retrorocket firing system in the launch service tower after final assembly. A specific ex-
ception from established constraints was obtained on the basis of criticality to the Biosatellite
mission of recovery. A remotely operated instrument was developed with cascading relays
to be operated from the blockhouse.
Table 8.1 lists milestones in field preparations to the final week before launch of Bio-
satellite II. A delay was sustained in the field checkout for the rework of certain components
and because of misinstallation of a relay that resulted in electrical abuse of some components.
At 0830 EOT (T - 2400) on F - 2 day, spacecraft checks were begun using the precount-
down procedure. The gas-management and the attitude-control system storage tanks were
topped off to flight pressures. Scheduled spacecraft activity started on F - 1 day at 0300 EOT
(T - 1910) with initiation of the deorbit subsystem firing-circuit resistance checks and remote
retrorocket checks. These checks were completed at 0500 EOT and no further checks were
performed onF - 1 day.
The spacecraft launch countdown was initiated with a communication check at 0020
EOT (T - 880), September 7, 1967. The spacecraft countdown configuration was completed
and electrical checks followed. Decoder and telemetry checks and leak detector preparation
and calibration were then performed. Tracking beacon checks, one-word storage programmer
(OWSP) checks, and guidance-system checks were accomplished in sequence. Leak-detector
calibration and guidance tasks were completed at T - 691, and the spacecraft was turned off
for ordnance tasks. The experiment preparation and payload assembly were completed in
Hangar S; the forward and aft payloads arrived at the launch pad on time at 0748 EDT
(7-432).
During the forward payload installation, orientation of the acceleration switch to start
the recovery system programmer was questioned. The payload task was continued up to the
point of torque painting the screws in the nose cap. At that time, 10:10 EDT (T- 290), it
was confirmed that the reentry G -switch was installed per print, but the print was incorrect
and the switch would have to be inverted. The forward payload was removed from the space-
craft and installed on a pedestal on the 9A level. The G switch was removed and reinstalled
in the inverted position.
During this period, management and engineering personnel at Cape Kennedy and in the
spacecraft factory concentrated on testing the switch and its modified mounting arrangement
to ensure that the rearrangement was correct. Meanwhile, the mission director ordered the
launch to proceed and notified NASA's top management, observing that readiness of the space-
craft, biology, and launch vehicle were otherwise good and assessing relative merits of pro-
ceeding over a reschedule. Go ahead was signalled with full concurrence as capsule reassembly
was completed. Accelerated procedures by the launch vehicle crews were so efficiently

182
Table 8.1 Significant spacecraft prelaunch events, 1967

Date Event

5/31 to 6/2 AGE compatibility fit check conducted at pad 17B

7/5 Flight spacecraft (S/N 301) arrived at Hangar S, Cape Kennedy
7/7 Incoming inspection completed
7/8 Incoming confidence test started
7/23 Electrically mated test started
7/26 Compatibility test between Antigua, ETR, Hangar S, and GSFC telemetry data-handling
facilities
7/27 A new launch date was announced; it was delayed 2 wks to September 7, 1967
7/31 Spacecraft S/N 201 was mated to the vehicle at pad 17B
8/1 A fairing fit check was held at pad 17B; no problems were noted
8/2 Experimenters conducted a countdown walkthrough
8/3 Electrically mated test completed
8/9 Mated confidence test started
8/10 Mated confidence test concluded; S/RV moved to the ordnance area
8/11 Countdown "walkthrough" completed with spacecraft 201
8/12 Flight spacecraft adapter moved to ordnance area
8/19 to 8/20 Orbital battery installed; reentry vehicle and adapter mated; final explosives confidence
test started
8/21 Final explosives confidence test completed
8/23 Spacecraft 301 moved to pad and mated to vehicle; precountdown was conducted after
mating
8/24 Payloads were removed from the spacecraft and returned to Hangar S
8/28 Simulated launch was conducted
8/29 Payloads removed from the spacecraft and returned to Hangar S
8/30 Vehicle all systems test run with the S/C supporting the test by radiating two RF links,
136.68 and 136.05 mHz; problems encountered in sending commands to the space-
craft from Hangar S apparently were corrected by adjustment of the command test set
8/31 Spacecraft attitude-control system was pressurized to flight pressure

completed that the effect of the 2l/2 hour spacecraft procedure was reduced to less than an
hour, when the next problem, this time with the launch vehicle, arose.
Payload assembly was completed and the retrorocket arming plug hookup was completed
at 1250 EOT (T - 130). The fairing installation task and fairing ordnance was completed at
1450 EOT (T - 35 and holding). During the fairing electrical check, one blastband explosive
bolt pigtail was found to be faulty. It was replaced with one from the Delta-52 fairing.
At 1450 EOT the spacecraft came on the air with its orbital telemetry for the space-
craft terminal count. At 1425 EDT (T - 35), a hold was called to allow all work to catch up
to the count. Duration of this hold was 50 min, and at 1515 EDT the count was picked up
at T- 35 min and continued normally until T- 10 when the launch vehicle called a hold.
When the LOX tank in the Delta booster rocket was vented to reduce pressure, a slight
momentary rise in hydraulic pressure was noticed on the pen recorder. Because of Biosatellite's
requirement for an accelerated countdown, this was the first time hydraulic pressure had been
under surveillance at this point in the procedure. For the next 2 hr, launch vehicle and safety
specialists made analyses, rechecks, and careful inspection in attempts to identify the cause.
183
Nothing was found, and launch option, given to the mission director by the vehicle manager
and launch director, was exercised.
Weeks later, it was confirmed that the apparent anomaly was a normal occurrence that
had been observed only because of the special countdown procedure after insertion of bio-
logicals. On relief of oxygen pressure, some of the LOX in the rocket motor inlet valve
vaporizes. The resulting bubble rises through the supply tube and LOX pump, driving it
briefly in reverse, and causing a slight rise in hydraulic pressure through the turbine coupled
to the pump.
Meanwhile, the data return potential of the experiments was reevaluated. The frog egg
experiment lost at least half its value, and others suffered slightly. But total value was well
above preestablished launch criteria, so the countdown was continued.
The spacecraft recycled to a T - 30 condition and returned to a T - 10 configuration.
The rest of terminal count was continued to liftoff at 1803 EOT, 3 hr and 3 min late.
On-Orbit and Recovery Operations
Organization and Special Mission Constraint. Organization and interface arrangements
planned and developed for Biosatellite I on-orbit operations proved satisfactory and were un-
changed for Biosatellite II. Additional spacecraft engineers monitored more closely weather
conditions and the attitude-control system response to assist in case of repeated anomaly (in
spite of corrective efforts which could not be tested in space). Requirement for the launch
window to produce deorbit from the darkness phase of orbital flight was made "mandatory"
for Biosatellite II rather than "desired."
Flight History. The Biosatellite II launch delay of 3 hr caused reduction of the flight
plan from 47 to 46 orbits to keep deorbit in darkness where attitude-control system perfor-
mance was best. Because of the changed flight plan, the deorbit monitoring aircraft deployed
to Guam was directed to move to Townsville, Australia, much nearer the new deorbit point.
The U.S. Navy Coastal Sentry stationed north-east of New Guinea was requested to relocate
as far south as possible.
A potential conflict with OGO for use of a key STADAN station at Santiago, Chile, on
the second flight day was resolved when the launch delay exceeded 2'/2 hr. "Immediate"
emergency calldown command preparations were revised, since retrieval near Air Force bases
in the northern hemisphere (Bermuda, Azores, Guam, and Japan) with deorbit in darkness
was no longer practical. The 165° West meridian was the alternate target.
Four minutes after launch, extension of the 10-min telemetry timer was commanded
from Fort Myers to permit spacecraft data recording and observation at booster separation
from ETR Antigua tracking station. The spacecraft did not respond but launch vehicle
instrumentation indicated proper separation with little initial rotation.
Thirty minutes after launch, telemetry was turned on from Johannesburg, indicating
the attitude rates to be in good control and confirming the several functions actuated by
the booster separation switch. The attitude-control system was turned off as planned, to
conserve power and avoid any possibility of control failure. It was reactivated at Carnarvon
where rotation near 2°/sec was observed, apparently resulting from outgassing of insulating
plastic surrounding the capsule. This effect was more persistent than in the Biosatellite I
flight, requiring nearly 10 orbits for complete decay.
From the first orbital contact, some balkiness was evident in the spacecraft's acceptance

184
of commands. Repetitions were frequently required to effect a command, although each
actuation was correct when executed.
At the end of the first complete orbit, programmed functions were all satisfactorily
confirmed: the radiation source holder had opened 1 hr after launch, photographs of
the pepper plant were being made every 10 min; the frog egg assembly had been heated;
various amoebae modules were fixed or fed; and a frog egg module had been injected with
fixative. .Contacts with the spacecraft every orbit thereafter provided temperature infor-
mation for ground controls; confirmed satisfactory environmental control; verified pro-
grammed fixing, feeding, and photography in experiment modules; and confirmed the health
of the spacecraft for continued flight.
After 24 hr of automatic operation, fixations and feedings of experiment modules by
ground controllers were scheduled during such contacts. These procedures continued every
90 min through orbit 23, but were made difficult by the frequent refusal of the spacecraft
to accept commands; in one instance, rate control was not achieved, and in another, tele-
metry could not be started.
During orbit 16, the weather agency identified tropical storm Sarah southeast of
Hawaii, moving westward. The southbound recovery-support ship was halted during orbit
22 because of adverse weather prediction. Photographs of the Hawaiian area weather were
received from the ATS control center about 4 hr after exposure, confirming the problem.
More serious, the command system gave the appearance of possible degradation with
time. The records showed alarmingly high proportions of ground commands ignored by
the spacecraft during the second flight day.
After consideration of risks and review with experimenter representatives of the
estimated high proportion of possible results, it was decided to begin the series of commands
to effect recovery on orbit 30. At that point, recovery would be possible from Hawaii with
deorbit in darkness. The recovery pilots and crewmen, just released from their daily alert
status for Biosatellite, were recalled during orbit 24. Because of the many commands to be
actuated and the persistent balkiness of the command receiver, the STADAN station at
Orroral, Australia, and the augmented Manned Space Flight net station at Carnarvon were
brought to fully active status with the project. The telemetry was turned on and its timer
bypassed from Lima on orbit 24. Two contacts per orbit were made thereafter.
The separation timer was loaded by a series of 18 ones and zeros, transmitted in proper
sequence on orbit 26 by Carnarvon, where commands had been most successful. Repetitions
to verify some digits delayed start of the timer for 30 sec. Just before takeoff, the Air
Force was advised of the 120-mile relocation of predicted recovery point. The magnetometer
bias register was successfully loaded from punched tape with 8 bits transmitted 1 sec apart
on orbit 27 from Carnarvon. The Biosatellite recovery control computer program at GSFC
was exercised at this time to determine what compromise values would be acceptable in
case of difficulty in the command sequence and what relocation of the recovery forces might
be so necessitated.
Under the guidance of experimenter controllers (who conferred with colleagues assem-
bled in Hawaii), all the remaining experiment actuation commands were rescheduled and
accomplished in the final five orbits. The radiation source holder was closed on orbit 28
and the separation ignition circuits were armed.
Because of launch delay, Australia's Weapons Research Establishment tracking station
at Woomera had been asked early in the flight to assist with deorbit telemetry data recording.

185
The recovery ship's effectiveness had been reduced by planned orbit 46 recovery, and the
single aircraft at Townsville had lost an engine enroute from Guam. After the early call-
down decision, Woomera telemetry operators were called from their homes at 1:00 a.m.
Their first technical briefing on Biosatellite was in progress when it appeared above the
horizon. The deorbit telemetry transmitter was energized as programmed, and a complete
clear recording was made.
The Australian Air Force was most cooperative in closing the Townsville airfield to
potentially interfering aircraft. The trained crew was able to get a sufficiently clear record
from the air strip to report a perfect separation and retrofire sequence before atmospheric
interference terminated communications. Due to the relocated deorbit point, Orroral could
record environment conditions through separation.
Recovery was as planned at 6°55' N and 162° 10' W, an estimated 15 miles from the
predicted point (Fig. 8.4). The aircraft interior was maintained at 16°C on the flight to
the laboratory. Disassembly was begun in the air-conditioned trailer laboratory at Hickam
Air Force Base 3Yi hr after retrieval. Photographic records were made of the disassembly and
of specimens. Ground controls at the launch site were disassembled in a coordinated sequence.
Table 8.2 lists the sequence for Biosatellite II for deorbit through opening in the postflight
laboratory.

< Hawaii

Actual
recovery

A/Cat Townsville

**
Actual deorbit

Figure 8.4 Map of actual Biosatellite 11 orbit 30, deorbit, and recovery.

186
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187
Postf light Tests

Evidence of significant differences between flight and ground control samples in several
experiments during the successful flight of Biosatellite II led to a requirement for additional
testing. In particular, answers were needed to the question of whether the differences were
due to vibration during the flight or some variation between the capsule environments. To
the experimenters, the availability of both the recovered flight hardware and the results of
in-flight accelerometer measurements provided a unique opportunity to separate the effects
of the several variables. Launch vehicle vibration effects upon a spacecraft had not previously
been of sufficient priority to make accurate data available.
Test Phases. The tests were conducted at Ames Research Center under conditions
simulating as closely as possible the environments encountered during the Biosatellite II
flight. The tests were divided in three phases.
Phase A: dosimetry test
Phase B: biological test without hard environment
Phase C: biological test with hard environment
Phase A: Dosimetry test (no biology). One objective of this test was to compare the
radiation-scattering characteristics of the 301 flight capsule and the ground control capsule.
Radiation doses were to be measured within the experimental packages at the positions
normally occupied by the biological specimens. Another objective was to compare the
exposure doses within the packages to those measured at the location of the external LiF
tubes.
Phase B: Biological test without hard environment. In this test, live biological material
was used in the 301 flight capsule and ground control capsule simultaneously, with temp-
erature, relative humidity, and radiation maintained at the same levels and the duration as
in flight. No hard environment such as shock or vibration was imposed. This test was
designed to detect differences due to the capsule environment alone.
Phase C: Biological test with hard environment. A systems test was performed with live
biological specimens in the 301 recovered flight capsule and the ground control capsule.
The flight level vibration and acceleration stresses were simulated as closely as possible for
the 301 capsule, while the ground control capsule served as a control.
Operations. The Phase A (dosimetry) test, using the 201 and 301 capsules, began
on January 23 and terminated on January 31, 1968. All the radiation experimenters par-
ticipated in the test, which used the same radiation sources (ARC 20 and 21) as the Bio-
satellite II flight. Since the strength of the sources had decayed with time, the exposure
time was lengthened for this test to 48 hr from the normal 24 hr for dosage measurement.
Three separate 48-hr runs were made using both capsules. For each run all the packages
were loaded with dosimeters, including LiF-CaF dosimeters supplied and analyzed by
EG&G, Inc.; these were designed to measure the amount of scattered radiation in the
capsules. Following each run the packages were unloaded and reloaded for the next one.
No biological material was used.
The Phase B test was run between March 12 and 14, 1968. All of the Biosatellite II
flight experiments except the frog egg, amoeba, and pepper plant experiments, were rep-
resented in the test. The 301 and 201 capsules were assembled and placed within lead-

188
shielded enclosures that effectively eliminated radiation between the capsules and also pro-
vided personnel protection (Fig. 8.5). Temperature and humidity were controlled in the
201 capsule with an air conditioner. The 301 capsule was enclosed in a plastic shielding
and cold air was directed into the enclosure from another air conditioner. The regular fan
provided circulation within the capsule. A 1.2 curie Sr85 radiation source was loaded into
a source holder in each capsule: ARC 27 in the 201 capsule and ARC 28 in the 301 capsule.
Gas samples were taken of each capsule and laboratory area before and after each test
(Table 8.3).
Table of Events
March 12
Install experimental packages and radiation sources
Final assembly of capsules
Take capsule air samples
Open radiation sources in each capsule at T+ 1 hr
March 14
Close radiation source at T+ 42:53 hr
Take capsule air sample
Disassemble capsule and return packages to experimenters
The phase C test was carried out between May 22 and 24, 1968. The test was similar
to the Phase B test, but included vibration and acceleration stresses (see appendix A).
Vibration profiles were run on a Ling Model A 300-B Shaker (Fig. 8.6). Launch and reentry
acceleration profiles were run on the Biosatellite centrifuge (Fig. 8.7).
Table of Events
May 22, 1968
Install experimental packages and radiation sources
Final assembly of capsules
Take capsule gas samples
Move both capsules to High Bay Area, Building 244
1600
Vibrate 301 capsule to liftoff profile
Move capsules to Biosatellite centrifuge
1720
Centrifuge 301 capsule to liftoff profile
Move capsules to exposure room
1908
Open radiation sources at T + 1 hr
May 24, 1968
1300
Close radiation sources at T+ 42:53 hr
Take capsule gas samples
1435
Centrifuge 301 capsule to reentry profile
Move capsules to High Bay Area, Building 244
1455
Vibrate 301 capsule to reentry profile
189
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1532
Return capsules to exposure room
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Postflight Test Results

Phase A. A comparison of the LiF dosimetry readouts for corresponding dosimeter

positions in the 301 and 201 capsules revealed few differences exceeding 5%, which is
within the accuracy limits of the readout system. The net difference for 29 positions did
not exceed 2% for any of the three runs.
The amount of scattered radiation, as reported by EG&G, Inc., was very low. In al-
most all cases, the values for any package were less than 2%. These results were reassuring
191
 tf&i

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Figure 8.6 Biosatellite II 301 capsule mounted on Ling 300 B Shaker, Phase C,
three-day postflight test.

to experimenters especially interested in comparing the quality of the radiation in the

capsules to that of other laboratory radiation sources. Experimenters having their own
dosimetry systems were satisfied that the radiation fields in the two capsules were
essentially identical and that any biological changes detected in the Phase B and C tests
would not be due to differences in radiation intensities.
Radiation Experiments
Tradescantia. Postflight tests were invaluable for interpreting results of the Tradescantia
experiment. The flight results indicated that the frequency of pink mutations in stamen
hair cells was decreased relative to the ground controls. However, the same effect was
noticed in the Phase B test, in which no vibration was given, and also in the Phase C test.
Thus, the effect may be due to a spacecraft factor rather than to orbital flight.
Stamen hair stunting, pollen abortion, and disturbed spindle function in the roots
and microspores were all increased during the flight. Since these end points did not
differ from control values during Phase B or C tests, the flight results are probably due to
weightlessness.
Tribolium. Increased wing damage and the enhancement of Ft dominant lethals (from
orbited females) were observed in the Biosatellite II Tribolium. The experimenter
192
 /

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Figure 8.7 Biosatellite II 301 capsule being bolted to centrifuge swing bracket in
launch position, Phase C, three-day postflight test.

reports that these effects were not seen in Phase B or C tests and are therefore not vibra-
tion effects.
Drosophila adult. Phase C test results showed that acceleration and vibration may
account for the increase in recessive lethal frequency in mature sperm carried in orbited
females in Biosatellite II. Three translocations in the unirradiated flight specimens were
detected among 2,770 tests. Two were detected among 8,585 specimens in the Phase C
test, suggesting vibration and acceleration as the cause.
Drosophila larvae. Effects observed during the Biosatellite II flight included improper
chromosome separation, translocations, higher mortality, more chromosome breaks, and
an increase in sex-linked recessive lethals. The experimenter reports that the postflight
193
tests have ruled out the probability that vibration or acceleration have contributed to the
effects observed.
Neurospora. No differences were found in the Biosatellite II flight material in the overall
forward mutations for the ad-3 mutations or in the individual components (point mutations
and chromosome deletions) of the overall curve. No differences were found in the Phase B
tests. In the Phase C test, however, the 201 capsule packages had a lower frequency of
mutations than expected-a result that may be due to the packages themselves.
Habrobracon. The most profound radiation effects of space flight were decreased hatch-
ability and enhanced fecundity of eggs exposed to space flight at different stages of oogene-
sis. These effects were not observed in the Phase B or C postflight tests and probably are
not due to vibration. However, the recessive lethal mutation frequency in nonirradiated
sperm in orbited males increased threefold in the Biosatellite II flight; this increase, also
found in the Phase C test, can probably be attributed to vibration.
Lysogenic bacteria. In the Biosatellite II flight, viable bacteria growth increased and virus
P-22 produced per bacterium decreased dramatically relative to the ground controls. Phase
B test results showed no differences between the 301 and 201 capsules. In the Phase C test,
the vibrated packages showed increased growth at two of the four points of the radiation
dose-action curve. No significant differences were found at the other two points. The
increases were much less than in the actual flight. Hence, the vibration cannot completely
account for the flight results.
With respect to the virus P-22 production, the Phase C tests indicate that the vibration
increased rather than decreased, phage production. Hence, vibration cannot explain the
flight results.
General Biology Experiment
Frog egg. The frog egg experimenter did not participate in the Phase A, B, or C postflight
tests.
Amoeba. The amoeba experimenters did not participate in the Phase B test. In the Phase
C test, the vibration and centrifugation had no effect on cell division.
Pepper plant. There was no participation in Phase B. The vibration produced no effects
in Phase C.
Wheat seedling. The experimenters participated in Phases B and C. No effects attributable
to vibration were reported.
Biosatellite II Analysis and Review
Experimenters generally regarded Biosatellite II as a clear success and estimated, except for
the frog egg, better than 95% achievement of objectives. The frog egg experiment had been
singularly reduced in potential for this Biosatellite mission, for negative effects of weightless-
ness had already been observed during its previous flight on a Gemini spacecraft (a factor
considered in the prelaunch decision).
Failures of Biosatellite I were satisfactorily corrected. The attitude-control system not
only was more stable in darkness but also was undisturbed through daylight-even demon-
strating an ability to maintain stability through periods of direct sunlight in the infrared
194
scanner optics. Apparent outgassing and gradual buildup of rotational rate was more persis-
tent in Biosatellite II. It would have been suppressed by more liberal use of the rate-control
mode, but difficulty with commands and our firm policy of conservative operation prevailed.
Estimated accelerative forces imparted to the experiments are described in Fig. 8.8.
.005

1.4 x

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Station contacts

Figure 8.8 Estimated accelerations for Biosatellite experiments. Accelerations

are given for a point on the nose of the capsule on the roll axis.

Inversion of the G switch before launch to initiate the recovery sequence was proven
correct, but the question remained as to how to ensure against similar oversight in develop-
ment of the greatly more complex Biosatellite III spacecraft. The spacecraft prime contractor
responded with intensification of his "mission critical function analysis" through which a
systems engineering examination is made of missions in purely functional terms. In retro-
spect, the S/C contractor found that the G switch function had been singled out in previous
analyses as one of the few not positively demonstrated by systems tests for the three-day
mission. However, no special action had resulted to double check its application. Improved
documentation and review was instituted with participation by NASA engineers.
The one critical problem in Biosatellite II was the persistent balkiness in the space-
craft's response to ground commands, though'no direct functional failure resulted. The
cause, correctly hypothesized for the first time in the same hour that the capsule was being
recovered, was confirmed in subsequent operations with the adapter still in orbit and in
later bench simulation. For maximum total reliability, dual command receivers are cross
fed to redundant decoders. Due to an undetected change in manufacture by the vendor,
the two receivers were wired with opposite phasing in their output transformers so that
195
their signals were effectively cancelled. Very high reliability was obtained when commands
were transmitted via radio frequencies offset from normal (148.980 mHz) by about 10 kHz.
Low-power commands also were more successful, apparently because the difference in
response characteristics between the two receivers for nonoptimum conditions produced
sufficient net output signal for decoder recognition. Carnarvon, which had notably high
success, was later found to have been operating 7 kHz off frequency. Some difficulties
had been experienced in preflight test operation, but minor adjustment of the command
set or its radio link through the laboratories had always cleared up the problem, masking
its potential extent. One of the originally paired receivers had been replaced from a later
manufacturing lot in the course of subsystems testing.
Other more minor anomalies were noted in postflight analysis. The mounting bracket
for the Habrobracon package in the 2,500-rad dose position had been reversed in its sym-
metrical screw pattern, so that the specimens were wrongly tilted (Fig. 8.9). A gradient,
rather than constant, dose was applied to the modules within the package. (The experiment
was not adversely affected, and the same treatment was requested in postflight control tests.)
The effect was first noticed in the experimenter's passive dosimetry and confirmed in post-
flight disassembly photographs.

f\ -- f\
Figure 8.9 Reversed Habrobracon package, three-day mission.

196
 Slight leakage from a lysogenic bacteria package was indicated by moisture under
its mounting surface, with positive culture indication. (No experiment was compromised
by this problem.)
A vibration transducer on the experiment aft mounting plate produced unexplainably
high output. Other data sources were relied upon for postflight ground control tests.
The subcommutator feeding data to the onboard tape recorder exhibited clipping at
80% of full scale. The cause was traced to a wrong recorder input impedance. (This anomaly
was not of concern for Biosatellite II.)
Telemetry data frequently lost synchronization for a frame when electrical load shifts
occurred within the spacecraft. Recognized before launch, this problem also was of no
consequence for Biosatellite II; but clear telemetry was essential for Biosatellite III, and
corrective improvements were made.
The Tradescantia package 1 and lysogenic bacteria package number 1, both in the
shielded aft portion of the spacecraft were 0.8 to 1.7°F below the minimum specified 65°F
for the first 11 orbits.

BIOSATELLITE III FLIGHT OPERATIONS

Organization
The Biosatellite III launch control organization was not significantly changed from the
original concept of Biosatellite I. However, the experimenters were headed by a principal
investigator responsible for coordination of scientific considerations with his "coinvestiga-
tors," as defined in NASA policy.
Animal preparation and selection involved a much larger operation than the procedures
for experiments in earlier flights. It was also subject to much greater general attention and
speculation, so that stringent lines of communication were established between the experiment
staff and the project management in coordinating operations. Public attention, too, required
regularly coordinated statements and photography for release.
In addition to the normally planned sequence at Cape Kennedy, a continuing investi-
gation was under way to determine if toxic contaminants had been a factor in the loss of
an animal in the systems endurance test. Instrumented chambers were prepared by the pro-
ject and set up at the Cape with special high-priority laboratory analysis services by the KSC
and other institutions to test animals in instrumented couches for toxic accumulations.
Special tests also were conducted on the flight capsule. A committee was appointed to guide
and analyze the effort, and a single engineer was designated responsible for specifically
approving every type of material used inside the capsule. He also obtained and analyzed
samples of atmospheres before and during exposure of flight animals or the capsule interior
during prelaunch preparations.
An animal-insertion team was designated, consisting of NASA Ames and experimenters'
representatives as well as General Electric personnel. (Payload installation had been a con-
tractor responsibility for Biosatellites I and II.) Primary and alternative teams were named
and exercised before the final countdown.
Safety preparations for Biosatellite III constituted a major special effort. The Air Force
ETR Manual 127-1 could not be followed, especially in respect to section C-9. In particular,
electrical equipment was specified to be "explosion proof within "hazardous atmosphere"
197
 olumes surrounding storage and transfer systems containing liquid hydrogen or liquid
oxygen and surrounding solid rocket propellant (e.g., the retrorocket). While potting,
hermetic sealing, or positive pressurization with inert gas where acceptable alternatives,
the Biosatellite III spacecraft itself (especially inside the capsule) and its interconnections
with checkout equipment in late prelaunch procedures could not conform with these re-
quirements. Inert gas, even nitrogen, could be used only in very limited quantity for fear
of compromising the flight animal's condition.
In addition, more stringent requirements were imposed by the Delta project in their
responsibility for safety on the launch complex. They were in the process of developing
design restraints with specifications that storage tanks (as well as fittings) be designed to
burst strength four times working pressures, whereas only fittings were so specified by
ETR. In view of the advanced state of Biosatellite development, our previous waivers on
a few components established with ETR and our proof test data were accepted by the
Delta project. Storage vessels designed to twice working pressure were accepted. However,
future spacecraft planned for Delta launches will be required to reconcile designs with the
launch agency's requirements in addition to those of the range safety officer.
New precautions were designed to resolve the range safety deficiencies, and a "Safety
Compliance Plan" document was prepared and submitted for approval. This document
(supplemented with approximately 3 cu ft of specifications, drawings, and detailed field
procedures of every equipment of concern to safety) outlined the problem, defined non-
conformance with documented requirements, and stated the precautions designed to
make each aspect of the operation safe. It was accepted as proposed.
Briefly the precautions were:
1. A hydrogen-detection and -alarm system was built into the cryogenics and ordnance
facility and into the launch complex 17A service tower with automatic cutout of
electrical energy to nonexplosion-proof equipment (except the spacecraft itself and
certain ground equipment) in the area. The spacecraft was exempted to prevent
damage to it in case of spurious activation of the cutoff.
2. Nitrogen purging was applied to essential ground test equipment used in the gantry,
and to certain facility electrical boxes and communications. Lighting and a number
of new electrical installations were made explosion proof.
3. Fresh air at proper conditions of temperature and humidity was piped into the ordnance
and launch complex operating areas and distributed through specially designed movable
devices. Two outlets were to keep the spacecraft adapter interior purged and the open
capsule top curtained with laminar flow of hydrogen-free air. A third portable cone-
shaped distributor of this same air was used for every practical cable disconnect or
reconnection and for tests of equipment in the exposed capsule nose cap.
4. Portable instruments were regularly used to check for presence of hydrogen or con-
centrations of oxygen, especially before operation of known electrical spark sources.
5. Reconstruction of the launch complex for the elongated Delta included additional
means of egress from the greenhouse atop the gantry.
6. Spacecraft countdown procedures were reworked in the final weeks to limit the
number of personnel inside the greenhouse to the prescribed maximum of 15 (ex-
cept for one brief task). Some specialists were scheduled to await their tasks outside
in the upper levels, and were called into the area by the test conductor on a coordinated
schedule.
198
7. To minimize potential for catastrophy, the Delta second stage was not fueled until
the Biosatellite capsule was sealed and spacecraft crews had vacated the greenhouse.
Normally scheduled on minus one day for reliability, only setups and a newly devised
checkout were conducted then. Hypergolic UDMH and IRFNA were pumped into
the rocket about 8 hr before launch.
The threat of lightning to the operation was noted several days before simulated launch.
An analysis of hazards to the spacecraft and to the flight animal's readiness condition was
made for effects of evacuation in case of lightning. A matrix of criticality with respect to
tasks was constructed, showing only two half-hour periods in which evacuation with less
than 30-min notice would be untenable. Emphasis was placed on storm prediction for
those periods, and the KSC and Air Force services were able to assure safe preparations.
Biosatellite III Prelaunch Procedures and Countdown

Spacecraft. The prelaunch field sequence is tabulated in Table 8.4. Ultimately, 41A.
weeks delay was sustained in field operations, mostly from accumulation of relatively minor
problems in keeping to the originally projected schedule for spacecraft checkout.
Two major incidents, however, directly resulted in substantial rework and delay: First,
contamination found in the cooling system obstructed small orifices. The heat exchanger
in the environment control subsystem was removed, requiring major disassembly and cleaning
and flushing of the system (nine days). A filter was added to the circuit.
Second, following mate of the spacecraft to the launch vehicle on May 29, the sealed
capsule was opened to remove its couch assembly. A presumably closed hand valve had bled
helium gas into the capsule from the partially pressurized oxygen storage vessel in the
adapter, raising capsule gauge pressure to nearly 15 psi. The nose assembly, including psy-
chomotor test panel lifted explosively when the marmon clamp was loosened, breaking an
interconnecting cable and damaging other cables, connectors, and some components.
Intense analysis and repair work was initiated immediately, and a review committee
was empaneled by the project manager to monitor progress and recommend procedures for
continued launch preparation. They were eventually able to report satisfactory repair and
full confidence from retesting with the exception of one conductor in an affected cable
whose function would not be confirmed without major disassembly. Since the conductor's
function was actuation of the camera cine mode by the deorbit programmer, consideration
of backup ground command was begun, and flight preparations were continued.
A subsequent check of gas constituency in the sealed capsule indicated 2% hydrogen.
The vent tubing of the recovery system batteries in the nose cap was inadequately clamped.
Since they vented at slightly higher absolute pressure than the capsule, leakage resulted
during storage.
Countdown for simulated launch was also delayed when the LOX would not flow.
Water had apparently condensed in the line when the previously leaking valve was replaced,
while some residual liquid gas remained in the system. A 24-hr purge of warm, dry nitrogen
cleared the system.
The simulated launch showed better than expected thermal characteristics in the liquid
hydrogen storage system. Five hours were therefore added to allow slack in the countdown
after hydrogen topping. Also accommodated was the possibility of vacating the launch com-
plex to allow a neighboring higher-priority launch, should it slip to its contingency period.

199
Table 8.4 Significant Biosatellite prelaunch events, 1969

Date Event

2/11 First four primates arrived ETR

2/19 Primates begin training in Hangar S to check out equipment setup
3/22 501 spacecraft arrived at the Cape
3/24 Spacecraft disassembly for subsystem field confidence tests
4/3 to 4/9 Fill of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks with liquid nitrogen in Hangar S
4/9 to 4/17 Leak checks of spacecraft pressure systems
4/9 to 4/14 Two primates prepared for walkthrough launch exercise
4/18 to 4/22 Electrical confidence tests of spacecraft
4/18 Toxicity gas testing started at various Cape and KSC facilities
4/22 to 4/23 STADAN compatibility test of flight spacecraft with GSFC mobile test unit
4/23 Experimenter primate walkthrough conducted; used two primates, inserted one, conducted a
planned abort, and inserted second primate; mechanical mockup spacecraft used on launch complex
4/29 Retromotor x rayed at NDTL
5/3 Spacecraft transported to O&C building; started magnetrometer tests
5/5 Adapter returned to Hangar S for environmental-control system rework and cleaning
5/7 to 5/14 Ordnance installed in SRV at O&C building
5/14 to 5/16 C/G measurements on SRV
5/17 Subsystem tests complete on ECS; adapter taken back to O&C and mated with SRV
5/20 to 5/27 Explosives confidence test
5/29 Spacecraft mated to vehicle
5/29 Capsule overpressure accident
6/8 to 6/13 Precountdown confidence test
6/14 to 6/17 Simulated launch
6/20 to 6/22 Purge dried oxygen and hydrogen systems
6/22 Completed precountdown tasks

Experiments. Experiments preparations at Cape Kennedy were not a factor in schedule

delay. Through a crash effort in the field, documentation of their 14-day final countdown,
reflecting newly computerized proficiency training and growth of procedural definition
through exercises, was completely updated to a 1,700 page set of volumes. Countdown pro-
cedures are diagrammed in Fig. 8.10.
The launch countdown began on minus 3 days, as shown in Fig. 8.11.
Completion of topping of the nitrogen tank continued from F - 4 day. At 0320 EDT,
the capsule was opened and a final leak check of the battery hydrogen vents was accomplished.
The LOX dewars arrived at the complex at 0445 EDT. Spacecraft initialization turned power
on at 0830. LOX began at 1200. An anomaly occurred at 1240 when the psychomotor
programmer turned on without being commanded on. LOX tank fill, stopped briefly at 1310
to repair a fill-line leak, was completed at 1412. At this time, a 6-hr LOX tank-conditioning
sequence was started along with a special test of the psychomotor programmer. PO 2 /CO 2
calibration was started at 1433. At 1700, a decision to dispense with the LOX tank topping
was announced. LH2 tank fill was then scheduled as soon as the launch vehicle kerosene fill
and the calibration of the H2 detection systems were completed. However, at 1810 EDT, it
was decided to remove the psychomotor programmer from the vehicle for bench tests. This

200
a

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201
work was started at 1835 and completed at 1910. Reinstallation of the flight psychomotor
programmer was completed at 2045. Filling of the LH2 tanks was delayed due to problems
in calibration of H2-detection system.
Launch Operation and Countdown
F- 2 Day Operations. The H2-detection system became operational at 0015 EOT. LH2
was completed at 0445, and LH2 dewar changeout was completed at 0720. The rest of the
day was devoted to subsystem tests on external power, mechanical preparation, and another
special test on the psychomotor programmer. Topping of the LH2 tanks was started with
actual flow beginning at 1730.
F - 1 Day Operations. LH2 tank topping was completed at 0005 EDT. Fuel cell acti-
vation was completed at 1355. Spacecraft subsystem tests on internal power were completed
at 1610, followed by miscellaneous scheduled tasks such as taking water samples, purging the
CO2 and O2 sensors, and evacuation of the water storage tanks.
F - 0 Day Operations. F - 0 day activities began at 0210 EDT. The primate arrived at
the gantry at 0723. Delivery was a half hour late due to problems with the couch signal con-
ditioner and head cap connector screws. Couch insertion into the spacecraft was completed at
0825 (Fig. 8.13). The capsule was closed, and a leak check was completed by 1123. Space-
craft ordnance arming was completed at 1233. Faking installation was completed at 1440.
Terminal count was picked up at 2155 EDT (T - 75 min) and the countdown proceeded
smoothly from that point. A 6-min hold was called at T - 10 min to optimize the launch
time. An anomaly was noted at T - 100 sec: the spacecraft coolant coil served through the
umbilical mast was not purged with air as programmed; however, the decision was made to
continue with launch.
At launch, the animal, his physiological instrumentation, and the spacecraft were in full
readiness. The mission director had a defined list of failure conditions under which launch
would still proceed. Particularly recognized were possibilities of failure in the sensitive cir-
cuits to measure blood pressure, brain waves, and other physiologic parameters of the 13-lb
animal. Interdependencies of value to experimenters had been charted and approved in
advance. Surpassing all previous test experience, however, every channel of biological data
was operative and indicating an excellent animal ready for launch.
The launch window of 4 hr was basically designed to ensure recovery opportunity in
daylight near Hawaii every day for the 30-day maximum duration of the flight. It was re-
fined by deletion of the 20 min centered on each whole hour to avoid the possibility of
urine transport pump operation during launch when urine measurement accuracy might be
lost due to vibration. Also certain periods were avoided to ensure recording of a segment of
full telemetry data stream during each of the twice daily Vi-hr periods of programmed psy-
chomotor task operation. On this basis, launch was executed on precisely the earliest opti-
mum time, 11:16 p.m. EDT on June 28.
Biosatellite III On-Orbit and Recovery Operations

Organization. Biosatellite III on-orbit and recovery phase organization was substan-
tially the same as for Biosatellites I and II (Fig. 8.2). But 24-hr daily coverage for 30 days
with qualified personnel in key positions using regular project manpower induced some
compromises. Experiment controllers on the flight control team were substantially more

202
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LOX dewars (2) on gantry (T 5340)

Task 1 - AGE initialization (T-5220)
Task 2 - S/C initialization (T-5160)
Task 3.1 LOX AGE setup (T-5040)
Task 3.2 LOX tank fill (T-4980)
Task 3.3 LOX tank condition (T 4860)
Task 3.4 LOX tank topoff (T-4620)
L02/LH2 dewar change (T 4440 to 4320)
Task 3.7 LOX tank pressurization (T 4440)
Task 4 - P02/C02 calibration (T 4860 to 4740) I I
Task 5.1 LH2 AGE setup (T 4440) L
Task 5.2 LHj tank fill (T 4080)
Task 5.3 LH2 tank condition (T-3960)
Task 5.4 LH2 tank topoff (T 3360)
Task 5.5 LH2 dewar change (T 3960 to 3840) I I

Task 6.0 S/S tests ext. pwr. (T 3840 to 3360)

Dewar removal T 3120 to 3060
Task 5.7 LH2 tank pressurization (T 3120)
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Task 7.0 mech preps. (T-3060)
Task 8.0 fuel cell activ. (T 30001
Task 8.16 • fuel cell operation
Task 9 0 S/C transfer to int. pwr. (T-2160!
T *sk 10.0 S/S tests int. pwr. (T-2140)
Task 11.0 F.C. transfer to cryogens (T-1920)
Oper. verification
Task 12.0 mech. status verif. (T 1170)
Tisk13.0 S/C status verif. (T-1110)
Task 14.1 S/C timing initial (T 1020)
h
Task 14.2 S/C timed ev.
Task 14.2 pace rho initial
Task 15.0 primate install. (T-960)
Task 16.1 no volt test capsule (T 890)
Task 16.2 thru 16.8 capsule closure (T 795)
Task 17.0 ordnance arming (T-705)
Task 18.0 prewalkaway preps (T 645)
Task 19.1 G.E. sup. DAC fair (T 585)
Task 19.2 thru 19.4 post DAC fairing
Task 19.5 gantry roll back activities
Task 19.6 rad subcooling (T 150)
Task 20.1 S/C and exp. status verif. (T-75)
Task 20.2 launch condit. (T-35)

Figure 8.11 Master countdown sequence.

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Figure 8.13 Primate insertion for flight. 205
involved in management of Biosatellite III than in the earlier two flights. One of them was
on duty in the control center 24 hr of every flight day through recovery as before, but with
the responsibility of communicating with the experimenters' representative in his analysis
center and in specifying to the flight operations director operational needs and considerations
for the animal.
Assignments to the flight operations director and controller positions were generally
limited to 6 consecutive 12-hr days, with changes arranged such that two key positions would
not be newly filled on any day. Rest periods were 2 or 3 days, with each person from Ames
having at least a 6-day trip home possible during the flight (in consideration of their typical
2- to 3-weeks' travel status prior to launch). General Electric was specifically tasked to main-
tain a "senior engineer" on 24-hr duty as for the shorter flights, but he fulfilled more of the
spacecraft controller's responsibilities during all but the first and final three days of flight.
The spacecraft controller position was occupied only those few days; flight operations dir-
ectors had the spacecraft controller's discretionary authority through most of the time. After
the first few flight days, the mission director's position was manned by a single individual with
"on call" status part of each day. Engineers for each major subsystem were provided by
General Electric continuously the first 3 days, and were maintained in the vicinity on call
with representation in the control center 24 hr daily thereafter. Ames engineers familiar with
experiment equipment assisted experimenters in their analysis center on a 24-hr basis.
Monitoring and technical analyses for the more complex and longer Biosatellite III flight
required a larger staff. GSFC furnished an engineering analysis center contiguous to the main
control room for Biosatellite III (as shown in Fig. 7.11). In addition to the online data print-
outs shown in Section 7, postpass summary prints of data indicated important changes in many
of the spacecraft data channels occurring during each pass. Also, the full data stream was
specially transmitted to an experiments analysis center established for Biosatellite III in
another building about 300 yd away. Data were received there in real time through contacts
with Fort Myers that could be monitored by another station at Rosman, Georgia. (The latter
station was served with a 1-mHz data link to GSFC data-distribution system in Greenbelt, Md.)
It was received in 16-to-l slowed replay of 30-sec epochs from other tracking sites at least
every second orbit. Because of data flow limitations for contacts other than with Fort Myers,
two physiologists were stationed by the principal investigator at Santiago to review data as
thoroughly as possible during Fort Myers contacts. Contacts near those extremes of subor-
bital lattitudes occur within 6- to 8-hr consecutive series in opposite phases of the 24-hr day.
At Santiago, the project representatives' responsibilities were clearly limited to monitoring of
data and reporting to the control center at GSFC. Use of a voice circuit was regularly made
available outside the spacecraft contact period for medical conferencing with the principal
investigator.- At the request of GSFC, and with the experimenters' concurrence, no command
instructions were to be given by the on-site project representative to the station operator. This
arrangement was satisfactory to all. (A seemingly minor problem did arise, however, that
illustrates the importance of thoroughness necessary in operational checkouts and readiness.
The physiologists found that the ink furnished with the special 8-channel recorder with the
fanfold feature could not be made to work in the recorder without smearing and splashing
under the stress of EEC waveform production. A particular kind of ink, known to be satis-
factory in UCLA laboratories, was shipped to Santiago.)

206
 Flight History. Of the more than 100 spacecraft data channels, only differential
pressure indications of hydrogen with water and of oxygen with water were lower than
design expectations; otherwise no anomaly existed in the entire spacecraft at launch.
Physiological data were of good quality and described an excellent animal. Differential
pressure subnominals had been observed in previous tests and, while not fully explained,
had been demonstrated to have no effect on system operation.
Data monitored through injection showed good tolerance by the animal, and indi-
cated practically no rotation of the spacecraft from unbalanced separation of the four
springs. The magnetometer boom, which was to have deployed 30 sec after separation
from the Delta, indicated only momentary actuation of the indicator switch at the extent
of its travel, leaving some doubt as to its condition. The attitude-control system was auto-
matically activated in the "rate control" mode and was effective.
At Johannesburg, 30 min after liftoff, backup commands were transmitted for the
separation events. Boom deployment was still not evidenced. At Fort Myers, at the
completion of its first full orbit the spacecraft's newly developed automatic rate-control
mode was activated. This more passive mode of operation initiates control when a rate
reaches significantly beyond the deadband limit of the "rate control" mode and persists
until control is achieved, and for at least 8 sec. Performance in this mode was as designed
throughout.
The typical procedures for Biosatellite I and II were followed, except that switching
to rate control was scheduled much less frequenlty after confidence was established in
the automatic rate-control mode in the first flight day. Occasional mode switching was
still necessary to activate the gyro output amplifiers so rates could be observed. The rate-
sense mode was not employed because, like the "off mode, it closed a latch valve on the
compressed nitrogen supply; valve opening induced electrical transients within the space-
craft circuits, and the valve was not specifically qualified for frequent duty.
During the first three orbits, housekeeping and backup commands were transmitted
to ensure the camera was stopped from launch phase cine mode, turn off the secondary
gyros operated through launch vibration, enable the psychomotor panel controller, stop
the tape recorder, initiate the urine analyzer, etc. It was immediately evident after launch
that the capsule air temperature was tending toward its lower limit of 70°F, which it
reached within one orbit; thermostatically controlled heaters were commanded on to
protect the environment.
On orbit 4 from Santiago, additional water availability was commanded at the ex-
periment's request so that 30 cc would be presented in the last hour before capsule day-
light rather than awaiting through the normal 3-hr night interval. Another extra ration of
water was provided in the day mode by ground command on orbit 5.
On orbit 12, the attitude-control system was commanded to its deorbit mode, which
used infrared horizon scanners and the magnetometer. This preplanned test operation
indicated perfect performance and verified that the magnetometer boom was fully deployed
as had been only momentarily signaled on separation from the launch vehicle.
Also on orbit 12, visumotor panel task successes were indicated in the telemetry data,
although no operation had been scheduled or indicated since the preceeding contact. On
orbit 14, three food pellets were shown as having been dispensed in the night mode when
food is not normally provided. On orbits 16 and 17, three and one more pellets, respect-
ively, were dispensed outside programmed availability periods.

207
 A brief dropout of telemetry data occured on orbit 16 with a possible heavy load in
the fuel cell primary bus. Examination of schematics pointed to the telemetry transmitter
as a possible cause, so the secondary transmitter was utilized through the remainder of the
flight. (After separation, return to the primary transmitter inuuced no problem.)
The pellet feeder was locked on orbit 17 by a series of commands including "launch
mode on" and the reversal of its inhibiting effects (on camera, tape recorder, and heaters)
except for feeder lock. This provision had been intended only in preparation for launch,
but was used here to prevent the dispensing of food other than as rewards for task successes
or at prescribed times. The feeder was unlocked on orbit 22 just prior to the next scheduled
psychomotor operation by an "emergency feed" command, which dispensed one "free"
food pellet. The feeder was locked again after its morning sequence (14:00 to 14:30 GMT)
and the procedure was repeated at the contacts most closely available to the 18:00 GMT
sequence. Observing a relationship between the spontaneous visuomotor task success regis-
trations and the earlier release of pellets, that task was inhibited by command late in the
second day on orbit 28. A second delayed matching task was offered to the animal in place
of the visuomotor task as closely as allowed by the ground station contact schedule. The
"separation switch backup" command was tried in place of "emergency feed" to restrict
pellet availability. However, because of an associated undesirable current surge in the
attitude-control programmer, "emergency feed" commands were resumed to unlock the
feeder on the sixth day. It was hypothesized that a reset of visuomotor control logic when
it was turned off might have corrected its earlier malfunction, and it was returned to operation
on the seventh flight day. It appeared to operate normally on first trial, and was continued
on its regularly scheduled sequence.
The excellent overall system performance was marked by a few unscheduled minor
operational events. On orbit 25 at Quito, when the feeder was being locked by the indirect
sequence of commands, the "cine mode stop" command failed and was repeated in the
manual mode, resulting in the loss of several seconds of camera film. The new command
sequence tape had not been fully checked, and the individual "stop" command tape was
not instantly available because it had been designated in operations planned to be specially
handled to avoid accidental usage. The boiler was inhibited starting the second flight day
because capsule temperature persisted at the lower edge of its specification. A gyro test
sequence was commanded on orbit 58 to ensure that the extremely stable attitude-control
operation was being referenced to properly active gyro outputs.
One of the physiologists at Santiago became concerned that every contact he saw showed
at least some seconds of wakefulness and requested an "on-off-on" sequence of telemetry
commands if the animal fell soundly asleep during a contact in an attempt to determine
whether the commutator noise or some disturbance related with telemetry transmission
awakens him. The check was conducted on orbit 82 with coordination by the operations
supervisor at Santiago with what appeared to be positive results. As a generally conservative
operational principle, however, further checks of this nature were delayed pending additional
analysis and planning and were not resumed. The Pace/Rho urine analyzer, while reporting
perfect calibrations, continuously delivered unbelievably low assessments of urine constituency
(recognized after flight to have truly reflected the unexpected urine condition). In attempt
to improve its operation, it was turned off for 21 hours on the seventh flight day.
The above narrative of unplanned flight management belies the excellent overall perform-
ance observed in the total system. In addition to flawless attitude control, all other systems

208
were fully satisfactory: Power from the fuel cell was steady, and the topping battery was well
under its budget for load sharing. All regulated power supplies were steady, and the topping
battery was well under its budget for load sharing. All regulated power supplies were steady.
Fuel cell purging was consistently on schedule. Oxygen makeup and carbon dioxide removal
was clearly nominal. Food pellets were dispensed without apparent stickiness. Water was
dispensed precisely on schedule and promptly consumed. Urine pumping and measurement
appeared normal. Commands were reliably actuated when properly transmitted (some attempts
at low elevations over mountains failed). Data reception and clarity was excellent. Ground
operations inspired confidence, and telemetry-only reception at cooperating non-STADAN
sites reportedly was effective.
On the eighth day the animal suddenly appeared unresponsive and experimenters' rep-
resentatives became concerned for his health. Maximum water was offered through the night,
without acceptance. Unscheduled psychomotor panel operation and actuation of the water
dispenser was commanded in a fruitless effort to evoke attention from the animal. The fresh
secondary light bulb was switched into operation to ensure adequate illumination in the day
mode. Tentative preparations were made for deorbit on orbit 137. Separation and deorbit
were monitored as programmed over Australia.
Recovery. On Sunday, July 6, 1969, after Biosatellite III had been in orbit eight days,
the decision was reached to call down the spacecraft. Orbit number 138 was designated as
the primary recovery pass, with the predicted impact point (PIP) at 21° ITT^, 16-2° 15'W at
2216:026 GMT, July 7. In view of the primate's apparent health, consideration was given to
ventilating the capsule with emergency equipment aboard the recovery aircraft, but it was
decided to proceed according to normal procedures and not ventilate the capsule unless
delivery to the postflight laboratory would exceed 6.5 hr from deorbit.
After the estimated time of parachute deployment, beacon acquisition was reported by
the recovery aircraft. Subsequent beacon acquisitions by aircraft and the Air Force Hawaiian
tracking station indicated that the capsule had overshot the predicted impact point. Shortly
thereafter, visual sightings were reported, and air-recovery procedures were begun. However,
before recovery could be accomplished the pilot observed the capsule descending into a cloud
layer. Insufficient time and altitude were available for an air-retrieval attempt after the capsule
emerged below the cloud layer and before water impact. Splash was observed by recovery
aircraft and the impact point (IP) was marked with smoke and sea dye immediately.
Impact occurred at approximately 2241 GMT at 22° 40'N lat and 159° 30'W long. This
position plots (Fig. 8.14) 1.73 nm miles on a bearing of 062° T from the PIP (8 nm left of
the predicted ground trace).
The ARRS aircraft soon reported visual sighting of the capsule in the water, and the
pilot estimated it would take about 10 min to deploy the "pararescue" team and equipment
to attach a balloon station for water to air retrieval. Intermittent rain showers prevented
deployment of the pararescue team at this time, and since the capsule was apparently un-
damaged and floating safely, a decision was made to effect retrieval by helicopter.
The capsule was retrieved by Scuba personnel and loaded aboard the helicopter. The
helicopter returned to Hickam AFB and landed at 0041 GMT. After arrival at Hickam AFB,
the capsule was placed in a tie-down stand and loaded aboard a truck for transport to the
postflight laboratory, where at 0055 GMT, it was removed from the truck by GE/RESD
and NASA personnel, placed on a dolly, and rolled into the disassembly trailer. This oper-
ation was completed at 0100 GMT.
209
' £ -S

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 Table 8.5 is a chronological list of deorbit, reentry, and recovery events, complied from
(1) Woomera tape recordings of capsule telemetry, deorbit events; (2) recovery aircraft tape
recordings of capsule telemetry, reentry events, and (3) Air Force OP 0197 recovery data
report, recovery operation events.

Table 8.5 Deorbit and recovery events

Events GMT Relative Time (sec)

Arm deorbit system ( 1 02) Day 1 88 2152:46.4 TO - 14.9

Feedline disconnect (103) 2152:56.6 TO- 4.7
Adapter/RVIFD(104) 2152:57.5 TO- 3.8
Deorbit battery activate (105) 2152:58.4 TO- 3.0
Adapter/TCIFD(106) 2152.00.0 TO- 1.3
Adapter/RV separation (107) (To) 2153:01.3 TO
RVspinup(lOS) 2153:03.3 TO- 2.0
Retrofire ignition (109) 2153:04.5 TO- 3.2
RVdespin(llO) 2153:15.2 TO -13.9
TC/RV separation (111) 2153:16.8 TO -15.2
G switch close (112) no data
—
Beacon acquired 2215:45.9 T0+ 1364.6
G switch open (113) (TR) 2216:14.2 TO + 1392.9
Aft cover ejection (114) 2216:39.0 TR + 24.8
Drogue chute deployment 2216:39.5 TR + 25.3
Bag line cutters 2216:49.7 TR + 35.5
Main chute open (reefed) 2216:51.5 TR + 37.3
Reefling line cutters 2216:54.5 TR + 40.3
Beacon bearings classified
Visual sighting (chute) classified
RV water impact 2241: TO + 48 min
Helicopter retrieval RV classified
Helicopter arrival Hickam AFB Day 189 0041: TO + 2 hr 48 min
RV delivery to postflight laboratory 0055: TO + 3 hr 02 min

Biosatellite III Analysis and Review

Formal engineering analysis suitable for approving flight of another spacecraft was not con-
ducted on Biosatellite III due to termination of the Biosatellite project. It is agreed by
experimenters that the mission was fully supported with an adequate spacecraft, and that
apparently decline of the animal's health alone prevented continuation to full term. There
is no indication that spacecraft performance or design adversely affected his health.

211
 IT. -

Tests during 30 days following separation of the recovery capsule, especially of the
electrical and attitude-control subsystem, further confirmed capability for a full mission.
The only significant equipment anomaly was in the visuomotor control logic through which
food pellets were apparently caused to be randomly dispensed, and psychomotor trial
successes wrongly registered. This system worked satisfactorily in the final flight days,
indicating a possible "reset" effect from interim disabling procedures. The problem could
not be simulated in limited bench tests on the flight unit after recovery.
As noted in Section 4, the feces collector was found after flight to have been blocked
near its entrance, a situation that might have been detrimental to a full-term flight. Fecal
matter was dried by air induced there to transport it to the bottom of the tank. Need for
improvement in the diet, which severely loosened the stool, or a different air inlet design (or
both) is indicated.
Other very minor problems included failure of the boom deployment indicator switch,
and low differential pressure readings in the fuel gas supplies with respect to its water.
In general, the primate mission equipment performance exceeded the most optimistic
expectations. Assessment of the animal's reaction to the flight is a responsibility reserved to
the experimenters. A brief summary, based upon their preliminary statement of October
1969 is included in Section 9.

212
 9. MISSION RESULTS

The purpose of the Biosatellite experiments was to determine the effect of weightlessness,
and in some instances combined weightlessness and controlled radiation, on a variety of
biological specimens. Since an orbital flight furnishes the only means of isolating biologi-
cal organisms from the effects of terrestrial gravity and rotation, these experiments also
served as a test for the validity of earth-based simulated weightlessness experiments such as
those using the clinostat.
As stipulated in NMI 7100.1, scientific analyses and reporting of mission results were
the responsibilities of the experimenters, whose observations are summarized in this section.
A bibliography of related publications to date is presented in Appendix C. At this writing,
primate mission data analysis is only partially completed.

BIOSATELLITE II

Seven of the biological experiments on Biosatellite II were designed to determine antagonistic

or synergistic interactions between radiation and weightlessness in their effects on lethality
and mutagenesis. The other experiments studied primarily the effects of weightlessness on a
variety of fundamental biological processes, including metabolic, enzymatic, and hormonal
processes; cell division; differentiation and development; mutations and other cytogenetic
abnormalities; lysogeny in bacteria; and feeding, growth, and aging. Biological systems
studied included representatives of unicellular animals, insects, bacteria, molds, and higher
plants.
Spiderwort Plant (Tradescantia)
This experiment was designed to determine the effects of weightlessness and other space-
craft environmental factors on spontaneous and radiation-induced mutation rates and on
cytological changes in the higher plant Tradescantia. The experimental protocol consisted
of flight and ground control plants exposed to and shielded from ionizing radiation. The
radiation source for the Biosatellite II experiments was Sr8 5, a gamma emitter. The results
indicated no effect of spaceflight factors on spontaneous levels of somatic mutation, pollen
abortion, stamen hair stunting, and chromosome aberration. An enhanced deleterious effect
in flight samples attributed to weightlessness, however, occurred in the mitotic spindle
mechanisms in microspore and root-tip cells. Enhanced interactions between radiation and
space flight factors were observed in pollen abortion and stamen hair stunting, suggesting
increased injury during the more sensitive stages of miosis and mitosis.
Pepper Plant (Capsicum annuum)
The purpose of this experiment was to compare the effects of weightlessness on leaf epinasty
(growth-induced curvature) and carbohydrate and amino acid mobilization with the results

213
 •-• .

of clinostat studies. Epinasty was observed in both leaves and stems by means of time-lapse
photography. The degree of curvature was similar to that in earth-based clinostat controls.
There was no significant difference in amino acid and carbohydrate mobility in leaves and
stems between the orbiting plans and earth-based clinostat controls. Both orbiting and earth-
based clinostat controls were significantly disoriented and exhibited no leaf movements in
contrast to erect earth controls.
Wheat Seeding* (Triticum vulgare)
These experiments were designed to characterize the effects of the space environment on
the growth, morphology, histology, and biochemistry of germinating wheat seedlings. The
experimental design included the flight package and earth-based erect, clinostat, and temper-
ature controls. When compared to the earth-based clinostat controls, the orbiting seedlings
showed no significant differences in growth, development, morphology, and auxin produc-
tion and distribution. Roots and coleoptiles in both earth-based clinostat controls were dis-
oriented compared to earth-based erect controls. The specific activity of certain enzymes
was higher in the tissues of flight plants than in earth-based clinostat and erect seedlings.
The activity of other enzymes was not significantly different from controls. No alterations
were observed in carbohydrate, amino acid, and nitrogen content. There was no significant
difference in germination or coleoptile length or in the distribution of statolith granules be-
tween weightless and clinostat control root tips and coleoptile tips.
Orange Bread Mold (Neurospora crassa)
The purpose of this experiment was to perform a controlled radiobiological experiment on
cellular inactivation and point mutations in Neurospora. The experiment was designed to
utilize specimens obtained from the fusion of two different haploid strains, each containing
a series of genetic markers. The experiment indicated that for cellular inactivation and induc-
tion of recessive lethal mutations, the effects of ionizing radiation under conditions of weight-
lessness were not different from those in earth-based experiments.
Lysogenic Bacteria (Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli)
This experiment was designed to test whether weightlessness with and without radiation
affects bacterial growth and structure and the mechanism regulating the induction of latent
viruses. Induction of lysogeny has been shown to be extremely sensitive to several environ-
mental factors. The experimental plan was to grow replicate cultures of two strains of lyso-
genic bacteria without radiation and with three radiation dose levels under identical condi-
tions in orbit and on earth. The growth rates of both bacteria were more rapid in weight-
lessness than the rates of earth controls. In Sal. typhimurium, the free phage induction was
consistently lower in the flight populations compared to earth controls. The greater bac-
terial densities were believed a function of random cell distribution in the liquid medium
under reduced gravity conditions. However, this mechanism does not explain the lower
phage yield.
Giant Multinucleate Amoebae (Pelomyxa carolinensis)
The purpose of this experiment was to study the effect of weightlessness on nuclear and cel-
lular division, feeding, growth, locomotion, and survival in Pelomyxa. The experimental

214
design involved fixation of amoebae at various time intervals during the experiment. Some
amoebae were maintained alive for postflight studies. The experimental procedure was
duplicated with ground-based amoebae. No significant differences between controls and
flight organisms were observed with respect to survival, cell function and morphology,
cytochemistry, and digestive processes. Slightly greater ingestion of the paramecia food
source (food vacuole formation) was seen in the recovered flight organisms, whereas they
displayed slightly lower digestion of food vacuoles and growth rate. No significant differ-
ences were observed in the synchrony of nuclear division, postflight cell division, and rate
of division, although there was a trend toward a higher division rate while the amoebae fed
during weightlessness.
Flour Beetle (Tribolium confusum)
This experiment was designed to study the effect of weightlessness alone and radiation com-
bined with weightlessness on somatic wing development, germ cells, and pupal period. Two-
thirds of the pupae in control and flight groups were preirradiated with x rays to bring them
into the dose range in which the additional inflight dose would induce a developmental wing
abnormality. The wing abnormality was significantly increased in space-irradiated beetles
compared to the control-irradiated beetles. Similarly, dominant lethals of female offspring
irradiated in space increased compared to ground-irradiated controls. Postflight ground con-
trol tests indicated that weightlessness was the contributing factor. The duration of the pupal
stage was unaffected by orbital conditions compared to ground controls.
Parasitic Wasp (Habrobracon junglandis)
This experiment was designed to survey, in Habrobracon, mature sperm and different stages
of oogenesis for mutational effects resulting from space-flight-irradiation interaction, partic-
ularly dominant lethality, recessive lethal and visible mutation frequencies, and inherited
partial sterility. Life span and behavioral and biochemical differences also were studied.
The most profound effects of space flight in conjunction with radiation (at four different
dose levels) were decreased hatchability and enhanced fecundity of eggs exposed to space
flight at different stages of oogenesis. These effects were interpreted as a reflection of
chromosomal nondisjunction in the former case, and inhibition of cell division in the latter.
The only effect found in the study of sperm mutagenesis was a three-fold enhancement of
the recessive lethal mutation frequency in nonirradiated sperm in the orbited Habrobracon
males. Flight males were disoriented in mating activity for two days postflight; female be-
havior was not affected. Females irradiated in flight lived significantly longer than their
earth-irradiated counterparts. An unexpected reduction in the activity of the enzyme
xanthine dehydrogenase occurred in the flight-irradiated animals in comparison to controls.
However, postflight experiments indicated a three-fold increase in mutation frequency
in sperm subjected to launch and reentry conditions of vibration as compared to controls.
Vinegar Gnat (Drosophila melanogaster)
The purpose of this experiment was to study, under controlled conditions, transmissible
genetic damage in the larval and adult fruit fly caused by the conditions of space flight and
in response to space factors combined with ionizing radiation. An increase in recessive
lethal frequency in mature sperm can be accounted for on the basis of launch reentry

215
acceleration and vibration. An interaction between radiation and some spaceflight factor,
probably weightlessness, was indicated by a significantly higher frequency of chromosome
translocations in flight-irradiated specimens than in irradiated and vibrated postflight con-
trols. There was a possible increase in deformed flies in the flight-irradiated group compared
to the irradiated control group. Results of the larval experiments indicated that radiation
interacts with weightlessness to induce more premature aging and chromosome damage in
actively growing and metabolizing individuals than in earth-irradiated controls.
Frog Eggs (Rana pipiens)
This experiment was designed to study the effect of weightlessness on cleavage and develop-
ment of fertilized frog eggs as a test of the importance of gravity in the orientation of
developmental processes. The stage of development most sensitive to disorientation with
respect to gravity is immediately after fertilization, and sensitivity decays steadily during the
onset of the first cleavage. Unfortunately, the value of the experiment was greatly reduced
by a 3-hr delay in launch time, which meant that the eggs had reached the middle of the first
cleavage stage by the time they were in orbit. The findings indicated that the fertilized egg
of Rana pipiens at the two-cell stage divides, differentiates, and develops normally when
exposed to two days of weightlessness.
Summary
These Biosatellite II experiments yielded convincing evidence for an antagonistic interaction
between radiation and one or more factors encountered in flight, particularly in their effect
on mutagenesis. It was remarkable that many fundamental biochemical and energetic pro-
cesses, as well as digestion and mutagenesis. appeared to be unaffected by weightlessness
alone. Effects of weightlessness observed in plants did not differ significantly from clinostat
simulated-weightlessness controls. To fully interpret the effects of space-flight factors on
the system studied, full-scale postflight vibration studies were conducted. This test and its
results are described in Section 8.

BIOSATELLITE III

The objectives of the Biosatellite III experiment, as stated by the experimenters, were "to
determine the physiological effects of earth orbit on subhuman primates, to provide insight
into possible hazards associated with long-term space flights, and to acquire information on
basic physiological phenomena." The primate experiment was designed to monitor as com-
prehensively as possible with an individual flight animal the gamut of nervous, cardiovascular,
and metabolic functions. Sensory, motor, and higher nervous system functions were related
to visual coordination, spatial orientation, recent memory, and discriminative ability in
prolonged space flight.
Deep-probe methods of data collection and analysis, not practical in man, were used in
the primate mission to obtain simultaneous quantitative data on several physiological func-
tions of a Macaco nemestrina exposed to space flight. The volume and quality of pertinent
flight data obtained exceed those available from manned observations or from any previous
animal flights. The experimenters' statements to date are summarized in this section.
The limited baseline data for Biosatellite III provide a frame of reference with which to

216
compare the flight observations. Detailed analyses of nervous system and cardiovascular data
will continue for many months, but it is clear that the flight monkey retained all basic fea-
tures of his terrestrial patterns in these systems.
The primary scientific content of Biosatellite III was for the purpose of inflight evalu-
ation of the CNS and animal behavior (see Fig. 9.1). Recorded pendular eye movements
during the first three days of weightlessness indicate a vestibular-ocular disturbance.
Preliminary examination of flight data indicates that the monkey remained alert in his
waking period for the initial seven days of the flight. Much new information has been
gathered on biological cycles in weightlessness such as those of sleep and wakefulness. Brain
wave records showed increased slow waves but were consistent with a sleeping (as opposed
to comatose) condition.
Weightlessness may have been involved in the reduction of peripheral nervous feedback,
inhibiting the heat production mechanism (shivering) and allowing the set point temperature
to fall to a level below which thermoregulation could not continue. The only telemetered
sign of a progressive decline in the general condition of the flight animal was a gradual de-
crease in brain temperature to 35°C compared with 38.2°C at launch.
For the first time in any space flight of man or animals, the occurrence of rapid-eye-
movement (REM) sleep was confirmed. Sleep throughout the flight was characterized by
rapid changes in state quite different from baseline studies. Transitions from the waking
state to light sleep, to deep or REM sleep, and reversion to wakefulness occurred at 20- to
30-sec intervals. Deep sleep was infrequent during the first and second nights, but occurred
in increasing amounts later in the flight.
The cardiovascular system has been reported in both Soviet and American space flights
to suffer functional distortion in the space environment. The second major scientific con-
tent of Biosatellite III was to assess cardiovascular changes in the null gravity environment
(Fig. 9.2). The blood pressure was sustained until the 6th day at which time the heart rate
had declined from 170 beats per minute early in the flight to 110; diastolic blood pressure
fell below ground baseline values and continued to decline until recovery. Central venous
pressure (measured in the right atrium) clearly indicated changing central vascular patterns.
This did not alter either heart rate or blood pressure. It coincided with a relatively high
fluid intake, and is interpreted as an attempt at restoration of venous volume. Central venous
pressure declined to negative levels in the last two days of flight. Photographic records have
confirmed that the animal was alert and active until the 8th day. Immediately prior to de-
orbit, the heart rate had fallen to 39 beats per minute.
Muscular atrophy in the null gravity environment is expected to be marked due to the
absence of need for the muscles to operate against the normal resistance of gravity. The
structural strength of bone, particularly mineralization with calcium and phosphorous, de-
pends on gravity-induced stress. Thus, during weightlessness, both muscle and bone processes
are subjected to abnormal influences.
To study the effects of these influences, the remaining scientific content of Biosatellite
III was the collection of quantitative preflight, flight, and postflight metabolic data (Fig. 9.3).
The body fluids, approximately 20% of the original body weight at launch, were closely inves-
tigated, both from physiological data, and thermal data inferring water condensed from the
spacecraft. X ray bone densitometry studies, before and after flight, showed a greater loss
of calcium in the test monkey than in control animals similarly restrained on the ground.

217
414 Nucleus centrum medianum 416, 417 Parietal cortex

400 Brain temperature

410, 411 Amygdaloid

415 Midbram reticular formation

412, 413 Hippocampus

418, 419 Occipital

420, 421 EOG Eye movements
426 EMG Scapular
424 EMG Cervical

25 mm/sec 25 mm/sec _^| [.. sec 25 mm/sec

410, 411 Amygdaloid nucleus 415 Midbrain reticular formation 420, 421 EOG Eye movements

412, 413 Hippocampus 416, 417 Parietal cortex 424 EMG Cervical muscles

414 Nucleus centrum medianum 418, 419 Occipital cortex 426 EMG Scapular muscles

Figure 9.1 Types of telemetered information on cerebral temperature, eye muscle move-
ments, EEC waveform, and response of other muscles is indicated. The numbers are identi-
fiers of physiological information for the flight.
 406, 407 Carotid artery

405 I nferior vena cava 03, 404 Thoracic aorta

Alimentary canal

Veins fromlower body Arteries to lower body

Portal vein
Capillary bed EKG 409

.2 .4 .6 .8
Time, sec

Atr. Ventricular
Diastole
Syst Systole

R
T
J\ U

• 409 Electrocardiogram
120

80
Pressure
(mm Hg) 4Q

• 403 Thoracic aorta pressure

• 404 Left ventricular pressure

Pressure
(mm Hg)
I
• 406, 407 Carotid artery pressure
30
Pressure
(mm Hg)
0
408 Pulmonary arterial pressure
405 Central venous pressure (inferior vena cava)

Figure 9.2 Indicated are areas of catheter implants to monitor arterial and venous pres-
sures. In the central portion of the figure are examples of the type of information collected
from these monitors, including approximations of the relative magnitude and time course of
the parameter at normal resting levels. Monitoring of respiration was obtained from surface
leads sutured to the chest.
 Food Temperature

Psych omotor
Water
tester

Light source Humidity

PRE AND POST FLIGHT

Extracellular fluid
(C14 sucrose)
Total body water
(tritium dilution Intracellular fluid
techniques)

Total body
potassium

Testicular tissue Seminal ejaculate

Bone densitometry

Total blood volume

Red blood cell (Cr51) Plasma (T-1824 dye)

DURING FLIGHT
Bone
Creatine
Urine 450 Creatinine
Calcium

Muscle
JPL Analyzer

Figure 9.3 The preflight and postf light changes in muscle proteins, calcium metabolism
fluid compartment shifts, semen and metabolism of testosterone are indicated. A flight
urine analysis is included.
 i E

The first accurate information on water and food intake, urinary output, and urinary
calcium, creatinc and creatinine, during orbital flight was obtained by the metabolic experi-
ment. The animal lost considerable weight, approximately 1 kg, between launch and recov-
ery. At autopsy, no major pathology was detected in heart, lungs, gastrointestinal, renal, or
nervous systems. Small bruises on the liver and some bruising of the heart, both of recent
origin and attributed to reentry, were the only signs of injury.

221
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS

The Biosatellite project was NASA's first space flight project dedicated to biological experi-
mentation. Although the project enjoyed some successes, it became a prolonged effort. This
report has detailed some of the problems and hopefully will serve to caution against similar
pitfalls in future biological space projects.
Perhaps the most serious deficiency was the initial gross underestimation of the project's
complexity and the resources that would be needed. In spite of some recognized parallels to
the Mercury/Gemini missions, the budget was projected at a very small fraction of those
programs; consequently, the government entered into an unrealistic contract with the
General Electric Company. The lack of resources on a timely basis afflicted the program to
the end. It is a credit to the project's personnel that they persisted with long hours and
extended travel to compensate for these deficiencies.
The nature of the biological experimentation was, in itself, a major difficulty. Space
biology experimentation requires substantial alterations to the normal practice of conducting
many repetitive experiments over a long period of time in the laboratory where environmen-
tal conditions can be easily regulated and are under direct control of the biologists. The
economics of space experimentation required that the biologist develop experiment protocols
that minimized the number of biological specimens necessary to answer a question and to
develop adequate ground controls tests not only to assist this objective but to isolate the
effects of the environmental factors, such as vibration and acceleration, that are inherently
a part of space flight. The necessity to perform experiments with such constraints and to
commit one's self to a single program for five or more years is unattractive to many biolo-
gists. Then, too, many biologists regard space biology unworthy of support in comparison
with other objectives.
Our missions were defined and justified solely for the purpose of doing biological
research in space. The project was sympathetic and responsive (perhaps to a fault) to
scientific requirements as much or more than any other project.
Difficulty of communications between biologists and engineers was also a significant
problem. Initially, many misunderstandings developed regarding the interfaces between
the experiments and the spacecraft. For example, the spacecraft specification that the cap-
sule atmosphere was to be maintained at a temperature of 70° ± 5°F was interpreted dif-
ferently by the engineers and biologists. To experimenters, a single temperature between
those limits that was constant throughout the capsule volume and unchanging during the
mission was expected for biological specimens; and the engineers did not recognize the
necessity for more explicit definition of variations they would allow within the specified
limits. Such diversities of viewpoint were gradually reduced with experience.

223
 There is a need for firm biological/engineering interface requirements to be defined
early. Timely definitions are essential for development to proceed on a timely basis, but
also to alert the experimenter to the high cost of changes and additional requirements
that in his normal experience may be inconsequential. Early interface definitions help
delineate the practical variations between experiment and spacecraft designs such that
rational choices for total system can be made. In Biosatellite, our early determination to
maximize the extent of experimentation to be carried resulted in three spacecraft con-
figurations, rather than one.
Because of the extremely high cost of spacecraft programs and budget constraints,
management decisions are frequently demanded to control or reduce costs. To help in
these decisions, definition of experiments should include, if possible, methods or indicators
for assessing relative scientific value for the various measurement parameters such that in-
cremental costs in money and schedule can be judged against potential scientific achievement.
Biological scientists participating in the project management group have a special
problem for which no fully satisfactory solution has been found. While dedicating the priority
attention essential to accomplishment of an integrated biology and engineering project, their
professional vitality as scientists suffers from lack of exercise in their own pursuits. The
project management team requires scientific expertise, but it does not provide a gratifying
nor secure environment for researchers.
Although cost, schedule, and performance were all project management objectives,
technical performance was the dominant consideration. Experiment technical requirements
and their implications for spacecraft and experiments flight hardware were not realistically
known until relatively late in the program. The project was required to operate under
fiscal year funding limitations that compounded the effect of this late definition of require-
ments on total costs and schedule.
One of the significant cost problems resulted from the fact that the spacecraft system
selected was initially estimated capable of using many more previously qualified Discoverer
subsystems than was actually the case.
The selection of the two-stage Delta and Biosatellite spacecraft constrained the project
to uneconomical size and weight limitations to accommodate the experiments eventually
assigned. It was necessary to forego clean mechanical and electrical interfaces between the
spacecraft and experiments and to resort to an integrated experiment-spacecraft system.
Although the spacecraft was more efficiently used, the resulting spacecraft-experiment inter-
face made changes to either experiment or spacecraft more difficult and costly.
Integrated testing of biology with equipment was expensive both in cost and in its
impact on the schedules of large numbers of personnel from a variety of institutions. Al-
though such testing was difficult on this program, in the end it proved to be highly fruitful
for both missions, demonstrating the importance of early thorough testing with defined in-
terfaces in the development of bioscience flight experiments.

RECOMMENDATIONS

As a result of experience with the Biosatellite project, we make the following recommenda-
tions for conducting future biological space projects.

224
1. Broad support in the biological scientific community must be established and main-
tained for space flight projects that are undertaken. Cost, time, and technical con-
straints can now be better recognized at the outset and must be accepted and sustained
by the scientific community.
2. Priorities should be established for biological experiments. The priorities should con-
sider the immediate future needs of the agency for scientific biological data, in addition
to considerations of solely scientific merit.
3. The development of biological flight experiments from the conceptual stage to qualified
flight hardware is greatly enhanced when the principal investigator is supported by a
biologist-engineering team experienced in space flight programs. We believe that ARC.
in the role of an Experiments Development Center, could bring this Biosatellite experience
to bear on future projects.
4. Experimenter(s) should carry their experiment to the breadboard stage and provide the
agency with visibility and control of subsequent development of his flight system com-
mensurate with NASA's responsibility for mission accomplishment. It should be a
priority effort of NASA management to establish these understandings.
5. The development of any new spacecraft system for biological experiments should await
the identification of specific experiments to be accommodated. Wherever possible, the
development of biological flight experiments should precede the design and fabrication
of the spacecraft by two to three years. Also, the experiment should be modularized
with clearly defined interfaces, an early design objective.
6. Integrated testing of biological specimens and protocol with flight development hard-
ware should be planned very early in future programs.
7. Procurement of aerospace flight hardware should be under the control of technical and
contract personnel experienced in the field. The guidance of NM1 7100.1 giving the
experimenter responsibility for his flight equipment was difficult to follow for biological
experiments and should be deviated from in future similar situations. At least some of
the Bicsatellite scientists endorse this position.
8. The concept of "phased project planning" should be utilized more on future projects
than was the case for Biosatellite. A systems study is essential before end items can be
defined.
9. Incentive contracting with target cost incentive fee, as was pioneered by NASA with
Biosatellite, should be withheld until a stage of definition is reached such that the in-
centives can be held meaningfully aligned with objectives.

225
 Appendix

A. BIOSATELLITE MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCES

ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Program Management, NASA Headquarters

The Associate Administrator, Office of Space Science and Applications, NASA Headquarters,
was responsible for overall direction and evaluation of the Biosatellite program. This respon-
sibility was delegated to the Director of Bioscience Programs and included:
• Program planning and appraisal
• Allocation of resources to the project
• Coordination of policies and commitments for the project with other offices of NASA
Headquarters and with other agencies
• Selection of the biological experiments recommended for the program by the Space
Sciences Steering Committee
The relationship of NASA organizations supporting the Biosatellite program is shown
in Figure A.I. Close contact was maintained with the project activities by Headquarters'
participation in the project technical direction, and management meetings and interface con-
trol meetings. Periodic senior management meetings were instituted by OSSA for the final
one and one-half years of the program.
Project Management, Ames Research Center
Ames Research Center (ARC) was assigned Biosatellite project management responsibility.
This responsibility included management of project funds and resources, as well as scientific
and engineering support of experiments development, development of the spacecraft systems,
development of experiment hardware, flight operations, and direction of services of other
government agencies.
The Biosatellite project manager reported to the Director for Development, ARC. He
was responsible for projectwide planning and evaluation, systems integration and scheduling,
budgeting and financial planning and management, technical direction to all contractors, and
project reporting to ARC and NASA Headquarters management. He was further responsible
for providing the launch systems manager and tracking and data systems manager at GSFC
with detailed engineering requirements and schedules for all phases of the project. He was
supported by a project scientist assigned from the Life Sciences Directorate as his advisor
on the scientific elements of the experiments. The project scientist served as the principal
interface of the project with the scientific community and with NASA Headquarters in scien-
tific aspects of the program.

227
 The project management organization evolved into an integrated biological research
and spacecraft engineering group through several stages. Initially, a small group of physi-
ologists and engineers at ARC were assigned with a manager to examine experiments under
consideration and to advise on feasible flight combinations and configurations. As space-
craft study contracts were let, a spacecraft engineering group was staffed from ARC and
with applicants from industry. Individuals were assigned to launch vehicle interface develop-
ment, recovery interface development, and special problems. In 1965, a project control
staff group was established to support fiscal management, contractual monitoring, and infor-
mation systems. Also, an operations group was formed with launch vehicle, recovery, and
orbital operations engineers. In 1966, experiments engineering was designated as a line re-
sponsibility in parallel with experimental science, reporting to the project manager. A formal
interface control system was established with emphasis on spacecraft/experiment definitions.
Individual senior engineers were designated for spacecraft and experiments of each mission,
and charged with responsibilities for coordinating technical and schedule interfaces.
Representatives of the ARC Procurement Division were assigned to the project office,
with responsibilities for administration of contracts and advice on legal matters, price con-
siderations, source selection, and other contractual and procurement policies as required.
A representative of the Fiscal Division was assigned to the Biosatellite project to per-
form financial analysis and status reporting on contracts.
GSFC was responsible for the procurement, management, modification, and operation
of the Biosatellite project launch vehicle system. The Delta project office was responsible
for procurement of the launch vehicle and for technical control of the launch vehicle con-
tractor in developing interface compatibility for Biosatellite. This office also provided
modifications to the launch complex as required for the project.
GSFC was assigned the responsibility for the ground tracking and data system for the
Biosatellite project, including coordination of interface planning; ground systems develop-
ment; and tracking, telemetry, and control support operations. Specific responsibilities in
the last category included metric tracking from injection through deorbit, telemetry data
collection and processing, execution of command control of the spacecraft, development
and maintenance of a project control center with computers and displays, and special flight-
time data processing services.
The Unmanned Launch Operations (ULO) office, KSC, was responsible for launch
operational support to Biosatellite. It was the project point of contact for launch vehicle
and launch complex operations, prelaunch facilities for spacecraft and experiments prepara-
tions, and ETR and base support.
By interagency agreement, the USAF Space Systems Division accepted responsibility
for support of recovery system testing and operational recovery. Also provided was backup
surface-retrieval capability and telemetry monitoring of the deorbit maneuver.
The General Electric Company, Re-Entry Systems Division (RSD) was responsible for
the Biosatellite spacecraft development, fabrication, testing, field preparations, and flight
support. General Electric also provided support for biocompatibility testing at ARC and at
UCLA and provided postflight engineering evaluations. The organization of the Biosatellit-;
office within GE is shown in Figure A.2.
Each experimenter was responsible for preparing baseline data for his experiment; if he
desired, he could also provide the experiment hardware. He was responsible per NMI 7100.1

228
 NASA
Headquarters

Office of Tracking & Office of Space Office of Adv meed

Data Acquisition Science & Applications Research & Tecttnology
Functional responsibility
Project responsibility and direction
_ Information and coordination channels
Launch Vehicle &
Propulsion Programs Bioscience Programs

Delta Programs Biosatellite Program Ames Research Center

Director feu Director for

Goddard Space Director for
Flight Center Development Administration
Life Sciences
J. V. Fostf*

Biosatellite Project
Environmental project mancifer Systems Engineering Procurement Fiscal
Biology Division C. A. Wilson Division Division Division
Deputy R. H. IVker j

Reliability &
Project scientist
quality assurance
C. M. Winget
R. Couvertino

Resident office
Contracts
GE
A. Ghan
K. Hoepfner

Resident office
Financial support
UCLA
A. Mandel
G. Hoover

Project control Operations

office
J. W. Dyer
D. D. Few

'I'
L
J_ _L
Launch vehicle Tracking and data Spacecraft Experiment
Experiments
systems (GSFC) systems (GSFC) systems engineering
R. A. Hoffman
W. A. Schindler E. A. Volkmer B. C. Look T. A. Harmount

1
Launch vehicle Spacecraft Experiment hardware Recovery operations .1 Launch activities
STADAN Experimenters
contractor contractor contractors USAF KSC ULO

Figure A.1 Biosatellite project organization.

 Re-entry systems

General manager
O. Klima, Jr.

1 1
Space re-entry
• systems programs
Operational systems Ballistic systems
programs General manager programs
W. D. Smith

—1
1
Biosatellite
programs

Manager
R. F. Welsch S*
Biosatellite Biosatellite Research and
program planning engineering engineering
and control
Manager Manager Manager
M. K. Wolfson T. Shaw J. D. Stewart

Biosatellite primate Biosatellite Systems test

mission spacecraft contracts and operations
and AGE program
Manager Manager
Manager
E. L. Johnson H. E. Bowers, Act'g A. Lengyel

Biosatellite Biosatellite
systems integration Manufacturing
systems test

Manager Manager
Manager
W. R. NcNay
V. C. DeLiberato J. Seefeldt

Biosatellite . Biosatellite ^ Quality control

test planning manufacturing and test
and evaluation
Manager Manager Manager
J. T. Glancey H. Frisch R. J. Pierce

Biosatellite Space product Reliability

finance assurance and technical
requirements
Manager —
Manager Manager
F. H. Stratton J. Gillespie H. Kimel

Biosatellite Biosatellite
Finance
experimenter reliability
integrator Manager
Manager
On full-time assignment R. Norwood
J. J. Shull B. Teres
to program office

L_______ _ _ _ Program Team — — — — — — — _ _ J Support Sections

Figure A.2 GE-RS Biosatellite project organization.

231
 or the scientific adequacy of his experiment for the postflight data reduction analysis and
reporting. For the three-day mission, an experimenters' representative was elected to repre-
sent the group in their common interests to project management.
Spacecraft
Final selection of the experiments to be flown had not been made at the time the requests
for proposal for a recoverable Biosatellite were submitted to industry. For the purpose of
the studies and proposals, three experimental payloads were described whose requirements
were to be satisfied. It was desired that the spacecraft systems be flexible and adaptable to
accommodate a wide range of payload requirements. Primary emphasis in the studies was
to be on the spacecraft and its systems, but all aspects of the project were to be considered,
including selection of launch vehicle, launch site, communication facilities, recovery opera-
tions, and recovery site. The studies and proposal were not to include the selection of experi-
ments.
On March 2, 1963, a request for proposal was submitted to industry for a study of
engineering aspects of the Biosatellite project (see Section 2).
Contract NAS2-1900. On completion and evaluation of the three studies, GE was
selected to build the Biosatellite spacecraft. A letter contract, NAS2-1900, was let to GE,
dated March 19, 1964, and definitized in June 1964. Contract NAS2-1900 was a cost-plus-
incentive-fee (CPIF) contract to design, develop, fabricate, test, and deliver six flight space-
craft compatible with the three-stage Thor-Delta launch vehicle, to accommodate two each
of three different experiment payloads, all to be earth-orbited and recovered.
RSD is one of the decentralized operating departments of the GE Missile and Space
Division in Philadelphia, Pa. (see Fig. A.2). This division operates essentially as an indepen-
dent corporation, responsible for its own technical and business posture. Each department
within the division is responsible for its particular product line and for conducting its busi-
ness in accordance with policies established by the corporate organization.
The Biosatellite program team consisted of key personnel from each of the support
areas, under the direction of the Biosatellite program manager. Composition of this team
was subject to NASA/ARC review and approval.
Subcontracts used to obtain equipment that GE did not produce were administered
directly by GE. Their technical progress, cost, and schedule status were the responsibility of
the system engineer and were monitored accordingly.
Contract NAS2-2150. At the time the Biosatellite spacecraft contract was let, the
experiment hardware requirements were defined in general terms, but detailed design speci-
fications and drawings did not exist. To reduce experiment and spacecraft interface prob-
lems, GE was awarded a separate CPFF contract, NAS2-2150, on July 13, 1964, to design,
develop, and deliver commodity specifications, drawings, and development (not flight) hard-
ware for most experiments. (Much of the primate mission experiment equipment, such as
psychomotor tester, surgical implants, and signal conditioners, and three of the three-day
mission experiment packages were separately developed under the experimenters' technical
control.) This contract was to be completed in February 1965. The specification to NAS2-
2150 was contained primarily in a NASA/ARC B-l document, issued July 15, 1964, which
elaborated on the experiment description under the spacecraft contract NAS2-1900.

--*&
Experiments
The individual experiments selected for the Biosatellite project are listed in Table A. 1 by
flight mission and affiliation. In 1963, the originally selected experimenters associated with
nonprofit institutions were supported with research grants. Three- and 21-day mission ex-
perimenters were all under contract by the end of 1964, and primate mission experimenters
were contracted in 1965 (except the urine analysis experiment, contracted in 1967). In all
cases the contract provided for the collection, reduction, analysis, and reporting of the
scientific data and findings, and scientific support to the conduct of the project. In some
contracts, the experimenters elected to provide experiment hardware.
In the three-day mission, the experiment hardware was contracted to GE for all experi-
ments except the pepper plant, wheat seedlings, and lysogenic bacteria experiments. The
hardware for these three experiments was contracted to North American Rockwell Corpora-
tion.
The experiment hardware for the 30-day mission was provided by UCLA, USC, Harbor
General Hospital, and GE. ARC provided a clock, two dosimeters, and a primate restraint
suit.
.
Launch Vehicle
The Delta launch vehicle was provided by the Delta project, managed by GSFC. Funding
was through the Director of Launch Vehicle Programs, Office of Space Science and Applica-
tions (OSSA), NASA Headquarters. The project office appointed a liaison engineer to coordi-
nate interfaces with the spacecraft, and to establish vehicle facility and procedural changes
necessary for Biosatellite. Prime contractor for all work was the McDonnell-Douglas Aircraft
Company.
Responsibilities of the Delta project office included:
1. The launch vehicle and its attach fitting and fairing to mount and enclose the space-
craft.
2. The launch facility with specially installed air conditioning, electrical services, plumb-
ing, and mechanical adjustments for the mission peculiarities.
3. Special instrumentation (partly funded by the project) on the launch vehicle to define
for biological experiments their noise and vibration environments.
4. Launch service (technical control responsibility delegated to KSC).
Launch Support Operations
Launch base and range support and technical control of Delta field operations were the re-
sponsibility of KSC ULO. As a service agency to projects, ULO derived funding for basic
facilities and much of their support from regular sources of facilities and administrative
funds. Costs for modifications to facilities and major specialty items were reimbursed by
the Biosatellite project. The ULO program support office staff worked closely with the
project field organization in their various specialties to coordinate services.
Support responsibilities included:
1. Basic facilities—test and equipment space, clean room, laboratory building, office space,
and ordnance and cryogenics building.

233
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2. Modifications of the basic facility for initial requirements (nonreimbursable) and for
later mission specifications (reimbursable).
3. Technical direction of launch vehicle and launch facility operations (under contract to
GSFC Delta project office).
4. Coordination of range and base support services provided by ETR and KSC.
5. Establishment of approvals by safety authorities and enforcement of policy in test areas. *
Tracking, Telemetry, and Control Support
GSFC furnished global operating and control center services for tracking, telemetry-data
collection, communications, command control, and specialized computational support of
Biosatellite flights. Existing "standard" capabilities were used where feasible. Funding from
the Office of Tracking and Data Acquisition(T&DA)provided for specialized requirements,
such as extensions in communications networks, computer software for telemetry data for
recovery control readiness, and added equipment for real-time data reformating and trans-
mission. A tracking and data systems (T&DS) manager was appointed in 1964 and delegated
responsibilities per NASA Management Instruction 8430.1. He advised on compatibility
requirements in spacecraft design, conducted compatibility tests, directed preparations of
GSFC support elements, and conducted global exercises for all flights demonstrating total
operations readiness.
In addition to support of STADAN, Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) stations,
and control and computational centers managed by GSFC, the T&DS manager was formally
responsible for documentation of operational requirements established by the project for
DOD tracking and telemetry-data collection in the launch, deorbit, and recovery phases.
The comprehensive operating handbook by which global operations were conducted was
published as a "GSFC Operations Plan" for each Biosatellite flight.
Recovery and Deorbit Monitoring
Early in 1964 discussions were held between project personnel and USAF SSD, USAF
Satellite Control Facility (SCF, later SAMSO) on functions and responsibilities for the re-
covery phase of Biosatellite. In June 1964, an agreement detailing these responsibilities was
signed by NASA and Air Force officials committing the Air Force to:
1. Support recovery system development and testing
2. Prepare an operational recovery plan
3. Provide an airborne recovery force at Hickam AFB
4. Provide space at Hickam AFB for a postflight laboratory, and
5. Provide terminal electronic tracking after deorbit
and NASA to:
1. Provide test and range support documentation
2. Provide test, training, and operational equipment peculiar to Biosatellite
3. Provide schedule and operational data for the conduct of the mission
Funding and public information agreements were appended to the basic document.
NASA was required to reimburse direct operating costs of aircraft, consumables, services,
and travel expenses in connection with Air Force support. Air Force security regulations
were to be honored, including "need to know" stipulations. Public statements describing
any aspect of Air Force support of the project were to be specifically cleared with Air Force
authorities prior to release.
An exception to the above was arranged in the development of the surface-to-air pickup
system prior to Biosatellite I. Because of mutual interest, the Air Force provided aircraft
operations without leimbursement, while the project furnished equipment and engineering
for the effort.
In May 1965, project management, the GSFC T&DS manager, and the Air Force agreed
that the USAF SSD would assume the responsibilities of "lead range" for the deorbit and
recovery phases of the Biosatellite missions.
Government-Furnished Equipment
Certain equipment for flight or in direct support of the flight was prepared or directly pro-
cured by ARC rather than through an experimenter or the prime contractor. Principal
reasons for this arrangement were early ARC involvement in technical assistance to experi-
menters, the relative simplicity and economy of direct procurement, reduction of major in-
terface problems, or involvement of another government agency. Major items thus procured
include:
1. Encapsulated radiation sources
2. . Radiation dosimetry packages (all flights)
3. Camera for the pepper plant
4. Monkeys, screened for health
5. Animal restraint suit
6. Calendar clock
7. Primate transporter
8. Primate training capsules

CONTRACTS

The spacecraft contract constituted approximately three-fourths of the project's expenditure.

Most of the remainder was applied to cost-only contracts with experimenters and CPFF work
by industrially based experimenters and producers of experiment hardware (including GE).
A list of the significant contracts and grants is shown in Table A.2.
The NAS2-1900 contract awarded to GE provided for design, development, fabrication,
test, and delivery of six flight spacecraft compatible with the Thor-Delta launch vehicle, to
accommodate two each of the three differing experiment payloads. This contract provided
that certain experiments with special housings would be government furnished, i.e., ob-
tained from experimenters or other contractors specially suited to a given experiment. The
contractor was to provide all other services and supplies, including certain interface responsi-
bilities and two sets of mechanical and electrical aerospace ground equipment (AGE). Space-
craft spares were to be negotiated separately at a later date.
The NAS2-1900 contract had multiple incentives, both cost and performance having
multiple share lines dependent on performance criteria accomplishments. The range of cost-
incentive effectiveness was to be ±25% of target cost, including a ±5% plateau for which
there is no incentive or penalty. The contract was defined and awarded in June 1964, with

237
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241
an estimated target cost of $22,451,000 and a target fee of $ 1,571,600, or 7% of target cost.
The incentive fee was an amount equal to the target fee, and the total fee paid could not ex-
ceed 14% of target cost nor could it be less than zero.
To reduce experiment and spacecraft interface problems, GE was awarded a separate
CPFF contract, NAS2-2150, on July 13, 1964, to design, develop, and deliver specifications,
drawings, and development hardware to accomplish the experiment goal.
The cost incentive of NAS2-1900 was invalidated by overruns incurred by late 1967,
so a restructuring was negotiated. In an effort to reinstitute cost control on remaining work,
Supplemental Agreement 86, effective January 1, 1968, assessed the maximum penalty for
overrun on effort to date and set a new target cost and an operative cost incentive. The in-
centive feature was restructured to separate the technical performance incentive from the
target cost related fee, and criteria for the technical performance incentive were redefined
for improved alignment with flight objectives. In addition, an award fee was to be paid at
the government's discretion for improved management performances in certain previously
deficient areas and for experiment value achieved from flight.
Modifications to contract NAS2-1900 are listed in Tables A.3 and A.4

Table A.3. Modifications to contract NAS2-1900, Biosatellite program

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

1 6/30/64 C Add materials report.

2 7/30/64 A Change to two-stage improved Delta.
3 8/18/64 A Update ITPP and increase quantity of component qualifications.
4 10/2/64 B Change primate orientation and urine-collection system.
5 10/19/64 0 Change GMA specification.
6 1 1/2/64 B Provide for onboard recorder and changes to multicoder.
7 12/21/64 B Change camera field of view and programmer, add clock (GFE),
change inflight data requirements, change primate water control, and
define water potability.
8 12/21/64 B Add spacecraft clock and fixed timer.
9 12/22/64 (C) credit Add one Milliken DBM-7B camera as GFE.
10 12/23/64 A Limit FY65 funds to $14.4 million and stop three-stage vehicle effort.
11 1/12/65 (C) credit Change qualification test of GMA to assembly level in lieu of com-
ponents.
12 1/12/65 0 Define acoustic noise levels to which spacecraft will be tested, and
ground lug location.
13 1/17/65 C Change qualification test of fuel cell to assembly level in lieu of
components.
14 3/5/65 B Add design and development of three-day experiment hardware.
15 5/11/65 A Add design and development of additional three-day experiment hard-
ware and fabrication of all developed experiment hardware.

•A > $1 million; B = $100,000 to $1 million; C < $100,000.

42
Table A.3 (continued)

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

16 5/11/65 A Add requirement for additional inflight data recording on three- and
21 -day flights.
17 5/20/65 0 Add additional funding and make miscellaneous corrections to
contract.
18 5/20/65 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 4, 6,
and 8.
19 6/10/65 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 1, 2,
and 10.
20 6/4/65 C Add requirement for spacecraft/launch vehicle pyrotechnic separa-
tion shock test.
21 6/14/65 0 Change requirement for completion of work on spacecraft to 4 hr
before launch, and change. power, capsule atmosphere, and telem-
etry requirements.
22 6/29/65 C Direct preparation of radiological hazards document.
23 9/30/65 (C) credit Delete requirement for delivery of attitude control components.
24 8/25/65 A Establish FY66 funding limit and reprogram flights.
25 9/2/65 B Direct incorporation of Pace-Rho experiment in 30-day spacecraft.
26 9/15/65 C Define special thermal environment of frog egg experiment to be
12/13/65 maintained from installation in spacecraft.
27 9/17/65 0 Change order to provide additional incremental funding.
10/4/65
28 10/20/65 (C) credit Direct primate restraint as GFE rather than contractor furnished, add
radiation dosimeter packages, and reduce water vapor design margin
for primate mission to 72%.
29 11/23/65 B Reduce amoeba packages and delete sea urchin experiment from
three-day spacecraft.
30 12/22/65 C Provide for furnishing of cryogens as GFE, incorporate base support
clause, and require implementation of STADAN compatibility test.
31 12/28/65 C Add requirement for installation and operation of NASA trailers on-
site, including housekeeping.
32 1/28/66 B Direct incorporation of shock test in three-day systems-qualification
tests, direct planning and training for project operations control cen-
ter, define day/night cycle for 30-day flight, and direct provisions
for capsule atmosphere sampling.
33 2/23/66 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 3, 5,
9, and 12.
34 3/29/66 B Add two additional amoebae modules, three-day experiment spares,
and delete water dispensing during 30-day recovery phase.

243
 Table A.3 (continued)

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

35 4/1/66 B Supplemental agreement to definitize certain changes, and the follow-

ing claims: on-orbit support, Phase I; capsule tiedown stands, sea
setout test.
36 5/18/66 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 24.
37 4/15/66 B Add requirement to deliver three-day spacecraft spare parts.
38 4/22/66 A Direct study for providing GM A bypass to furnish air prior to entering
rat cage, review NASA specifications and drawings on Arabidopsis and
rat experiments, perform development tests and minor design fixes of
GFE on Arabidopsis and rat experiments, and initiate long-lead pro-
curement of the 21-day mission experiment hardware.
39 5/25/66 B Direct use of live biologicals in three-day systems-qualification tests.
40 7/20/66 C Supplemental agreement to definitize certain changes and the fol-
lowing claims: three-day experiment changes; furnish shock test
tape; change from GFE to contractor furnished; hydrasets and trailers;
delete requirement for topping battery diode protection.
41 7/12/66 0 Change order to provide additional incremental funding.
42 12/12/65 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 30.
43 7/22/66 C Provide personnel and material to support UCLA development tests
of 30-day experiment.
44 8/11/66 0 Change order to provide partial funding of undefinitized contract
modifications.
45 9/12/66 C Direct special vibration test of wheat seedling package, thermal pro-
file test of wheat seedling, lysogenic bacteria, and amoeba packages,
and a leak check of amoeba experiment chambers.
46 9/2/66 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 7.
47 9/2/66 C Direct fabrication of 125 Tradescantia nutrient cell caps to a speci-
fied design, using GFE seals.
48 9/2/66 A Supplemental agreement definitizing contractor's forecast subcon-
tracts overrun.
49 9/14/66 B Direct fabrication of 5,000 Tradescantia nutrient cell caps, modifica-
tion of tape recorders, and installation of thermostats and thermistors.
50 10/25/66 B Supplemental agreement definitizing contractor's claims as overruns;
three-day systems test specification changes; complexity of standing
instructions and field test instructions due to requirement for ap-
proval; contract variance proposal.
51 11/1/66 0 Supplemental agreement to incorporate revision to specification A-6824.
52 11/23/66 B Supplemental agreement to definitize contractor's claims: electronics
parts screening and 100% testing; three-day preship review; 21-day
duration thermal vacuum test.
53 11/28/66 C Direct fabrication of spares to support three-day ground control tests.

«•
Table A.3 (continued)

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

54 12/5/66 C Direct analysis of leakage of lysogenic bacteria package and repair

after approval of recommendations.
55 2/27/67 0 Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 21, 34,
37, and 43, and to provide partial funding of undefinitized contract
modifications and contractor's claims.
56 1/14/67 C Direct requirement for pressurizing urine transport and reducing
residual mixing volume.
57 1/17/67 B Direct preparation of 21-day mission experiment assembly interface
drawings, performance of thermal interface verification test, and
maintenance of 21-day interface.
58 1/27/67 C Direct addition of antibiotic to primate diet pellet.
59 2/3/67 0 Direct study to incorporate proposal yeast experiment.
60 4/4/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide partial funding of undefinitized
claim for rephasing program and to add technical-direction clause.
61 2/14/67 B Direct fabrication and delivery to UCLA of hardware to support 30-
day experiment system demonstration test.
62 3/1/67 A Direct modifications to correct three-day mission anomalies.
63 5/1/67 B Direct support of 30-day experiment system demonstration test at
UCLA.
64 6/5/67 C Direct use of DSV 3-N launch vehicle with restart capability in lieu
of DSV 3-G.
65 6/5/67 B Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 28, 32,
38, 45, 47, 54, and 57, and contractor's claims as follows: 30-day
systems test data procedure; three-day systems test experiment speci-
fications; three-day systems development test delay; magnetometer
folded boom test.
66 6/22/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.
67 6/22/67 B Direct allowance of 10-cc variance of urine volume measured and pro-
vision for disinfectant in emergency storage bag.
68 7/14/67 B Supplemental agreement to definitize contractor's claims: three-day
spacecraft experiment flow plan; three-day spacecraft walkthrough;
Hangar S ground station; wet-slug capacitor study; integrated test
plan updating.
69 7/21/67 B Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 25, 29,
39,49, and 56, and contractor's claims as follows: onboard flight
tapes processing, three-day Nortronics rate gyro.
70 7/20/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.
71 8/16/67 B Direct preparation of laboratory space and GFE trailers at GE/RSD
for use by NASA and experimenters.
72 9/18/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.

245
 ble A.3 (continued)

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

73 10/23/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.

. 74 11/14/67 A Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 53,58,
and 59, and contractor's claims as follows: gas sampling/parts per
million; primate couch interface change; three-day experiment coding;
repeat 201 vehicle thermal vacuum test; on-orbit operations, Phase
III; three-day forward rack to ETR; feeder arm verification signal.
75 11/22/67 See 86 Direct support of NASA/ARC ground tests of three-day flight vehicle
12/28/67 301 capsule.
76 11/29/67 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.
77 12/11/67 See 86 Direct change to filter for night light cycle in primate mission.
78 1/10/68 0 Supplemental agreement to revise specification requirement for tape
recorder.
79 1/12/68 Direct urine sampling, 21 /30-day walk throughs, and primate check-
out test.
80 1/25/68 0 Supplemental agreement to provide additional incremental funding.
81 2/8/68 A Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 61 and
contractor's claims as follows: 30-day payload changes; capsule re-
packaging; three-day flight extension; primate isolation; 103 thermal
balance test; 21-day thermal interface; verification test; primate simu-
lators, feces collector interface change.
82 2/27/68 A Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modifications 63, 64,
67, and 71, and contractor's claims as follows: 21-day thermal vacuum
components; urine transport system redesign; fuel cell qualification
retest; 21/30-day preship review, integrated test program updating.
83 3/1/68 B Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 62 and
contractor's claims as follows: weight reduction; component review;
claims against technical direction.
84 3/7/68 A(25M) Supplemental agreement to definitize contract modification 79 and
contractor's claims as follows: interface definition; 30-day schedule
adjustment; plan "M" rephasing; three-day change to 21/30-day; urine
system sterilization; additional AGE; 103 EMC test; accelerate 30-day
component qualification; 30-day thermal vacuum test; 30-day flow
plan; additional primate couches; reschedule 30-day delivery; rephase
21-day program, backup batteries.
85 3/29/68 A(19M) Supplemental agreement to definitize contractor's overrun.
86 4/17/68 A(34M) Supplemental agreement to restructure the contract incentive pro-
visions and provide for fiscal year funding limits; includes definitiza-
tion of contract modifications 75 and 77.
87 7/23/68 0 Revisions to schedule and specification regarding primate lab, launch
site, diet pellets, spares, etc.
Table A.3 (continued)

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category'

88 8/23/68 0 Supplemental agreement revising specification to incorporate record-

ing of 36-bit time code on preflight tapes furnished STADAN.
89 10/8/68 0 Supplemental agreement revising specification to incorporate auto-
matic urine fraction collection method and adding fraction collector
as GFE; providing additional incremental funding, and extending
performance period.

Table A.4 Proposals for changes directed but not negotiated, Biosatellite Contract NAS2-1900. 7/31/69.

Contract Modification Description

Cost
Number Date Category*

87 Direct further changes to primate lab; revision of launch site AGE;

additional equipment refurbishment for UCLA test; provision of F-68
primate pellets as backup; support of ARC in-house test programs;
additional 30-day spares; revision of GFE interface dates; revise pri-
mate bladder pressure requirements; revise 21-day tissue culture ex-
periment interface requirements; revise capsule pressure change limits;
revise particle limits in potable water; revise primate diet to casein;
add food dispenser handle operation as a controlled interface; revise
emergency urine storage requirement; add feces collector materials as
controlled interface; revise Delta N performance capability; add
second-burn vibration levels; and add primate couch holders and
slings as GFE.
90 10/9/68 C Adds illuminator as 30-day spare and adds experimenter diet pellet
requirements.
91 10/10/68 (A) credit Limit funds available in FY69 and 70, thereby revising schedules for
>30M second 30-day mission spacecraft and 21 -day mission. (Contractor's
proposal includes effect of later direction to terminate the second
30-day mission spacecraft and the 21-day mission.)
92 10/10/68 (B) credit Deletes attitude control subsystem dynamic test, modifies attitude
control subsystem static test, deletes RF conducted susceptibility test,
deletes urine system sterilization and final confidence test of 203 ve-
hicle, modifies qualification vehicle vibration test, combines three-day
and five-day thermal/vacuum tests, and makes vehicle magnetic field
strength test contingent on results of component tests.
93 10/2/68 C Revise primate simulator design; furnish coveralls for personnel at-
tending systems tests; provide experiments contingency analysis; and
other miscellaneous changes.
94 1/14/69 0 Revise contract to provide for shipment of large items on GBL rather
than commercial for conversion to GBL.

•A > $1 million; B = $100,000 to $1 million; C < $100,000.

247
COMMUNICATIONS

Organization and Management

The magnitude of the communications problem in managing the project is illustrated in
Figure A.3. Direct contact among specialists representing the agencies involved was encour-
aged. However, the project office maintained control and responsibility for approving any
changes in the program resulting from these discussions. Technical direction meetings were
.expressly for regular review and update of technical requirements and plans, and were struc-
tured to produce a written comprehensive list of actions and agreements (with the contrac-
tual status for the spacecraft prime contract of each). These technical direction meetings
were broader than those required for the prime contract; all elements of the project partici-
pated, and the meetings were a most effective means of coordination.
Experiments interface meetings for the primate mission similarly were conducted on a
regular basis. Special attention was given to documenting all experiment requirements and
the spacecraft design particulars to satisfy these requirements. Working sessions were held
as needed for other interfaces such as launch vehicle, tracking and control, data processing,
and special tests.
Field offices were established by the project manager in the GE plant in Philadelphia
and at UCLA. Designated representatives of the GSFC Delta project office and T&DS, KSC
ULO office, and the USAF SCF (recovery) were treated as members of the project staff in
distribution of information and support of meetings. Representatives of major subcontractors
(for fuel cell and GMA) were also requested, through GE, to participate in general meetings
on a regular basis.
In addition to contract specifications, and to contract and management reports such
as those listed in Table A.5, various requirements, specifications, drawings, plans, procedures,
analyses, and special reports were documented. Table A.6 is a partial list of key documenta-
tion produced by ARC and supporting government agencies. Those tasked to GE are listed
from contract (NAS2-1900) specification 2-1900 in Table A.7.
Schedule Control

In October 1964, the project initiated the NASA program evaluation and review technique
(PERT) and comparison cost system (NPC 101), defined in an instruction dated October 30,
1962. The system was rendered ineffective by changes in conceptual planning, especially by
experimenters; lack of familiarity with the system by many project participants; and internal
nonuse by GE.
In 1967, the Air Force had introduced their cost/schedule planning and control speci-
fication (CSPCS) into the GE plant (for which the Air Force was the major customer and
the government's in-plant inspection agency). This system required identification and
evaluation of work packages and regular comparison of work accomplished against work
schedule by organizational subunit and dollar value. Recognizing the advantages of utilizing
a single cost-schedule management system at GE, the project manager participated with the
Air Force in the development of this system and encouraged GE management to extend the
system to Biosatellite. GE's proposal to apply a similar system for Biosatellite was accepted
in June 1968. Biosatellite schedule cost evaluation procedure (B1SCEP) milestone charts

248
KEY: O Informal visit and phone conversations
/ Letters and telegrams
\ Contractual and inter-agency funding

NASA Headquarters
ARC, Programs & resources office
Project manager's office
Experiments
Spacecraft
Operations
Project control
ARC, Contract office
GSFC, Delta Projects Office (Douglas Aircraft Co)
GSFC, Tracking & Data support
GSFC, Manned Spacecraft Net
USAF, Western Test Range
USAF, Space Systems Division
USAF, Air Rescue and Recovery Service
USAF, Satellite Control Facility
USAF, Hickam Air Force Base
KSC, Unmanned Launch Operations
MSC Recovery operation division
USN, Pacific Missile Range
General Electric Company, Re-entry Systems Division
DCASR, Philadelphia, Pa.
University of California, Los Angeles (Exp. P1001, Dr. Adey)
University of California, Berkeley (Exp. P1001, Dr. Pace)
University of So. California (Exp. P1001, Dr. Meehan)
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Exp. P1001, Dr. Rho)
University of Pennsylvania (Exp. P1003, Dr. Brown)
North American Aviation (Exp. P1017, Dr. Johnson)
Emory University (Exp. P1020, Dr. Grey)
General Electric Company (Exp. P1035, Dr. Ekberg)
Colorado State University (Exp. P1035, Dr. Price)
Union Carbide, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Exp. P1037, Dr. deSerres)
University of California (Exp. P1039, Dr. Slater)
ARC, Dr. Young (Exp. P1047, P1048)
Texas Women's University (Exp. P1062, Dr. Mack)
AEC, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (Exp. P1079, Dr. vonBorstel)
University of Texas (Exp. P1084, Dr. Montgomery) (Texas Instruments)
University of Minnesota (Exp. P1093, Dr. Holberg)
Dartmouth College (Exp. P1096, Dr. Lyon)
Brookhaven Laboratory (Exp. P1123, Dr. Sparrow)
NUS Corporation (Exp. P1135, Dr. Mattoni)
North American Aviation (Exp. P1138, Dr. Conrad) 0
University of Virginia (Exp. P1145, Dr. Pitts)
Rice University (Exp. P1159, Dr. Altenburg) 0
Bowling Green State University (Exp. P1160, Dr. Oater) 0
North American Aviation (Exp. hardware)
Stanford Research Institute
Lockheed Missiles & Space Corporation

Figure A.3 Approved communications channels.

Page Intentionally Left Blank
Table A.5 Management reports

Report Prepared by Frequency Submitted to

Project Development Plan ARC Annually or NASA Headquarters and

as needed field centers
MICS Project Management ARC Monthly NASA Headquarters and
Report field centers
Quarterly Review Minutes ARC Quarterly or NASA Headquarters Bio-
as needed science program office
PERT* System Report Major contractors Semimonthly ARC
SLTDN* System GE Monthly ARC
Contractor's Financial Major contractors Monthly ARC
Management Report
(NASA Form 533)
University and Nonprofit Experimenter nonprofit Quarterly ARC
Institution Financial institutions
Report (NASA Form 1030)
GE Monthly Technical Spacecraft prime Monthly ARC
Progress Report contractor
Technical Direction ARC Six Weeks Spacecraft contractor,
Meeting Minutes government participants,
experimenters
Spacecraft Experiment ARC Biweekly Spacecraft contractor,
Interface Meeting experimenters
Minutes
Experimenter's Progress
Report
Preship Review Report
Experimenters

All project participants

Quarterly

Prio to ship-
ment each
ARC

NASA Review Panel

r
S/S
Prelaunch Review All project participants Prior to each NASA Review Panel
launch

•Summary level task descriptive network (SLTDN) replaced the PERT utilization early in 1968.

251
Table A.6 Partial listing of government documentation for Biosatellite.

Originator Documentation

ARC Base and Range Requirements

KSC ETR Operations Requirements (and plan)
ARC Experiments Laboratory Change Requirements, 30-Day Missions
ARC Launch Vehicle Support Requirements
ARC Interface Control Plan
All hardware agencies Interface Control Drawings (for experiments, experiment equipment,
and launch vehicle)
All hardware agencies Biosatellite Interface Changes (BIC)
ARC Support Instrumentation Requirements Document (SIRD) (for tracking,
telemetry and control support)
GSFC NASA Support Plan (NSP) (response to SIRD)
GSFC GSFC Operations Plan (for each mission)
GSFC Detailed Test Objectives (DTO) for Delta Mission (for each flight)
ARC Deorbit Monitoring Operations Requirements
ARC Recovery Operations Requirements
AF/SCF Recovery Operations Plan
ARC Flight Safety Analysis
ARC Postflight Data Processing Specification
ARC Recovery Control Computation Criteria

252
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255
Page Intentionally Left Blank
 re produced and regularly updated by the company. Summary level task-descriptive net-
works (SLTDN), similar to PERT charts, were submitted and approved, portraying the total
effort to launches of flights C (III) and E (later cancelled), and showing in greater detail the
immediate 90 days (Fig. A.4). An extremely detailed set of charts supplemented the latter
in a reviewing center in the plant, constantly accessible to ARC representatives; a duplicate
of the top-level chart also was maintained at ARC and updated by phone at least weekly.
This newer system became a regular working medium inside the company, and with the
greatest revisions in the program already accomplished, it satisfactorily provided visibility of
close-in status and progress.
Experiment preparations were monitored and coordinated in terms of test and flight
preparation interfaces. The project manager held formal biweekly mission reviews at ARC
in which project staff personnel utilizing these data assessed readiness, identified critical prob-
lems, and indicated lines of attack.
Overall program visibility, as projected by GE, was never sufficient for accurate assess-
ment of changes as they were proposed.

FUNDING HISTORY

The planned funding requirement for the Biosatellite project at the time the study contracts
were being awarded in early 1963 was as follows (in millions of dollars):

Fiscal Year Spacecraft Experiments Operations Total

1963 $ 3.0 $2.0 $- $ 5.0

1964 12.3 2.4 1.7 16.4
1965 7.2 1.5 3.0 11.7
1966 2.0 0.5 1.5 4.0
Total $24.5 $6.4 $6.2 S37.1

This plan projected a launch schedule of six flights with the first launch in December
1964, the remaining five at three-month intervals, and the last launch in March 1966.
By the time the spacecraft contract, NAS2-1900, was definitized and awarded in June
1964, the requirements were more clearly recognized, and the contract included spacecraft
delivery dates as follows:
Three-day October 1, 1964, and October 15, 1965
21-day April 1, 1966, and April 15, 1966
30-day July 1, 1966, and July 15, 1966
While the estimated cost of the initially defined contract was $22,451,000, substantial addi-
tional effort was planned for qualification testing, spares, on-orbit operations, and experi-
ment hardware. Experiment contracts also were let in 1964 and early 1965; and future im-
provements in their definition was a recognized additional cost potential. The more important
changes are outlined below:
In July 1964, work was stopped on making the spacecraft compatible with the three-
stage Thor-Delta launch vehicle, and subsequently a decision was made to design the
 ELECTRICAL AGE MECHANICAL AGE
Recorder console B-1 Handling sling assy
Re-entry left set 62 Auxiliary hoist control
Command test ser B-3 Srv checkout stand
Attitude-control test set B-4 Satellite assy & C/O
Environ, control T/S 8-5 Adi.Jter handling fixture
203 30-Day payload
R/V Adapter simul.
8-6 Transport fixture aisy
B-7 Bait, install, fixture
SYSTEMS QUALIFICATION Tel. calibration unit B-8 Gas serv. unit
SPACECRAFT 164 Adapter cable set 8-9 Thermal cont unit
PL Inst'n 8 C/O Gas mgmt. test set B-tO Leak detector
Eltct. Mate Elect. Orbital bait, charger B-11 Retro rocket align fixt
Complete Ouol Refurbish 8 fittest

o
Fit recorder T/S B-12 I. R. Stimulator
GMA Adapter pwr. simul. 8-13 H2O Supply & ref. unit
Battery simulator B-14 Life-cell atmos. kit
THRUST CONE Launch pad pwr. unit B-15 Liquid gas serv. kit
Prelaunch monitor cons. B-16 Capsule tie down stand
Launch monitor & control 8-17 Mag. C/O fixture
5-8-9-12-13-t2 3-33-41-42
48-49-52-54-55-60-63-70 Ground station hangar "5" B-1B R/V Shipping cont.
1-O2-03- 05-11-14-18 De-orbit prog. conf. T/S B-19 Adapter shipping cont.
5O2-16-18-20 Fir. ckt. res. test unit B-20 Work platform
Remote fir. ckt. tester 8-22 Align, set A/C sensors
H20,Met Sep. switch conf. T/S 8-23 Capsule cap handl. sling
Proof F/C Imped, unit B-30 Env. protect cover
8-1-4-5-8-10 Act. prim, simulator B-33 Radiator shield
8-13-41-49-62-66 Passive simulator B-36 Hoisting cage
5623 Couch ext. cables 8-37 Hoisting sling 2-bay cons.
Elec. boxes B-38 Fuel cell gas cont. unit
B-39 F/C H20 Sampler & filter
B-40 A/C Nozzle flow test kit
B-41 Feedline mating tool
B-42 Camera test fixture
Re-entry B-43 Chem. cann. loading kit
8 B-44 F/C Removal equipment
Tim. net. ^ Life Support
B-48 GMA Ser. test stand
B-49 Adapter hose kit
B-50 ASA - Target pos devel.
B-3 B-52 Angle-meas. device
S01-02
501 B-53 Cryo tank handling equip.
5516
B-S4 H2O Oisp. C/O unit
1st FLIGHT EP a D B -55 Urine xport & meas. CO unit
SPACECRAFT B-S6 Fuel cell leak del. kit
B-57 Battery handling fixture
B-60 Mech. primate simul.
Coolonol ECS B-61 Thermal primate simul.
Pr a Lk. Purge 8 Fill B-64 Dummy capsule cap & adapt, cable assy
B-S2 Coolant & HjO sys. leak del.
B-63 Couch holding fixture
8-65 Special tool kit
B-67 GMA Filter test kit
B-1-4-5-8-10 B-1-4-5-8-10 B 66 Quick disc, kit
B-41-48-49-40 B-13-41-49-66 Inst'n Components 8 Harnesses B-68 Dual press, manifold
B-65-66 B-68-69 B 69 Final assy leak test panel
LEGEND 5623 5623 B-70 Fuel cell simulator
8-71 Expl. Sw/"G" Sw simul.
Mfg. & assy B-4-5-8-9-13
x Main line events & biscep control no B-33-41-49-52-62-70
B-72 Sep. switch clamp
5303-06-12-17 B 73 Rate table (small)
B 74 Simul. cyro fill unit
Cost incentive milestone Test
502 Assy of SRV
2nd FLIGHT Start Elect. Mate Electricol 8 Mechanical Mate
GFE Available SPACECRAFT
B-3-4-5-8-9-12-13-23-33-41-42
O
8-48-49-52-54-55-60-63-70
NASA Headquarters report 5301-02-03-05-11-14-18
5602-16-18-20
Event complete (all) B-1-2-3-4-5-7-8-9-10-12-13
B-14-23-33-41-42-48-50-52-54
install Tubing Components 8 Leak Check 8-55-60-63-65-71-72
5301-02-03-05-13-18
5602-16-20

20
1 1
21
1 1 1
26 27

MAY
M i l l '
22
* I I I I
23
1 1 ' '° 1 1 1 1 1
24
16 17

JU ME
1 1
25
1 I I I I
718 14 II

LJJ
f
1 1
2
1 1 l"
13
1 II
3
JANUARY
1 1 1
I* 20
1 1 1 1 11
4
26 27
1 1 1
5
1 1 1
213
1 1

Figure A.4 Summary level task-descriptive network.

spacecraft to be compatible with the two-stage improved Delta launch vehicle. The com-
bined effect of delays due to redesign and reprogramming required by fiscal year funding
limits resulted in rescheduling of spacecraft deliveries as follows:
Three-day March 15,1966, and March 21, 1966
21-day September 15, 1966, and September 21, 1966
30-day December 15, 1966, and December 25, 1966
The detailed requirements for the experiment hardware were still being established, and
in July 1964, a separate contract (NAS2-2150) was awarded to GE to deliver specifications,
drawings, and experiment development (not flight) hardware. In May 1965, the delivery of
three-day experiment flight hardware was added to the spacecraft contract (NAS2-1900).
Throughout the Biosatellite program, new concepts had to be developed to convert
laboratory biological experiments into automated spaceflight components, causing delays
in established technical schedules and increases to funding schedules. The concurrent devel-
opment of spacecraft and experiment hardware caused delays in the original schedule but
permitted earlier flight than would have been possible with sequential development of
experiment and spacecraft hardware.
A second program rephasing in August 1965, to stay within the FY66 funding limita-
tion resulted in a schedule change for spacecraft delivery as follows:
Three-day July 1, 1966, and July 7, 1966
21-day September 1, 1967, and January 7, 1968
30-day March 1, 1967, and July 1, 1967
The 21-day flights were rescheduled behind both primate mission flights as a part of this
stretchout, because it was then thought that the latter experiment and its interfaces were
further developed toward flight readiness.
The addition of the Pace/Rho urine analysis experiment to the spacecraft contract in
September 1965 required additional effort and funding, as well as added experiment con-
tract efforts.
In late 1965 and early 1966, following a configuration compatibility test with a live
animal, the contractor undertook rearrangement of the capsule for the 30-day mission, an
effort that resulted in a major cost increase. The psychomotor testing panel had to be re-
located to improve accessibility and enhance the primate's movement. This effort included
the development of a new camera for photographing the primate, repackaging certain com-
ponents, and revising the GMA. •
As a result of mounting technical problems, schedule delays, and funding requirements,
a Biosatellite management survey panel was established to assess the spacecraft contractor's
management and Biosatellite project management, relationships, policies, and procedures
from an overall viewpoint. A meeting was held at ARC on September 8 and 9, 1966, to
establish the panel membership, organization, detail objectives, and plan of action.
The report of the Biosatellite survey panel was in three parts: Part I, dated October 21,
1966, pertained primarily to activities of the spacecraft contractor (GE). Part II, dated
December 8, 1966, was prepared by the overall program management subpanel; it applied to
the entire Biosatellite program other than GE, and contained recommendations for action
by the Biosatellite project office. Part III, dated May 25, 1967, was the ARC response to

259
 ft II, and contained general discussions of managerial, organization, and procedural
changes in process, as well as specific responses to the findings and recommendations. The
recommendations of the survey panel benefited the technical, schedule, and funding man-
agement of the project in all areas.
A third major rephasing of the program was incorporated in the spacecraft and experi-
ment contracts effective January 1, 1968. This rephasing resulted from a combination of
GE's increased costs and project funding limitations. Supplemental Agreement (S/A) 86 to
the spacecraft contract acknowledged a $22.5 million cost overrun, and rescheduled flight
readiness dates as follows:
30-day March 26, 1969, and September 17, 1969
21-day December 9, 1970, and May 19, 1971
S/A 86 included a funding plan through completion and was based on anticipated ap-
proval of the Biosatellite funding plan. The anticipated FY69 project budget was reduced
from $32.5 million in June 1968, to $21.5 million, necessitating another rephasing of effort,
which adjusted the launch readiness dates as follows:
30-day March 1969, and March 1970
21-day July 1971, and July 1972
To accommodate the reduced funding, the start of the GE 21-day effort was delayed
from July 1, 1968 to July 1, 1969. The FY69 funding problem was also compounded by
increased cost of 30-day experiment hardware delivery at UCLA's subcontractor. Northrop
Corporation. In December 1968, NASA Headquarters terminated the 21-day mission; in
April, GE and experimenters were directed to stop work on the second 30-day flight; and
in July 1969, the second 30-day flight was terminated.
The actual funding and project expenditures are shown in Table A.8.

Table A.8 Biosatellite project funding to incurred costs (millions of dollars).

Year Spacecraft Experiments Operations DOD Total

1963 $ 0.3 $ 1.7 1- $- $ 2.0

1964 5.9 2.5 —
— 8.4
1965 10.8 5.0 0.1 0.1 16.0
1966 15.6 7.3 0.3 0.1 23.3
1967 24.6 6.8 • 0.4 0.2 32.0
1968 22.6 7.0 0.2 0.2 30.0
1969 21.0 6.3 0.2 0.2 27.7
1970 5.5 1.1 0.2 0.1 6.9»
Total $106.3 $37.7 $1.4 $0.9 $146.3

•Estimate only, based on POP 69-2, Rev. I.

PROJECTIONS OF TOTAL COST AND SCHEDULES

Total cost projections and schedule projections as maintained in the POP are charted in
Figure A.5. The following notes refer to the numbered items in the figure.
 1971

1970

0>
t 1969

I
| 1968
t—

I<TJ

*• 1967

1966

1965

220
11 12

200 10.

180
13
I
S 160

£ 140
o
E 120

8 100

! so
!
Ill
60

40

20

0
1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
Calendar year of estimate

Figure A.5 Biosatellite cost and schedule projection history. Note: A and B are the first
and second three-day missions; C and E are the 21 -day flights; and D and F are the primate
flights.

261
 An estimated increase of $6.6 million was for added scope to the spacecraft contract
for spare hardware, change in launch vehicle vibration levels, additional fuel cells,
extended qualification test program, increased flight mission support and a study of
the feasibility of urine preservation during the primate mission and for the development
of experiment hardware for the three- and 21-day missions.
2. An estimated increase of $3.9 million was for modification to the spacecraft design
associated with a change in the launch vehicle to the two stage Thor-Delta and for in-
. creased estimates for experimenter support, experiment hardware development, and
experiment ground control tests.
3. An estimated increase of $10.4 million was to provide for anticipated spacecraft con-
tract changes, increased estimates for experiment hardware and costs due to three-
month extension of three-day, primate, and 21-day missions to accommodate the
FY65 funding limitation.
4. An estimated increase of $4.8 million was to provide for measurement of the launch
vibration and acoustic noise environment and for addition of the Pace/Rho urine
analyzer to the primate mission.
5. An estimated increase of $18.2 million was to provide for substantial increases in the
projected costs to complete in-scope spacecraft activities and in the projected cost in-
crease by the spacecraft contractor for the 21-day mission experiment flight hardware.
Increased costs were also estimated for the remaining experiment hardware. These in-
creases coupled with revised estimates for anticipated spacecraft contract changes
resulted in funding requirements which could not be accommodated within the FY66
limitation of $23.3 million. Consequently, the three-day primate missions were delayed
three months and the 21-day mission 12 months, resulting in compounded increases in
the costs to completion of the spacecraft and experimenter support contracts. Approx-
imately one-third of the total cost increase is attributable to reprogramming.
6. An increase of $6.6 million was estimated to provide for additional spacecraft effort
including rearrangement of components within the primate mission capsule to accommo-
date the primate, weight reduction, spacecraft contractor support of postflight tests,
and increased estimates for experimenter support and experiment hardware.
7. An increase of $50.1 million was estimated to provide for the impact of a major increase
in the spacecraft contractor's estimate of cost coupled with fiscal constraints which
delayed completion. On July 27, 1966 the contractor disclosed that as the result of
technical problems and lack of interface definition in the primate mission development
program a large increase in the cost to complete is estimated to provide for the additional
spacecraft effort, increased cost estimate for the 21-day experiment hardware, and the
schedule extension for the primate and 21-day missions necessitated by these problems.
These increases resulted in a funding schedule greatly in excess of the FY67 program
funding limitations. In order to stay within this limitation and continue the three-day
program on schedule, the contractor was directed to proceed on a substantially reduced
primate mission effort and to cease work on the 21-day program for the balance of FY67.
This rephasing resulted in a delay of 16 months in the primate mission and 21 months in
the 21-day mission to satisfy fiscal year funding limitations. Approximately 50% of the
total estimated cost increase results from the program rephasing. Most of this increase is
associated with the spacecraft contract and the balance with the experimenter support
contracts for the primate and 21-day missions.*
*A survey panel was established in September 1966 to investigate the need for changes in the management of all elements
^fl^^project to better anticipate and control cost and schedule.
8. An increase of S7.43 million was estimated to provide for spacecraft contract changes,
increased spacecraft in-scope effort, increased estimates for experiment including cor-
rection of flight 1 anomalies, addition of a backup battery for the primate and 21-day
missions, test vehicle modifications and simulators to support the primate during
systems qualification testing, increased estimates for experiment control tests and data
processing, and cost of deferring the 21-day program 12 months to accommodate
additional three-day and primate mission effort within fiscal year funding limitations.
9. An increase of $24.5 million was estimated to provide for additional spacecraft changes
to correct flight I anomalies, additional fuel cell development effort, spacecraft contract
overhead rate increase, additional spacecraft costs resulting from component-qualification
and system-development problems, increased cost estimates for experimenter support and
experiment hardware, and cost of extending the primate mission program five months
and the 21-day mission three months to accommodate the additional program costs with-
in the fiscal funding limitations.
10. An increase of $31.4 million was estimated to provide for spacecraft specification up-
dating for more definitive experiment requirements, additional spacecraft spare hard-
ware, tighter temperature constraints on the 21-day mission capsule environment,
clarified lighting requirements for the primate mission capsule, disallowance of water
consumption during dispenser fill, modified food pellet constituency, strict limit on
feeder handle forces, new change-out and refurbishment requirement for experiments
in systems tests, increased test program, increased cost estimates for primate mission
experiment hardware furnished by UCLA/Northrop Corp., USC, and Harbor General
Hospital, and increased cost due to extension of the primate mission by two months.
11. An increase of $7.9 million was estimated to provide for the delay of six months in the
second primate mission flight resulting in a reduction of the FY69 project funding from
$32.5 million to $21.5 million.
12. A decrease of $49.7 million was estimated to provide for the cancellation of the 21-day
mission.
13. A decrease of $12.7 million was estimated to provide for cancellation of the second
flight of the primate mission.

MANPOWER

Representative numbers of personnel directly assigned to Biosatellite project effort are listed
below. These numbers are only indicative, and do not include subcontractors, experimenters
other than UCLA, other government agencies, or consultants. For example, it was once esti-
mated vhat 1,500 persons were occupied directly with the flight of Biosatellite II.
GE ARC UCLA
Fiscal Spacecraft Project Primate Mission
Year Contractor Office Principal Investigator

1964 , 32 48 15
1965 280 63 25
1966 465 61 30
1967 510 65 33
1968 533 67 45
1969 432 66 50
1970(est) 85 50 45

263
 Appendix

B. MECHANICAL AEROSPACE GROUND STATION

AND GROUND EQUIPMENT

GROUND STATION FOR THREE-DAY AND PRIMATE MISSIONS

The Biosatel'ite ground station provided the capability to receive, reduce, and display the
various telemetry data generated by the Biosatellite vehicle during system testing and pre-
launch operations at KSC. Common equipment served in the factory. The ground station
in Hangar S is shown in Figure B.I.

m,*. -•••

i
.. * —. •
•
' •&' »
" *' 1
f.-VL *™
• : ' .^i.- . •JJy.mV
-' •- c
(* i --
4* - • — - . -
_. 5S-J«*f
fc^. ^~ • — ^.

Figure B.1. Biosatellite III ground station, Kennedy Space Center, June 1969.

265
preceding Page Blank
 The ground station was capable of receiving all telemetry, tracking, and command radio
'quencies associated with the Biosatellite vehicle, and included the capability to reduce
and display all PCM, PAM, and FM telemetry data generated by the spacecraft. Data display
was in the form of binary lights, analog meters, digital printed hardcopy, and strip chart
recordings.
The Biosatellite ground station comprised nine consoles:
1. Receiver
2. Tape recorder
3. System control
4. PCM decommutation console
5. PCM spacecraft group console
6. Chart recorder 1 (spacecraft)
7. Chart recorder 2 (spacecraft)
8. PCM experimenter group
9. Chart recorder 3 (experimenter)

BIOSATELLITE AEROSPACE GROUND EQUIPMENT

The functions and program use of various AGE used in the Biosatellite project are summa-
rized in Table B.I.

Table B.I. Biosatellite AGE functions and program use.

Item Function Program Use

Payload transporter To move the experiment assemblies while maintaining

proper environmental conditions.
Three day
Primate
n
Handling sling assembly To handle the spacecraft, and major subassemblies Three day
with an overhead crane; breech tools permit removal Primate
or installation of the SR/V forebody.
Auxiliary hoist control To provide hydraulic lifting control between the over- Three day
head hoist and AGE slings, precise positioning of New design for primate
mating interfaces; and an accurate determination of
load and load transfer.
SR/V checkout stand To support the SR/V and to provide access for Three day
assembly, checkout, and maintenance. New design for primate
Satellite assembly and To support the spacecraft or adapter in either the Three day
checkout stand horizontal or vertical position for assembly, checkout, Primate
and maintenance.
Adapter handling To support the adapter and fully assembled spacecraft Three day
fixture during lifting and rotation operations New design for primate
Transport fixture For vertical transportation and adverse weather pro- Three day
assembly tection of the spacecraft between the assembly area, Primate
magnetometer test area, ordnance, and cryogenic test
area, and the gantry.

266
Table B.1. (continued)

Item Function Program Use

Battery installation To handle the battery during installation and removal. Three day
fixture
Gas servicing unit To pressurize and leak test the spacecraft subsystems Three day
with H 2 , O 2 , N 2 , and H e . Three day modified for
primate
Thermal control unit For the spacecraft fuel cell and environmental control Three day
subsystem during testing and on-pad operations. Primate
Leak detector To detect pneumatic leaks in the spacecraft subsys- Tliree day
terns, using the mass spectrometer method with helium Primate
as a tracer gas; used in the test area and on the gantry.
•Retrorocket alignment To adjust the retrorocket so that its thrust passes Three day
fixture through the R/V center of gravity. Primate
IR stimulator To checkout the angular sensing accuracy of the hori- Three day
zon scanner and functional integrity of the R/V New design for primate
reference system.
Water supply and refrig- To provide the thermal control subsystem with cool- Three day
erant fluid unit ant, fills the primate and fuel cell water systems, and New design for primate
receives the metabolic wastes produced during testing.
Life cell atmospheric To sample the oxygen-nitrogen gas proportions within Three day
kit the spacecraft capsule. Primate
Liquified gas service kit To transfer cryogenics (LH 2 , LOX) from portable Three day
dewar containers to the spacecraft tanks, and vents Primate
gases safely away from the spacecraft.
Capsule tiedown stand To handle the capsule after recovery and to provide Three day
tiedown capability. Primate
Magnetometer checkout To support the spacecraft in the proper orientation Three day
fixture for testing the magnetometer probe. Primate
R/V shipping container To transport the R/V from the factory to the field Three day
site, and provides environmental protection from Primate
shock, vibration, temperature and humidity.
Adapter shipping con- To transport the adapter from the factory to the field Three day
tainer site, and provide environmental protection from shock, Primate
vibration, temperature and humidity.
Work platform To provide access for personnel to the interior and Three day
exterior of the spacecraft. Primate
Alignment set, A/C To check the angular alignment of the adapter struc- Three day
sensors ture mounting plates for the attitude-control subsys- Primate
tem sensors.
Capsule cap handling To lift and install the capsule nose cap. Three day
sling Primate
Environmental protec- To protect against participate contamination and Three day
tive cover humidity during transfer of the spacecraft from the Primate
test area to the gantry.

267
Table B.1. (continued)

Item Function Program Use

Radiator shield To prevent excessive moisture or frost from accumu- New design for primate
lating on the spacecraft radiator during cooling.
Hoisting cage To lift AGE onto the gantry. Three day
Primate
Hoisting sling 2-bay To lift the 2-bay consoles onto the gantry. Three day
console Primate
Fuel cell gas control To maintain the gas pressure and delta pressure rela- New design for primate
unit tionship when charging the fuel cell with GOX, GH 2 ,
and GN 2 during the startup.
Fuel cell water sampler To provide a means of tapping off a sample of the fuel New design for primate
and filter cell water effluent for test.
GMA ll service and To determine the capsule's relative humidity, evacuate New design for primate
test stand the capsule, supply gases at regulated pressures of 0 to
50 psig for pressure testing, supply gas mixtures for
calibration of the oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors,
measure the air circulating system's output, and provide
nitrogen purging of the GMA II air-circulating system.
Adapter hose kit To interconnect fluid systems between the capsule New design for primate
and adapter when they were mechanically demated.
ASA target and gray To provide quantitative resolution and exposure data New design for primate
scale positioning on the camera and lighting subsystem.
device
Angle measuring To measure the angle-of-tilt of the capsule when sup- New design for primate
device ported in the SR/V checkout stand.
Couch holding fixture To hold and rotate the couch assembly during bench New design for primate
checkout.
Cryogenic tank hand- To remove and install the cryogenic tanks in the New design for primate
ling equipment flight adapter.
H2O dispenser C/O unit To supply filtered water to the water dispenser assem- New design for primate
bly, and measure the volume of water discharged.
Urine transfer and mea- To supply sterile simulated urine to the urine trans- New design for primate
surement C/O unit port and measurement assembly, and collect the ef-
fluent to determine functional integrity of the out-
board system.
Fuel cell leak detec- To perform water separation and membrane leakage New design for primate
tion kit tests on the fuel cell.
Mechanical primate To provide a distributed mass with the proper form, New design for primate
simulator center of gravity, and a passive impedance to substi-
tute for the primate.
Thermal primate To provide sensible and latent heat outputs and the New design for primate
simulator proper passive impedances to substitute for the
primate.
Fluid line mating tool To connect and disconnect the fluid-line disconnect. New design for primate

268
Table B.I. (continued)

Item Function Program Use

Camera test fixture To checkout the camera after refurbishment. New design for primate
Chemical canister load- To refurbish the LiOH canister. New design for primate
ing kit
.Dummy capsule cap and To provide electrical and fluid access to the capsule New design for primate
adapter cable during closed capsule testing.
assembly
A/C nozzle flow test To verify proper operation of the attitude-control New design for primate
kit nozzles.
Coolant and water sys- To detect fluid leakage at the disconnects. New design for primate
tem leak detector
GMA filter test kit To check the condition of the LiOH canister. New design for primate
Quick disconnect kit Various disconnect adapters for pressurizing and leak New design for primate
checking.
Fuel cell removal To remove the fuel cell with the spacecraft in the New design for primate
equipment vertical position.
Special tool kit Various tools used in conjunction with mechanical New design for primate
AGE.
Payload confidence To check out the interface between the experiment Three day
test set assemblies and the spacecraft.
Payload subsystem test To provide the capability to check out and verify Three day
set proper operation of the experiment assemblies.
Recorder console To record events routed through or initiated in test Three day
sets interfacing with the vehicle. Primate
Reentry test set To verify operation of the deorbit, reentry, and re- Three day
covery subsystem of the vehicle, and to control the Three day modified for
reentry telemetry; stimulates deorbit and recovery primate
programmers and records elapsed time incurred to
initiate pyrotechnic simulators; power supplies provided
to simulate recovery and deorbit batteries during tests.
Command test set (RF To command the vehicle during ground test with the Three day
section and display RF section and to verify reception of commands with Three day modified for
section) the display section; RF section consists of a command primate
encoder and a transmitter (hardwire or air link); display
section consists of command monitor panels and panels
to simulate the pyrotechnic devices.
Attitude control test To verify functioning of the attitude-control subsys- Three day
set tem by stimulating IT scanners and gyros and monitor- Three day modified for
ing outputs of their associated control circuitry. primate
Environmental control To provide the necessary power, monitors, and con- New design for primate
test set trols to check out the spacecraft environmental con-
trol subsystem.
30-day payload subsys- To test the capsule payload subsystem operation New design for primate
tem test set during spacecraft tests.

269
 able B.I. (continued)

Item Function Program Use

R/V adapter simulator To validate the vehicle test connector interface be- Three day
tween the AGE and the spacecraft, to provide confi- Three day modified
dence that the AGE and the pad cabling would respond
to and would not damage vehicle circuitry; verified
proper operation of the various AGE consoles at the
vehicle test interfaces by accepting signals from the con-
soles and simulating vehicle outputs in return.
Telemetry calibration To provide six discrete voltage levels to the vehicle Three day
unit telemetry system for the purposes of calibration. Primate
Adapter cables A collection of additional test set cables and special Three day
cables required for vehicle testing. New design for primate
Gas-management test To support subsystem testing of the gas management Three day
assembly, by controlling power to the vehicle, and Three day modified for
monitoring associated telemetry outputs. primate
Battery charger console To recharge and preload the orbital battery at the Three day
hangar or at the gantry. Three day modified for
primate
Flight recorder test set To calibrate the inflight tape recorder and to verify Three day
L
its operation. Three day modified for
primate
GMA adapter power To simulate the spacecraft adapter power supplies for Three day
simulator the GMA. Three day modified for
primate
Thermal battery simu- To simulate the vehicle deorbit batteries, and for Three day
lator unit testing deorbit, and separation subsystem squib circuits Three day modified for
at flight levels; used with other test sets to control primate
application of power to the spacecraft, and for power
to test the capsule heaters.
Launch pad power unit To provide all vehicle switching power; remotely con- Three day
trolled from the operator's position at the launch Three day modified for
monitor and control console. This unit (located in primate
the terminal room) and the launch monitor and con-
trol console (located in the blockhouse) provided the
final confidence checks of the vehicle operation be-
fore launch.
Prelaunch monitor test On the subsystem level, to verify operation of both Three day
set the fuel cell controller and the fuel cell itself; on the Three day modified for
system level, interfaced with the Bl, B2, and B3 primate
vehicle test connectors to provide system confidence
prior to launch.
Launch monitor and The unit (located in the blockhouse) and the launch Three day
control console pad power unit (located in the terminal room) pro- Three day modified for
vided the final confidence as to vehicle operation primate
before launch.

270
Table B.1. (continued)

Item Function Program Use

Deorbit programmer To test the proper output sequence of the deorbit pro- Three day
confidence test kit grammer in the spacecraft. Primate
Firing circuit resistance In conjunction with an alinco igniter circuit tester, to Three day
test unit check the spacecraft squib circuits. Three day modified for
primate
Remote firing circuit To remotely check the retrorocket ordnance circuits, Three day
tester, ordnance area by passing a small current-limited voltage through the Primate
test box ordnance and recording the voltage drop across its
bridgeware; measurements made by remote control to
assure personnel safety.
Separation switch test To test the proper output sequence of the separation New design for primate
unit switching semiconductor switching assembly.
Fuel cell impedance test For checkout of the fuel cell to measure the impe- New design for primate
kit dance of the cell at low voltage; measurement verified
proper operation of fuel cell when activated.
Active simulator To provide the electrical simulation of a primate. New design for primate

271
4 Appendix

C. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS

This appendix lists publications, known to the project, that have resulted from, or are re-
lated to, Biosatellite work, and were published before December 1969.

PRIMATE

Adey, W. R., 1959, Instrumentation of Nervous System for Studies of Behavior. American Rocket Society
XIV Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., November 16, ARS Reprint No. 933-59.
Adey, W. R., 1960, Instrumentation of the Nervous System for Studies of Behavior and Performance in
Space Flight. I.R.E. Space and Telemetry Symposium, Washington, D.C.. September, Chapter 6-2,
pp. 1-9.
Adey, W. R., 1961, Studies of Brain Functions in Simulated Stresses of Space Flight. American Institute
of Oral Biology, 18th Annual Meeting, Palm Springs, November.
Adey, W. R., J. D. French, R. T. Kado, D. F. Lindsley, D. 0. Walter, R. Wendt, and W. D. Winters, 1961,
EEC Records from Cortical and Deep Brain Structures during Centrifugal and Vibrational Accelerations
in Cats and Monkeys. IRE Tram. Biomed. Elect. Vol. BME-8, pp. 182-188.
Adey, W. R., 1962, Is There a Need for a Manned Space Laboratory? In Lunar Exploration and Spacecraft
Systems, pp. 170-177. New York, Plenum Press.
Adey, W. R., and D. D. Flickinger, 1962, Monitoring and Prediction of Nervous Functions in Space. Inter-
national Astronautics Federation, Paris, October. In First International Symposium on Basic Environ-
mental Problems of Man in Space, pp. 405-424. Springer, Vienna.
Adey, W. R., and J. D. Franch, 1962, On the Value of Electroencephalographic Recording in Man and
Animals in Space Flight. Symposium on Cosmic Physiology. Proc. XXIIInternat. Physiol. Cong., Leyden,
Vol. 1, pp. 104-106.
Adey, W. R., 1963, Potential for Telemetry in the Recording of Brain Waves from Animals and Men
Exposed to the Stresses of Space Flight. Symposium on Bio-Telemetry, American Museum of Natural
History, New York. London, Pergamon Press, pp. 289-300.
Adey, W. R., W. D. Winters, R. T. Kado, and M. R. DeLucchi, 1963, EEC in Simulated Stresses of Space
Flight with Special Reference to Problems of Vibration. EEC Clin. Neurophysiol.,Vol. 15, pp. 305-320.
Adey, W. R., 1964, Aspects of Brain Physiology in the Space Environment. In Symposium: Brain Functions
and Space, Volume 1, Cortical Excitability, Brain Research Institute, pp. 321-345. Los Angeles, Univer-
sity of California Press.
Adey, W. R., 1964, Effects of Gravity on the Functions of the Central Nervous System. COSPAR Meeting,
Warsaw, 1963. In M. Florkin and A. Dollfus (eds.), Life Sciences and Space Research, Vol. II, pp. 267-
286. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Company.
Adey, W. R., 1965, Biosatellite Performance Simulations. In Symposium, The Analysts of Central Nervous
System and Cardiovascular Data Using Computer Methods. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration, Washington, NASA SP-72, pp. 357-382.

273
Preceding Page Blank
 ey, W. R., 1965, Computer Analysis in Neurophysiology. In R. Stacy and B. Waxman (eds.), Computers in
Biomedical Research, Vol. 1, Chapter 10, pp. 223-263, New York, Academic Press.
Adey.W. R., 1965, Concepts of Cerebral Organization Arising from Time Series Analysis of Neurophysiolo- .J
gical Data. In Symposium, The Analysis of Central Nervous System and Cardiovascular Data Using Com-
puter Methods. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, NASA SP-72, pp. 113-136.
Adey, W. R., 1965, Electrophysiological Patterns and Cerebral Impedance Characteristics in Orienting and •»
Discriminative Behavior. Proceedings XXIII International Congress of Physiological Sciences, Tokyo,
. Excerpta Medico International Congress Series No. 87, Vol. 4, pp. 324-339.
Adey, W. R., 1966, Central Nervous, Cardiovascular and Visuomotor Studies Relating to Spatial Orienta-
tion in a 30 Day Primate Flight. Conference on Orientation in Space, NASA and National Academy of
Science, Ames Research Center. Second Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular Organs in Space
Exploration, NASA Document SP-115, pp. 293-307.
Adey, W. R., R. T. Kado, and D. O. Walter, 1966, Analysis of Baseline and Gemini Flight GT-7 Data with
Specification of On-Line Computing Requirements. Proceedings of Second Annual Biomedical Research
Conference, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, February 18, pp. 353-378.
Adey, W. R., 1967, Hippocampal States and Functional Relations with Cortico-Subcortical Systems in Atten-
tion and Learning. Symposium on Rhinencephalon, organized by IBRO, Hakone, Japan. Brain Res., Vol.
27, pp.228-245.
Adey, W. R., 1967, Intrinsic Organization of Cerebral Tissue in Alerting Orienting and Discriminative
Responses. In G. C. Quarton, T. Melnechuk, and F. 0. Schmitt (eds.), TheNeurosciences: A Study
Program, pp. 615-633.
Adey, W. R., 1967, Neurophysiological Correlates of Information Transaction and Storage in Brain Tissue.
Progress in Physiol. Psychol., Vol. 1, pp. 1-42.
Adey, W. R., R. T. Kado, and D.O.Walter, 1967, Analysis of Brain Wave Records from Gemini Flight GT-7 by
Computations to be used in a Thirty-Day Primate Flight. In Life Sciences and Space Research. COSPAR
Space Sciences Meeting, Vienna, Austria, 1966, pp. 65-93. Amsterdam, North Holland Publishing Company.
Adey, W. R., R. T. Kado, and D. O. Walter, 1967, Computer Analysis of EEC Data from Gemini GT-7 _
Flight. Aerospace Med., Vol. 38, pp. 345-359.
Adey, W. R., R. T. Kado, and D. O. Walter, 1967, Results of Electroencephalographic Examinations under
the Influence of Vibration and Centrifuging in the Monkey. Sixth International Congress of Electro-
encephalography, Vienna, September 1-6, 1965. EEC Clin. Neurophysiol., Vol. 25, pp. 227-245.
Adey, W. R., 1969, Neural Information Processing; Windows Without and the Citadel Within. In L. D.
Proctor (ed.), Cybernetics of the Central Nervous System, pp. 5-27. Little, Brown, Boston.
Adey, W. R., A.T.K. Cockett, P. B. Mack, J. P. Meehan, and N. Pace, 1969, Biosatellite III: Preliminary
Findings. Science, Vol. 166, pp. 492-493.
Berkhout, J., W. R. Adey, and E. Campeau, 1969, Simian EEC Activity Related to Problem Solving during
a Simulated Space Flight. BrainRes., Vol. 13, pp. 140-145.
Cockett, A.T.K., C. C. Beehler, and J. E. Roberts, 1961, Hypodynamic Urolithiasis: A Potential Hazard
during Prolonged Weightlessness in Space Travel. School of A erospace Medicine A eromedical Review, j
Vol. 2, p. 61, December.
Cockett, A.T.K., and C. C. Beehler, 1962, The Protective Effects of Hypothermia in the Exploration of
Space. JAMA, Vol. 182, p. 977, December. »
Cockett, A.T.K., C. C. Beehler, and J. E. Roberts, 1962, Astronautic Urolithiasis: A Potential Hazard
during Prolonged Weightlessness in Space Travel. J. ofUrol.,Vo\. 8, p. 542, October.
Cockett, A.T.K., and C. C. Beehler, 1963, Total Body Hypothermia for Prolonged Space Travel. Aero-
space Medicine, Vol. 34, p. 504, June.
Cockett, A.T.K., 1964, The Urological Problems in Space Medicine. / ofUrol., Vol. 92, p. 564, November.
DeLucchi, M. R., B. J. Dennis, and W. R. Adey, 1965, A Stereotaxic Atlas of the Chimpanzee Brain. Los
Angeles, University of California Press, p. 105.

274
Grunbaum, B. W., J. Zee, and E. L. Durrum, 1963, Application of an Improved Microelectrophoresis
Technique and Immunoelectrophoresis of the Serum Proteins on Cellulose Acetate. Microchem. J.,
Vol. 7, pp. 41-53.
Grunbaum, B. W., 1965, A Compact Self-Contained Mobile Laboratory for Microanalysis. Microchem.
X-Vol. 9, pp. 371-383.
Grunbaum, B. W., 1965, A Multi-Purpose Micropipet. Microchem. J., Vol. 9, pp. 46-51.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1965, Determination of Ammonia, Urea, Creatinine, Creatine, Creatine
' Phosphate, Glucose, Uric Acid, Chloride, Calcium, and Magnesium. Microchemical Analysis,Micro-
chem. J., Vol. 9, pp. 166-183.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1965, Microturbidimetric Determination of Sulfate. Microchemical
Urinalysis, Microchem. J., Vol. 9, pp. 184-186.
Grunbaum, B. W., N. Pace, and M. D. Cannon, 1965, A Simple Recording Time-Flow Titrator. Micro-
chemical Urinalysis, Microchem. J., Vol. 9, pp. 187-192.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1966, Improved Procedure for Individual 17-Ketosteroids. Fed. Proceed.,
25-2, March-April.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1967, Urinary 17-Ketosteroids in Monkeys. Seventh International
Congress of Biochemistry - Tokyo, August 19-25.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1968, Determination of Total Urinary 17-Ketosteroids in the Microliter
Range. Microchem. J., Vol. 13, pp. 396-404.
Grunbaum, B. W., and N. Pace, 1970, Quantitative Analysis of Individual Urinary 17-Ketosteroids by
Thin Layer Chromatography. Microchem. J. (in press).'
Hoshizaki, T., W. R. Adey, and K. C. Hamner, 1966, An Investigation of Barley Seedling Growth Res-
ponses to Simulated Weightlessness Induced by the Nogravatron, a Two Axes Rotation Apparatus.
Planta, Berlin, Vol. 69, pp. 218-229.
Hoshizaki, T., W. R. Adey, J. P. Meehan, D. 0. Walter, J. I. Berkhout, and E. Campeau, Central Nervous,
Cardiovascular, and Metabolic Data of a Macaca Nemestrina during a 30 Day Experiment. In F. H.
Lohles (ed.), Orcadian Rhythms in Non-Human Primates, pp. 8-38. New York, Karger.
Kado, R. T., and W. R. Adey, 1961, A Transistorized Preamplifier for Field Study of EEC. Proc. Fourth
Internal. Conference on Med. Elect., New York, July, p. 172.
Kado, R. T., W. R. Adey, and J. R. Zweizig, 1964, Electrode System for Recording EEC from Physically
Active Subjects. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology,
Cleveland, Ohio, p. 5.
Kado, R. T., and W. R. Adey, 1966, Electrode Problems in Central Nervous Monitoring in Performing
Subjects. Ann. New YorkAcad. ScL, Vol. 140, Article 1, pp. 263-278.
Mangelson, N. L., and A.T.K. Cockett, 1967, Long Term Antibiotic Therapy Using Silicone Rubber as a
Carrier. Surgical Forum,Vol. 18, p. 53 I.October.
Mangelson, N. L., R. T. Kado, and A.T.K. Cockett, 1968, Silicone Rubber Uses in the Lower Urinary
Tract. / ofUrol., Vol. 100, p. 573, October.
Mangelson, N. L., R. T. Kado, and A.T.K. Cockett, 1968, Use of Silicone Catheters in the Lower Urinary
Tract. Amer. Surg.,Vol. 34, p. 170, February.
Mangelson, N. L., R. C. Reznichek, S. A. Brosman, and A.T.K. Cockett, 1968, Value of Closed System
Urinary Drainage Combined with Penicillin G Therapy in Preventing Urinary Tract Infections in Sub-
human Primates. Amer. Surg., Vol. 34, p. 813, November.
Reite, M. L., J. M. Rhodes, E. Kavan, and W. R. Adey, 1965, Normal Sleep Patterns in the Macaque
Monkey. AMA. Arch. Neural., Vol. 12, pp. 133-144.
Reznichek, R. C., J. D. Roussel, N. L. Mangelson, R. T. Kado, and A.T.K. Cockett, 1968, Some Morph-
ologic and Biochemical Observations of Semen in Nemestrina Monkeys Destined for Space Flight.
Pert. & Steril., Vol. 19, p. 376, May-June.

275
Rhodes, J. M., M. R. Reite, D. Brown, and W. R. Adey, 1965, Cortical-Subcortical Relationships of the
Chimpanzee during Different Phases of Sleep. Proceedings of the CNRS Symposium Aspects Anatomo-
Fonctionnels de la Physiologic du Sommeil, Lyon, France. Editions du Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, Paris, pp. 451-473.
Schoenbrun, R. L., and W. R. Adey, Space Flight Related Stresses on the Central Nervous System. Radial.
Res., Vol. 7, pp. 423-438.
Walter, D. 0., and W. R. Adey, 1965, Analysis of Brain-Wave Generators as Multiple Statistical Time
Series. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Engr.,\o\. 12, pp. 8-13.
Walter, D. 0., J. M. Rhodes, D. Brown, and W. R. Adey, 1966, Comprehensive Spectral Analysis of Human
EEC Generators in Posterior Cerebral Regions.
Walter, D. 0., R. T. Kado, J. M. Rhodes, and W. R. Adey, 1967, Establishment of Electroencephalographic
Baselines in Astronaut Candidates with Computed Analyses and Pattern Recognition. Aerospace Med.,
Vol. 38, pp. 371-379.
Walter, D. O., J. M. Rhodes, and W. R. Adey, 1967, Discriminating among States of Consciousness by EEC
Measurements. Electroenceph. Clin. NeurophysioL, Vol. 22, pp. 22-29.
3-DAY
Browning, L. S., 1968, Effects of the Space Environment on Radiation-Induced Damage in the Reproductive
Cells of Pupae and Adult Drosophila. BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 576-582.
Conrad, H. M., and S. P. Johnson, 1963, Final Report for a Study of the Effects of Weightlessness on the
Orientation and Growth of Monocotyledenous Seedlings—Phase I, Contract NAS 2-1551.
Conrad, H. M., and S. P. Johnson, 1967, The Effects of Weightlessness on Plant Growth. Proceedings of the
Institute of Environmental Sciences.
Conrad, H. M., 1968, Biochemical Changes in the Developing Wheat Seedling in the Weightless State. Bio-
Science, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 645-652.
Conrad, H. M., 1969, Final Report for a Study of the Effects of Weightlessness on the Orientation and
Growth of Monocotyledenous Seedlings, Contract NAS 2-4487.
Conrad, H. M., 1969, Final Report on a Study of Biochemical Changes in Developing Wheat Seedlings
Returned from Orbital Flight, Contract NASW-1877.
Conrad, H. M., and K. Yokoyama, 1969, Response of Plants to Hypogravity Gradients. Proceedings of the
Eleventh International Botanical Congress.
Conrad, H. M., and K. Yokoyama, 1970, The Establishment of an Epinastic Threshold in a Hypogravity
Gradient (in press).
Conrad, H. M., C. Housley, and G. D. Reeder, 1970, Cytospectrophotometric Studies of Wheat Seedlings
Grown during the Flight of Biosatellite II (in press).
Conrad, H. M.. C. Housley, G. D. Reeder, and M. Walz, 1970, Biochemical Changes in Wheat Seedlings
Grown during the Flight of Biosatellite II (in press).
Daniels, E. W., and D. R. Ekberg, 1968, Effects of Weightlessness on Amoebae. Argonne Annual Report,
E-ANL-Biol., 28506, p. 911, March.
Daniels, E. W., J. M. McNiff, and D. R. Ekberg, 1968, Ultrastructure of Nuclear Envelope Annuli in
Amoebae. Argonne Annual Report, ANL-7535, pp. 68-69, December.
deSerres, F. J., and B. B. Webber, 1968, The Combined Effect of Weightlessness and Radiation on In-
activation and Mutation-Induction in Neurospora crassa during the Biosatellite II Mission. BioScience,
Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 590-595.
Daniels, E. W., J. M. McNift, and D. R. Ekberg, 1969, Nucleopores of the Giant Amoeba,Pelomyxa
carolinensis. Zeits. Zellforsch., Vol. 98, pp. 357-363.
deSerres, F. J., and B. B. Webber, 1970, The Induction of Recessive Lethal Mutations under Weightlessness
in the Neurospora Experiment on the Biosatellite II Mission. Biology Division, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Submitted to Radial. Res.

276
Edwards, B. F., 1968, Gravity Receptors and Weightlessness. Anat. Rec.,Vo\. 160, p. 344 (Abstract).
Edwards, B. F., and S. W. Gray, 1968, Preliminary Results from the First Successful Biosatellite. Bull.
Georgia Acad. Sci.,Vol. 26, p. 64 (Abstract).
Ekberg, D. R., E. C. Silver, and E. W. Daniels, 1968, Nuclear and Cellular Division in Pelomyxa carolinensis
during Space Flight. 134th Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Dallas, Texas, December 28.
Ekberg, D. R., E. C. Silver, J. L. Bushay, and E. W. Daniels, 1968, Effect of Weightlessness on Amoebae,
• Part II, Nuclear and Cellular Division, BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 615-622.
Edwards, B. F., 1969, Weightlessness Experiments on NASA Biosatellite II. In W. Vishniac and F. G.
Favorite (eds.), Life Sciences and Space Research VII. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Company.
Edwards, B. F., and S. W. Gray, 1969, Biosatellite II Weightlessness Experiments. Bull Georgia Acad. ScL,
Vol. 27, p. 79 (Abstract).
Edwards, B. F., 1970, Effects of Chronic Acceleration on Plants. In S. A. Gordon (ed.), Symposium on
Gravity and the Organism (in press).
Gray, S. W., and B. F. Edwards, 1968, Defense of Biosatellite Experiments. Science, Vol. 162, p. 307.
Gray, S. W., and B. F. Edwards, 1968, The Effect of Weightlessness on the Growth and Orientation of
Roots and Shoots of Monocotyledonous Seedlings. NASA Final Report NAS 2-1556, December.
Gray, S. W., and B. F. Edwards, 1968, The Effect of Weightlessness on Wheat Seedling Morphogenesis and
Histochemistry. BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 632-633,638-645.
Grosch, D. S., 1968, Habrobracon Life Span, Egg Deposit and Hatchability after Two Days of Gamma-
Ray Exposure to Females during Orbit in Biosatellite II. Radial. Res., Vol. 35, p. 546.
Grosch, D. S., 1968, Reproductive Performance of Female Braconids Compared after (A) Brief and
(B) Protracted Exposures to Ionizing Radiations. In Isotopes and Radiation in Entomology, Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria, pp. 377-390.
Gray, S. W. and B. F. Edwards, 1969, An Effect of Weightlessness Following Exposure to Vibration.
Twelfth Plenary Meeting of COSPAR, Prague, pp. 170-171 (Abstract).
Gray, S. W., and B. F. Edwards, 1969, Malformations in Wheat Seedlings Exposed to Vibration. Abstracts
XI International Botanical Congress, p. 76. Eleventh International Botanical Congress, Seattle, Washington,
August 24-September 2.
Gray, S. W., 1970, Effects of Chronic Acceleration on Plants. In S. A. Gordon (ed.), Symposium on Gravity
and the Organism (in press).
Grosch, D. S., 1970, Egg Production and Embryo Lethality for Habrobracon from Biosatellite II and
Associated Post-Flight Vibration Experiments. Mutation Res., Vol. 9, pp. 91-108.
Hewitt, J. E., 1968, Radiation Exposures during the Biosatellite II Flight. Bioscience, Vol. 18, No. 6,
pp.565-569.
Johnson, S. P., 1968, Biochemical Changes in the Endosperm of Wheat Seedlings in the Weightless State.
BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 652-655.
Johnson, S. P., and T. W. Tibbits, 1968, The Liminal Angle of a Plagiogeotropic Organ under Weightlessness.
BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 655-661.
Look, B. C., 1968, Biosatellite II Experiment Environment. BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 560-564.
Lyon, C. J., 1967, Rotation Axes for Analysis of Gravity Effects on Plant Organs. Plant PhysioL, Vol. 42,
pp.875-880.
Lyon, C. J., 1968, Gravity and the Upright Plant. Yale Scientific Mag., Vol. 43, pp. 6-9, 24.
Lyon, C. J., 1968, Growth Physiology of the Wheat Seedling in Space. BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6,
pp.633-638.
Lyon, C. J., 1968, Plagiotropism and Auxin Transport. In Leopold and Vardar (eds.),//i Transport of
Plant Hormones, pp. 251-292. Amsterdam, North Holland Publishing Company.
Lyon, C. J., 1968, Wheat Seedling Growth in the Absence of Gravitational Force. Plant PhysioL, Vol. 43,
pp.1002-1007.

277
 attoni, R.H.T., 1968, Space-Flight Effects and Gamma-Radiation Interaction on Growth and Induction of
Lysogenic Bacteria, A Preliminary Report. BioScience, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 602-608.
Marimuthu, K. M., A. H. Sparrow, and L. A. Schairer, 1969, The Effects of Space Flight Factors, Radiation,
Vibration, and Clinostat on Mortality and Nuclear Division in Tradescantia Microspores. Abstracts XI
International Botanical Congress, p. 140. Eleventh International Botanical Congress, Seattle, Wash.,
August 24-September 2.
Marimuthu, K. M., A. H. Sparrow, and L. A. Schairer, 1970, The Cytologic?! Effects of Space Flight Factors,
'Vibration, Clinostat and Radiation on Root Tip Cells of Tradescantia. Radiat. Res. (in press).
Marimuthu, K. M., L. A. Schairer, and A. H. Sparrow, 1970, The Effects of Space Flight Factors and Gamma
Radiation on Flower Production and Microspore Division and Development in Tradescantia. Radiat.
Botany (in press).
Oster, 1.1., 1968, Behavior of Genetic Material under Space-Flight Conditions. 135th Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Dallas, Texas, Dec. 28.
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