Chapter One

Sociology: Perspective,
Theory, and Method
Society, The Basics
8th Edition
John J. Macionis
 The Sociological Perspective

z Sociology is the z Sociology also

systematic study of encourages us to
human society. see individuality in
z The sociological social context.
perspective helps us
z Emile Durkheim’s
to see general in the
particular. research showed
that the suicide rate
z It encourages us to
realize that society was strongly
guides our thoughts influenced by how
and deeds. connected people
feel to one another.
 Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

z The sociological z The sociological

perspective helps us perspective
assess the truth of empowers us to be
“common sense.” active participants in
z The sociological our society.
perspective helps us
assess both z The sociological
opportunities and perspective helps us
constraints in our to live in a diverse
lives. world.
The Importance of Global Perspective

z Sociologists also z The world’s high-

strive to see issues income countries
in global are industrialized
perspective. nations.
z The global z The world’s middle-
perspective may be income countries
defined as the study
of the larger world have limited
and our society’s industrialization.
place in it. z The world’s low-
z There are three income countries
different types of have little
nations in the world. industrialization.
The Origins of Sociology

z Three major social changes during

the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries are important to the
development of sociology.
(1) The rise of a factory-based industrial
economy.
(2) The emergence of great cities in
Europe.
(3) Political changes.
 The Origins of Sociology

z Auguste Comte believed that the major

goal of sociology was to understand
society as it actually operates.
z Comte favored positivism—a way of
understanding based on science.
z Comte saw sociology as the product of
a three-stage historical development:
(1) The theological stage.
(2) The metaphysical stage.
(3) The scientific stage.
 Sociological Theory

zA theory is a statement of how and why

specific facts are related.
zThe goal of sociological theory is to
explain social behavior in the real world.
zTheories are based on theoretical
paradigms, sets of assumptions that
guide thinking and research.
The Structural–Functional Paradigm

z The structural-functional paradigm sees

society as a complex system whose parts work
together.
z It asserts that our lives are guided by social
structures.
z Each social structure has social functions.
z The influence of this paradigm has declined in
recent decades.
{It focuses on stability, thereby ignoring
inequalities of social class, race, and gender.
 The Social–Conflict Paradigm
z The social-conflict paradigm sees society as an arena
of inequality that generates conflict and change.
z Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx and W. E.
B. Du Bois.
z Critical evaluation: This paradigm has developed rapidly
in recent years.
z It has several weaknesses:
{It ignores social unity.
{Like the structural-functional paradigm, it
envisions society in terms of broad abstractions.
The Symbolic–Interaction Paradigm

zThe symbolic-interaction paradigm

sees society as the product of the
everyday interactions of individuals.
zSymbolic-interactionism has a micro-
level orientation.
zIt focuses on patterns of social
interaction in specific settings.
The Basics of Sociological Investigation

z Sociological z Science – a logical

investigation starts system that bases
with two simple knowledge on direct,
requirements: systematic
(1) Use the observation.
sociological
z Scientific
perspective.
sociology – the
(2) Be curious and
ask questions. study of society
based on systematic
observation of social
behavior.
Science: Basic Elements and Limitations

z A concept – a z Measurement – a
mental construct procedure for
that represents determining the
some part of the value of a variable in
world in a simplified a specific case.
form. z Almost any variable
z A variable – a can be measured in
concept whose more than one way.
value changes from
case to case.
 Useful Measurements

z For a measurement z Validity – precision

to be useful, it must in measuring exactly
be reliable and valid. what one intends to
z Reliability – measure.
consistency in z Valid measurement
measurement. means hitting the
z The procedure must bull’s-eye of the
yield the same result target.
if repeated.
 Relationships Among Variables

z The scientific ideal is z Correlation – a

cause and effect – relationship by
change in one
which two variables
variable causes
change in another. change together.
z The variable that z A spurious
causes the change is correlation is a
the independent false relationship
variable. between two or
z The variable that more variable
changes is the caused by another.
dependent variable.
 The Ideal of Objectivity

zScience demands that researchers

strive for objectivity – a state of
personal neutrality in conducting
research.
zResearchers carefully hold to scientific
procedures while reining in their own
attitudes and beliefs.
zIt is an ideal rather than a reality.
 A Second Framework: Interpretive
Sociology
zMax Weber argued that the proper focus
of sociology is interpretation.
zInterpretive sociology – the study of
society that focuses on the meanings
people attach to their social world.
zIt is better suited to research in a natural
setting.
A Third Framework: Critical Sociology

zKarl Marx rejected the idea that society

exists as a natural system with a fixed
order.
zCritical sociology – the study of
society that focuses on the need for
social change.
zThe point is not merely to study the
world as it is, but to change it.
 Gender and Research

z There are five ways z There is nothing

in which gender can wrong with focusing
shape research: research on one sex
(1) Androcentricity or the other.
(2) Overgeneralizing z All sociologists
(3) Gender blindness should be mindful of
(4) Double standards the importance of
(5) Interference gender in research.
 The Methods of Sociological
Research

z The Experiment – z A survey – subjects

investigates cause respond to a series
and effect under of questions in an
highly controlled interview.
conditions. -The most widely
-The experiment is used of all research
used to test a methods.
hypothesis – an -They yield
unverified statement descriptive findings.
of a relationship
between variables.
 The Methods of Sociological
Research
z Investigation takes z Not all research
place in the field, requires
investigators to
where people carry collect their own
on in their everyday data.
lives. z Secondary
z Participant analysis – a
researcher uses
observation – data collected by
investigators others.
systematically z The most widely
observe people used statistics are
while joining their gathered by
government
routine activities. agencies.
Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation

(1) What is your topic? (6) What method will

(2) What have others you use?
already learned? (7) How will you record
the data?
(3) What, exactly, are
(8) What do the data
your questions? tell you?
(4) What will you need (9) What are your
to carry out research? conclusions?
(5) Are there ethical (10) How can you
concerns? share what you’ve
learned?
Women’s Childbearing
in Global Perspective

Global Map 1-1

Rate of Death by Suicide, by Race
and Sex, for the United States

Figure 1-1
Economic Development in
Global Perspective

Global Map 1-2

Suicide Rates Across
the United States

National Map 1-1

Race and Sport: “Stacking” in
Professional Football

Box Figure 1-1

Three Methodological
Orientations in Sociology

Table 1-1
Four Research Methods

Table 1-2