Archaeology

Lesson
Plan

Prepared by
Diane B. Landers, Ph.D.
Cultural Resources Group Manager
GAI Consultants, Inc.
in Consultation with
Margaret G. Shea, M.Ed.
Elementary Education Teacher
Baldwin-Whitehall School District

Submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Baltimore District in Partial Fulfillment of Contract No.
DACW3
1-90-D-0038, Phase III Archaeological Investigations, Memorial Park Site April 1993 (Revised 7/96)

Author's Note
I have personally devoted much of my time as a professional archaeologist to visiting elementary
and middle school children, in order to lecture on various archaeological topics. As a university
professor and manager of many archaeological projects for years, I have first-hand experience in
the art of teaching and I can personally guarantee that archaeology teaches itself.

I have had close contact with many friends who are elementary and middle school teachers, and
have been asked many times to be a guest lecturer for their classes. With their help, I have been
able to gear the scientific study of archaeological topics to the level of school-age children so that
it is fun and evokes enthusiasm. My teacher colleagues reviewed this unit for its appropriate
educational content and objectives. I have personally tried the activities in this unit during my
many schoolroom visits, and the children love them.

Diane B. Landers, Ph.D.

Introduction
This Archaeology Lesson Plan is geared to the students of the middle school grades (4-6). It is
divided into a five-day unit on archaeology, with classroom lectures, activities, and homework
assignments. Any one of the lesson plans for each of the five days may be used as a single mini-
unit, if there is not time for the teacher to devote five full days to an archaeology unit.
Introduction for the Teacher
Archaeologists in Pennsylvania study sites that have been here for thousands of years,
from Paleoindian times (about 13,000 years ago) to recent years. Through the Science of
Archaeology, prehistoric and historic archaeologists have discovered information about
our state's past that could not be known in any other way. Archaeology can give students
a better understanding of Pennsylvania's history, and provides the only information
available about more than 10,000 years of prehistory.

Archaeology is the study of past peoples and their cultures. It studies the manner in which
past cultures existed: their social organization, their political organization, their religious
beliefs, and the manner in which they survived day-to-day dilemmas of living, providing
food for themselves, and enjoying their society and surroundings. To study archaeology is
to understand that it is a science of the revelation of past human behavior and experience.
No matter how romantic archaeology may seem (Indiana Jones) or how much information
is misunderstood by the public (humans did not co-exist with dinosaurs), the subject is
profound and merits serious study.

You and your students will learn that Pennsylvania's (and America's) cultural resources
are finite, nonrenewable and being relegated to oblivion, even as you read this. The
destructive processes that occur—whether the result of intelligent inspection by
archaeologists, the necessary development of modern societies, or the ceaseless processes
of the natural world—force us to strive to conserve our heritage and cause us to cherish
what little yet remains. You and your students will be better students for learning to
understand and have respect for archaeology, and for gaining knowledge about it. From
this knowledge, your students will be able to help others in our society to learn such
wisdom as may come from knowing that "the face of the past sees the body of the future."
 This unit can be taught in conjunction with Pennsylvania Archaeology Week, which
usually occurs the third week in November, or as part of National History Day.

National History Day is a program that encourages students, grades six through twelve, to
research and prepare papers, projects, performances, and media presentations on a
historical theme, and to have them judged by history professionals. Please contact the
Pennsylvania Board of Education or the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum
Commission, Bureau of Historic Preservation in Harrisburg, for more information on the
subjects of Pennsylvania archaeology and education. The enclosed brochures list
additional information on this subject.

In addition to promoting archaeological awareness as an adjunct to teaching the required

curriculum, teachers are made aware of the values of archaeology as an integrative
curriculum. One of the chief strengths of archaeology is that it is a motivating, fun, hands-
on, experimental way of integrating artificially compartmentalized subjects, including life
sciences, earth sciences, physical sciences, math, computer science, social studies,
language skills, art, music, and drama. More and more teachers are recognizing that
multisensory experiences greatly improve the 10 percent retention rate for facts that have
been doled out in textbook fashion.

Some spin-off values of teaching archaeology include cognitive maturation in the areas of
personal involvement, reflective thinking, realistic exposure to scientific methods, and
social interaction.

This unit combines teacher's lectures with classroom activities, homework assignments,
and visual presentations. Vocabulary words are in bold print throughout the unit, and
teacher instructions are italicized. A vocabulary list is attached for homework
assignments. Those activities about archaeological techniques and findings provide an
excellent way for students to develop social skills, along with skills in social studies,
science, art, writing, and communication. Specifically, they help students develop:

• the ability to think and solve problems through conceptualization, generalization, and
application of new knowledge;
• an understanding of how science and scientific methods can teach us about people;
• social skills through working in small groups and classroom participation;
• and visual expression skills through translating ideas into drawings and objects.
 Day 1
What is Archaeology?
What does an archaeologist study?
Who can become an archaeologist?
(45 minutes)

Teacher's Lecture

Archaeology (Write "Archaeology" on the blackboard, and underline archae and then ology .)

Archaeology comes from two words: "archae" means ancient or old, and "ology" means the study
of. (Teacher, with class participation: So, archaeology is the study of ancient or old things). But,
archaeology is actually a study of ancient people. It is a science dealing with the way people who
lived a long time ago made their daily living. Archaeology explores the way they built their
houses, the way they got their food, what religion they believed in, where they lived, and how
their societies changed through time. It is a study of the way people lived all over the world for
thousands of years.

Archaeology is very different from Paleontology, which is the branch of geology dealing with
fossil remains of plants, and of animals such as dinosaurs. So, as paleontology involves the study
of ancient animals (dinosaurs), archaeology involves the study of ancient peoples. Many people
mistakenly think that pictures of cave men killing dinosaurs is accurate; it is not. Dinosaurs lived
long before humans ever walked the earth.

Teacher-Directed Class Questions and Responses

Archaeology encompasses everything about ancient
people. Does it tell about their houses? Yes.
And what are houses made of? Brick, stone, wood.
So, does archaeology involve study of the bricks Yes.
and stone and wood that people used to make their
houses?
Does archaeology explore the way people got their
food? Yes.
And how did people get their food a long time ago,
before there were supermarkets? Hunting, fishing, planting.
So, do archaeologists study the remains of food that
people ate? Yes.
What do these food remains look like? Bones, seeds, nuts.
So, do the archaeologists study these bones, seeds,
and nuts? Yes.
Archaeologists would study bows
How about the tools that people might have used
and arrows, spears, fishing rods,
when they hunted or fished or farmed?
fishing nets, hoes, plows.
Archaeologists study all of the objects associated An archaeologist is a person who
with how ancient people lived, worked, and played. studies artifacts of ancient people
These objects—the bricks, the bones, the seeds, the that have been buried for a long
bow and arrow—are all called artifacts. time in an archaeological site.
So, archaeologists study ancient people by
examining the artifacts they left behind. When
these artifacts are lost, or left behind for a very
long time and get buried in the soil, the artifacts
form what is called an archaeological site.
Therefore: What is an archaeologist?
Who can become an archaeologist? Anyone can become an
archaeologist, with the proper
training.*

*Note: Proper training is college education, and/or 2 years for masters degree, or 4 years
for
Ph.D. for professional archaeologists. Sometimes, museums give certificates for courses
taken by amateur archaeologists.

Day 1
Classroom Activity

Title: Capsule of America

Purpose: This activity provides an opportunity for students to learn what an artifact is, think
about American culture through artifacts, and improve group interaction skills.

Procedure: Students are to pretend that they have been chosen to select objects to send to a
distant place (outer space? another planet? New Guinea?) where nothing is known about
America. The class as a whole will eventually decide on 10 artifacts that will portray our life.

1. Discuss the meaning of "artifact" and what an artifact can show about the people who use it.
Explain: Artifacts are objects that people have made, or used, or modified. Artifacts indicate how
advanced the makers' society and technology are, and can give information about the values and
practices of the society.

2. Divide the class into four groups. Have each group list 10 artifacts to send to a distant place--
artifacts that represent American life. Each group should select a team leader who will list the
group's selected artifacts and describe what they will tell about our life.

3. Bring the groups together and have each group read its list of artifacts and reasons for their
choices. Write the list (40) on the blackboard and ask the class to decide on the 20 artifacts that
tell the most about American life.

4. Lead a group discussion about the list. What is the picture of American life, based on the
artifacts? What things are missing or misrepresented? Relate the discussion to archaeologists,
working today, who have to figure out what societies were like in the past, based on artifacts that
are found in archaeological sites.

Day 1
Homework
Assignment

Vocabulary
Crossword

Vocabulary Words

Archaeology
Paleontology
Archaeologist
 Artifact
Site
(To Teacher: See Appendix A for Vocabulary Words and Definitions)
Crossword Key (using vocabulary definitions fro crossword puzzle
answers)

1. A rchaeology
R
C
H
2. A rtifact
E
O
3. Pa L eontology
O
G
I
4. S ite
T

Crossword Puzzle
ACROSS
1. The study of people
through what they leave
behind.
2. An object made and used
by people.
3. A branch of geology
which studies plant and
animal fossil remains.
4. A place where people
lived that contains the
artifacts they left behind.

DOWN
1. A person who studies
ancient people through the
artifacts they leave behind.
 Day 2
How do archaeologists find sites?
What is an archaeological dig?
How is a dig set up?
Stratigraphy.
Tools of the archaeologist.
(45 minutes)

Day 2
(45 Minutes)
Teacher's Lecture
Pass out Site Stratigraphy and handout on tools (you can refer to these throughout the lecture)
As we learned yesterday, an archaeological site is a place where ancient people left their artifacts
behind. Their artifacts can be found on the surface of the ground or, over a long time, these
artifacts can become buried in the ground.

Prehistoric people did not have garbage cans in which to throw their garbage, nor did they have
garbage pickup each week. They threw their trash in heaps, or dug holes in the ground and buried
it, or they just left their trash on the ground surface, just lying around. Artifacts are found in trash.
They can be food bones, lost artifacts, or other items that are no longer useful. Artifacts can also
be intentionally buried by people (burials, food storage pits, etc.). Archaeological sites are those
places where people lived and worked and played and left their artifacts. Archaeological sites are
places where archaeologists can find some of the artifacts that were left behind. A site can be as
large as a 10-acre village where people lived for many years, or it can be as small as a single
campfire site where someone spent one night. The way archaeologists study sites is by excavating
them or digging them up. An archaeological excavation is called an archaeological dig.
How do archaeologists find sites in order to study them through excavation? Archaeologists
begin by examining areas of land where people commonly live. People live in areas where they
can most easily find food and water, and where they can travel to other areas.

Teacher-DIRECTED CLASS QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES

So, can you expect to find sites near rivers? Yes.
Near forests? Yes.
Near paths or roads? Yes.
How about on the steep side of a snow- covered mountain? Not usually.
How about inside a volcano? No.

Teacher’s Lecture
So, archaeologists begin by looking over an area of ground that would most probably be one of
those areas where people lived. This is called the survey. Archaeologists will survey river
valleys, floodplains, lakeshores, and springs, to look for sites. Sites will usually have artifacts on
their surface: stone tools, pottery, bones, old walls, foundations of old houses. Any evidence of
human activity will mean that a site is found. And, at these sites, there is also the possibility that
more artifacts are buried under the surface. Once an archaeologist finds sites in an area through
their survey, then he or she is ready to pick any one site to be excavated. If an archaeologist
wants to study campsites, they will pick a campsite to excavate. If an archaeologist wants to
study farm sites, they will pick a farm site to excavate. Or, if the archaeologist wants to study
Indian villages, he or she will pick an Indian village, from the site survey, to excavate. An
excavation will provide an archaeologist with more information about a site.

How is a dig set up? When an archaeologist digs a site, he or she wants to locate the artifacts
that will provide the most information about the people who lived there. Archaeologists do this in
two ways: 1) they want to find how the artifacts are distributed across the site (horizontal
distribution), and 2) they want to find how deeply the artifacts are buried in the site (vertical
distribution).

Archaeologists begin by dividing their site into small areas where they will dig. They do this by
laying out a grid over the entire site. This grid (draw on board) looks like a checkerboard
because it has evenly spaced smaller squares or units in which the archaeologist will dig. These
small units help the archaeologist keep track of where artifacts are found on a site, both
horizontally (across it) and vertically (down within it).

Teacher’s Instructions: Draw the following on the blackboard to explain grid, horizontal
distribution, and vertical distribution. Or, refer to Stratigraphy handout.

Grid (Site Boundaries)

 One
Unit

Horizontal Distribution

o o

o o

Vertical Distribution
(Depth of Site's Deposits)

SURFACE
Depth
o
o oo o
of

o o o
site's

o o
deposits

Teacher's Lecture
Archaeologists do not just dig deep holes to find artifacts; they dig each layer of dirt very slowly
and carefully, with special tools. These tools help them to carefully scrape off each layer to look
for artifacts in that layer. The different layers of dirt in a site, when combined, form what is called
the site’s Stratigraphy. (Explain the concept of Stratigraphy by using the example of a chocolate
layer cake. The concept to develop is that the layer on the bottom was the first to form so it’s the
oldest, then the filling or icing was placed next, then the top layer of the cake, and the last or
youngest layer was the icing). If artifacts are found in these different layers, it is possible for the
archaeologist to date them. The artifacts in the bottom layer are older than the artifacts in the top
layer. So, the society that used those artifacts can also be dated. This helps archaeologists explain
what happened over time. The study of time is called chronology.

Archaeologists dig by removing dirt, one layer at a time, with shovels or small trowels. (Refer to
Tool handout.) When they uncover an artifact, the dirt is carefully swept away with brushes or a
hand trowel to expose the artifact. It is measured in place, photographs are taken, and notes are
written about it before its removed from the ground. Observations are made about other artifacts
that might be located nearby, so that more meaning can be gotten from one artifact, or a cluster of
artifacts. The dirt that is dug away is screened to recover any smaller artifacts that might have
been missed while digging. Screening is the sifting of dirt through regular window screen-type
mesh. What remains in the screen after the dirt passes through are the artifacts. Every unit in the
grid on the site is dug in layers in order to find out where the buried artifacts are, and what they
represent about the people who lived at the site. When a unit is excavated, one wall is usually left
in place so that it can be mapped, or drawn in profile. This drawing (profile) shows layers
(strata) as they have been exposed in excavation. (Your Stratigraphy handout is a profile).

Day 2
Classroom
Activity

Site Stratigraphy
If you do not have time today, this could be a homework assignment.

Purpose: The students will use Language Arts, Social Studies, and
Science skills. They will 1) use graphic sources for information, 2) use
classification skills in organizing and sequencing data, 3)
describe some ways their community has changed over time, and 4) use mapping
skills to relate information. Vocabulary terms learned:
Profile: a vertical view of an excavation unit that shows
various layers.
Stratum: a soil layer (plural, strata).
Unit: a section of a site designated to be excavated and
recorded; often a one-meter-by-one-meter or five-
foot-by-five-foot square.
Procedures:

1)Explain the definition and importance of the site profiles

shown on the problem sheet. This shows the soil layers (strata) found
in a group of 8 units in an archaeological dig. Included in these
layers are artifacts and some of the activities and structures (i.e.,
farming, houses, campfires) that leave remains that can be identified
by archaeologists.
2)Have the students divide into 4 groups and, as a group,
identify the strata containing artifacts and soil layers. Have them
identify which layers are the oldest and which are the youngest.
Have them identify how the cultures have changed through time, by
answering the questions on the Site Stratigraphy Question Sheet.

Site Stratigraphy Question Sheet

Using the Site Stratigraphy handout, answer the following questions.

a. Which stratum is the oldest, and why?
b. Which stratum has the oldest evidence of human activity?
c. What kind of site is depicted in Stratum D?
d. What kind of site is depicted in Stratum C?
e. What are the differences between Strata D and C?
f. What is the same in Strata D and C?
g. What happened in Stratum B?
h. Is there any evidence of human occupation in Stratum B?
i. What is Stratum A?
j. What does that (the answer to I) mean?
k. How do Stratum A house types differ from those in Stratum C?
l. What new food remains do we see in Stratum A?
m. Are there any burials in Stratum A?
n. Where are they, and what does that mean?
o. How have spear points changed through time?
p. How has food gathering changed through time?
q. Are there any human burials?
 Teacher's Key: Site Stratigraphy Question Sheet

a. Which stratum is the oldest, and

Stratum E, on the bottom.
why?
b. Which stratum has the oldest
Stratum D.
evidence of human activity?
c. What kind of site is depicted in
Campsite.
Stratum D?
d. What kind of site is depicted in
Small village.
Stratum C?
e. What are the differences between
Houses, spear points.
Strata D and C?
f. What is the same in Strata D and
Deer bones, campfires.
C?
g. What happened in Stratum B? Flood from river.
h. Is there any evidence of human
No.
occupation in Stratum B?
i. What is Stratum A? Youngest, larger village.
j. What does that (the answer to I)
More people.
mean?
k. How do Stratum A house types
Shape, size; more families under one roof.
differ from those in Stratum C?
l. What new food remains do we see
Turtle from nearby river, and corn grown near site.
in Stratum A?
m. Are there any burials in Stratum
Yes.
A?
n. Where are they, and what does Under house; no cemeteries, family members, people
that mean? buried under floors where they live.
o. How have spear points changed From long, narrow points to points with wider blades
through time? and deep notches, then to small, triangular points.
p. How has food gathering changed From deer, to deer and fish, then to deer, fish, turtle,
through time? and corn.
q. Are there any human burials?
Yes. In Stratum A.
Where?
Add any kind of math questions; e.g., How many? How many more? How many
artifacts per
stratum--rations?
 DAY 2
Homework
Assignment

Archaeological Tools
Take home the Archaeological Tools handout to see how many you can identify

VOCABULARY
Stratigraphy Grid
Strata Excavation
Survey Horizontal Distribution
Stratum Vertical Distribution
Unit Profile
Chronology

Assignment for Tomorrow's Class

Tell students to bring in 5 to 10 objects that tell about themselves. These should not be obvious
(no names, addresses, or telephone numbers), but should give clues about their personalities
and interests (for example, a picture of an instrument they play, tee-shirt embossed
with their current character of interest, or other interests they may have, picture of their
pet, house, family, etc.). Each student should bring these to school tomorrow in a closed
grocery bag. Bring a few extra bags for those who do not have any at home. Nothing valuable
should be included.

Give each student a number. The student keeps his number and places a copy of it in the bag.
Discuss the next day, when topic is: What to do with artifacts found in a dig?

Teacher's Key: Archaeological Tools

A. Dental Pick (for fine-tuned digging around small artifacts)

B. Rake (to rake off surface leaves and twigs prior to excavation)

C. Soil Rake (to break up hard, compact soils at the surface)

D. Shovel (to use during digging)

E. (to use as a large hammer when driving in wooden stakes to mark the grid)

F. Hoe (for scraping off soil layers)

G. Post Hole Digger (for digging round holes)

H. Pick Axe (for breaking up hard, compact soils)

I. Toothbrush (for washing artifacts in the laboratory)

J. Axe (for chopping trees or brush on the surface of the site, prior to excavation)

K. Machete (same as above)

L. Hard Hat (to wear if digging down deep, to protect the head from falling dirt)

M. Surveyor's Transit (to measure the site and to set up the grid)

N. Whisk Broom (to brush away loose soil from artifacts)

O. Saw (to saw lumber to make screens)

P. Tape Measure (to measure in to where artifacts are found)

Q. Bucket (to carry dirt from the excavation area to the screens for sifting)

R. Wheelbarrow (to carry dirt from the excavation area to the screens for sifting)

S. Screens (for sifting dirt, to find artifacts missed during excavation)

T. Hand Trowel (to use for digging)

U. Paint Brush (to remove soil from delicate artifacts)

V. Computer (to record and analyze information about artifacts, and to write report)

W. Pencil and Paper (to record notes and observations during excavations)

X. Camera (to photograph artifacts)

Y. Plumb Bob (a weight at the end of a string, which is used during mapping and measuring to
create a straight, vertical line)
Z. North Arrow (placed in areas being photographed to indicate direction; painted in

increments of centimeters or inches to show size of objects in photographs)

 Day 3
What to do with artifact "finds" found during a dig
What do they mean?
How to interpret the "finds" from a dig
Special techniques of analysis
(45 minutes)

Day 3
(45 Minutes)

What to do with Artifact "Finds" Found During a Dig. What Do They Mean? How to
Interpret the "Finds" From a Dig. Special Techniques of Analysis.

Day 3: Homework Activity from Day 2

Teacher begins with a review of homework activity from the night before, in order to reinforce
yesterday's information about how an archaeologist studies a site.

Purpose of Activity
This activity helps students understand the importance of artifact context, improve skills of
analysis and conclusion-drawing, and illustrates how archaeologists learn about people from
artifacts.

Teacher's Lecture for Homework Activity

The greatest amount of information can be determined from careful excavation. When
archaeologists excavate a site, they photograph or draw the soil changes and artifacts as they are
uncovered in each stratum. After artifacts are removed from the ground, they are labeled with
information that shows where they were found. These steps assure that an archaeologist can tell
the context of artifacts (where they were found, and how the artifacts related to each other). An
archaeologist can tell more about a group of people by analyzing a collection of artifacts found
together, rather than a single artifact with no context. (To teach: Illustrate this point by holding up
a pencil and asking what the class can tell about the person who owned it.) Obviously, with one
clue alone, very little can be said. Archaeologists often feel equally helpless when asked to
identify a single artifact that someone has found. But with information about the context and the
Stratigraphy of the artifact and other artifacts associated with it, like we did yesterday, much more
can be determined from a group of artifacts that are known to be found together.
1) Pass out the bags, being sure that no one gets his/her own. Ask each student to write a
list of conclusions that can be drawn about the owner and his/her identity, without
guessing who they are. Let all students show the "artifacts," then ask the students to guess
the owner.
2) Lead a discussion about the exercise. Why were some bags easier to interpret than
others? When drawing a conclusion about the people who used certain objects, does the
number of artifacts make a difference? How does this activity relate to archaeology?
Teacher's Lecture and Classroom Activity
1) Discuss with students the importance of specialists in archaeology. (This is particularly
relevant because they have all just looked at objects they know and are familiar with from their
grocery bag activity. Specialists are important because objects and artifacts from the past are not
often familiar to us today. Often, the director of an excavation will consult several other scientists
to help interpret the artifacts from a site. These people may be other archaeologists who have
specialized in a specific type of analysis, or they may be scientists from other fields: botanists,
biologists, geologists.

2) Ask students to name types of artifacts that specialists might analyze. Write these materials on
the board in a column, then have students suggest what the analysis can tell the archaeologist
about the people who lived at the site. Write the students' ideas next to the type of analysis. This
list below will help you guide the discussion.

a) Animal bones and shells found at an archaeological site can be identified by experts.
These are sometimes recognized as being animals that people ate at the site. They show
what kinds of animals were preferred and whether some of the bones are fashioned into
tools, such as bone needles, turtle shell cups, shell hoes, bone and shell beads for
necklaces, and other personal adornments (biologist, botanist).

b) Human bones. Careful study by an expert (doctor, biologist) can show the age of the
person, the sex, his health, and sometimes the cause of his death. This may lead to an
understanding of the average life span of the group, some of their common diseases, and
whether people were buried in a certain way (i.e., under houses, in cemeteries, with
artifacts important to them).

c) Metal and stone artifacts can be analyzed by specialists to determine the source of raw
 material (i.e., where did the stone come from—nearby, or from rocks in mountains far
away?). Specialists study how the object was made and can determine through
microscopic studies if the artifact was used to kill an animal, or to cut trees and other
vegetation, or whether the artifact was used for curing or scraping hides.

d) Pieces of pottery. Experts in ceramics, and chemists, can study the type of clay that was
used in making pottery, to determine where it came from. They study the decorations
made on pottery; sometimes, different groups of people had their own pottery designs.
The identification of different designs can lead the archeologist to determine if one or
more groups of different people made and used the pottery found at one site. (Note to
teacher: Can insert pottery puzzles, as an option.)

(cont'd)

Teacher's Lecture and Classroom Activity (cont'd)

e) Plant Remains. Botanists and biologists can study these to determine what kinds of
trees were in the area that could be used for bark covering on houses. Seeds will show us
in what season the site was used, by studying when the plants bloomed. Archaeologists
can determine whether people were simply collecting nuts and berries to eat, or whether
they were actually planting corn and squash for farming.

f) Soil. Geologists can tell us what the environment was like at the site where people
lived. If they lived near a river (as we saw in our strata model), or if they lived near
volcanoes, deserts, or near lakes or glaciers.

g) Radiocarbon dating (C-14). Scientists have determined that all living things (plants,
animals, humans) and all their parts (leaves, wood, bone, hides) contain radioactive
carbon. This carbon accumulates during their lifetime. After a living thing dies (a branch
is cut, a tree is sawed down, an animal is killed), that carbon slowly begins to disintegrate,
a little at a time, until eventually (over thousands of years) there is no carbon left in that
organism. By measuring the amount of carbon that an organic artifact still has, scientists
can determine how many years have gone by since it died and was left in the ground to
decay. This is called radiocarbon dating. In this way, a piece of wood from an
archaeological stratum can be dated to an exact number of years. When this is compared
to other datable samples in a site, it will tell you how old an artifact is, and how old your
site is, as well!

3) Lead a discussion about specialists in archaeology. Is it surprising to find out how many
scientists contribute to understanding an archaeological site? Is an untrained excavator at a
disadvantage in interpreting a site? If sites are destroyed, or if specialists are not consulted, is
important information lost?
 Day 4
Indians in Pennsylvania
The Memorial Park Site and Poster
(45 minutes)

Day 4
(45 Minutes)

Indians in Pennsylvania
The Memorial Park Site and Poster

Note to the teacher: This lecture can be used with the Memorial Park site poster.

Prehistoric archaeologists study those people who lived before writing was invented. Since
prehistoric people did not write, they did not leave history books for us to read about them.
Archaeologists, by excavating sites and by studying the artifacts found at sites, have been able to
reconstruct how these prehistoric people lived, when they lived, and what their lives were like.
Through the study of archaeology, we have information about the prehistoric Indians who lived
in our country, and the prehistoric Indians who lived in our own back yard in Pennsylvania. One
site is the Memorial Park Site in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania. This lesson involves a) use of
vocabulary words learned, b) use of poster to illustrate, and c) use of artifacts to illustrate.

Archaeological sites all over the United States have been excavated, and their remains have been
studied and dated. Because of these studies, we know that the earliest Indians in America lived at
the end of the Ice Age, some time between 13,000 and 10,000 years ago. These people, we call
the Paleoindian people.
Map needed here of America, Alaska, and Siberia, to show Bering Land Bridge connection.

Paleoindian (11,000-8,000 B.C.) Sometime before 13,000 years ago, nomadic groups of people
from Asia made their way onto the North American continent by way of the Bering Land Bridge
that connected the Asian area of Siberia with what is now the State of Alaska. During the Ice
Age, sheets of ice, or glaciers, made up of frozen sea water, covered the northern one-fourth of
the world. Since the sea water was locked up in the glaciers, the sea level fell, and new areas of
land were exposed. When the Ice Age was over, the glaciers melted and the water went back into
the sea.

By 10,000 years ago, these prehistoric Paleoindian had spread across the entire North and South
American continents. Paleoindian lived in small campsites, hunted animals for their food, and
constantly wandered, following the herds of animals that they hunted. They used these animals
for their food, their clothing, and their shelters. Some of the animals they hunted became extinct
after the end of the Ice Age because it was too warm for them; i.e., mammoth, mastodon, giant
sloth, giant beaver, dire wolf, etc.

Day 4 Teacher's Lecture

Paleoindian lived in Pennsylvania, too. Many Paleoindian sites have been found, but the only
artifacts we have to reconstruct what their lives were like are spear points and some animal
bones. We know more about cultures that lived in more recent times because more remains have
been preserved.

After the glaciers melted and the Ice Age ended, the climate became warmer like it is today. Then
there were more trees, forests expanded, and the number of animals that lived in these forests
increased. Deer, bear, and beaver replaced the mammoths and mastodons as animals hunted for
food, clothing, and shelter. Since the climate was changing, people had to change their ways of
making a living. The next stage of people are called the Archaic people.

Archaic (8000 B.C. to 1000 B.C.) The Archaic people lived from 10,000 to 3,000 years ago.
They acquired new hunting habits suitable for hunting deer and for trapping beavers and rabbits
that lived in the forested river valleys. Their spears were smaller and shorter than those the
Paleoindian used. More plant remains have been found on Archaic archaeological sites,
indicating that people were also gathering nuts and berries. They were probably also making
baskets as containers for their nuts and berries. The Archaic people were still fairly nomadic, but
mostly stayed within a region that they were familiar with. They lived in small campsites with
temporary shelters, near areas that could supply them with many different resources.

At the Memorial Park site, in the deepest, earliest strata (layers), we see evidence of these
Archaic people. At the end of the Archaic period, we see an increase in the use of groundstone
axes for chopping trees, and stone bowls for cooking food. We also see differences in how food
was obtained. At the Memorial Park site, archaeologists uncovered fragments of turtle shell and
stone weights used to sink fishing nets. These indicate that Archaic people were using the nearby
West Branch of the Susquehanna for fishing and trapping. Also at the site there is evidence that
wild plants were not only being collected, but they were being processed to turn into flour for
bread dough or cakes. Large, flat stones with depressions pounded into their surfaces show where
people cracked open nuts and ground up nutmeats, seeds, or plants for cooking. We also are
beginning to see the first sign that plants are being grown in gardens nearby.

The Woodland (1,000 B.C. to A.D. 1350) period occurred between 3,000 and 600 years ago, and
is also represented at the Memorial Park site. By this time, many changes had taken place
throughout the country, and in Pennsylvania, changes had taken place in the way that prehistoric
people lived. The prehistoric Woodland people at the Memorial Park site also changed. Since
people were beginning to rely more and more on their crops for food, they had to live near the
fields where the crops were grown in order to tend them. This meant that they could no longer be
totally nomadic, but had to settle down in more permanent villages and small hamlets. They still
hunted and fished, but now they were able to add corn and squash to their diet. Their populations
grew in size because they had a healthy, varied diet. They had semi-permanent houses for single
families, and they had larger lodges for the gathering of many families under one roof, when
necessary. The number and variety of artifacts increased during this period in comparison to the
earlier Archaic period. The Woodland people made stone hoes to cultivate their fields. They
made clay pottery to carry water, to cook in, and to store food, and they developed the use of the
bow and arrow, which replaced the spear as a more effective weapon with which to hunt.

Memorial Park Site. About 600 years ago, after A.D. 1300, people moved away from the
Memorial Park site. There are no artifacts to tell us what happened to the prehistoric Indians who
lived there. Perhaps they moved to another location when they used up all the natural resources at
Memorial Park. Perhaps they moved a little farther upstream to the Water Street site—another
site that has been recently excavated by archaeologists. Perhaps they were engaged in warfare
with aggressive Indian tribes from another region. Or, perhaps some diseases caused them to
become sick and die. For reasons archaeologists have still not figured out, the Woodland Indians
at Memorial Park left their site. Over time, the site became buried by flooding. Some artifacts
remained close to the surface, while others were buried deep under ground. Although the upper
layers (strata) were affected by farming and by the building of a small airport, the site remained
fairly undisturbed for a long time, until modern progress led to the excavation of the site by a
team of archaeologists in 1991-1992.

The West Branch of the Susquehanna River flows past the northern edge of the town of Lock
Haven. Sometimes, in the past, the river has flooded its banks, and people who live in the area
today have asked the government to protect their town from being flooded. The federal
government designed plans for the construction of a levee around the town of Lock Haven. It is
to be built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The plans for the levee indicated that it would
be built directly over the Memorial Park site. Since heavy trucks and construction activities might
cause damage to this archaeological site, the laws of the United States government required the
Army Corps of Engineers to hire a team of professional archaeologists to excavate the site before
levee construction could begin. Archaeologists surveyed the site first, and determined the best
place to dig. After laying out their grid over the site, they selected certain units that would be
excavated to strip away the strata to expose the different occupations of prehistoric people who
lived at Memorial Park. They photographed artifacts, mapped profile walls, and recorded the
context and the horizontal and vertical distribution of the artifacts. They called in specialists to
analyze the various bone and stone artifacts, and radiocarbon dated any organic artifacts. Some
of the artifacts you saw yesterday and today came from that site.

All of the information that archaeologists uncovered at the site has been used to reconstruct what
life was like for the prehistoric Indians who lived at the Memorial Park site. This information has
also used to compare how those Indians were like other Indians who lived in Pennsylvania at that
time. The artifacts will be permanently stored in Pennsylvania's State Museum in Harrisburg, so
that the can be protected forever and used by Pennsylvanians and other archaeologists for future
studies. Other information from this site has been used to create this poster and classroom
material for students like yourselves to learn and appreciate the world of archaeology.

Teacher's Instructions

Please refer the following "Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial

Park Site," the Lock Haven poster, and the Historic Pennsylvania leaflet materials for
more detailed information on the Memorial Park site.

Using these sources of information, you may want to expand the Day 4 lecture and break it into
either two days (one covering the Archaic period, and one covering the Woodland period), or
three days (one day each on the Late Archaic, Terminal Archaic, and Late Woodland). You can
incorporate either real artifacts from the site, or photographs of these artifacts, in order to
illustrate the more detailed information that you are presenting.

For example, one day could be spent in a lecture on the Archaic period at the site. The attached
Memorial Park site outline contains additional information on the Late Archaic and Terminal
Archaic that can be integrated into the Day 4 lecture. Especially note the sections concerning
technology and subsistence. When describing the projectile points that were recovered from the
site, pass around examples of these points for the students to see and/or handle. Ask the students
to note similarities and differences between the various projectile point types (i.e., size, shape,
straight stems, notches at the sides or corners of the bases, type of stone the points are
manufactured from). All of these are observations that archaeologists make during their analysis,
to determine the time period to which the various projectile points belong. Note that these
projectile points were originally hafted onto the end of a wooden shaft. The wood of the shaft and
the sinew or resin used to tie the point onto the shaft have decomposed over the years, and all that
has survived is the stone tip of the spear.

Pass around examples of stone netsinkers. Describe the use of these artifacts as weights tied to
the edges of fishing nets. Note that many of them would have been required to sink the edges of
the net under the water. One cache of eighteen netsinkers was discovered in the remains of a faint
pit at the site. Point out the photograph of this cache on the final panel of the Lock Haven poster.

Pass around examples of groundstone tools, such as adzes, celts, and pestles. You may use them
to illustrate the difference between chipped stones (such as projectile points) and ground stones.
Note that adzes and celts would have been attached to the end of a wooden handle, and were used
too cut or shape wood. Using the drawings on Panels 3 and 4 of the Lock Haven poster, point out
the decrease in woodlands around the site, and note that the Archaic people used stone tools to
chop down trees around their campsite to clear land for building huts and planting gardens. Ask
students if these stone tools are familiar to them, or if similar tools are used today. Such tools as
axes and adzes, made from metal rather than stone, are used for cutting and chopping wood
today. Pestles made from stone are still in use today for grinding seeds, herbs, or other foods.

Note that one important new development during the Archaic period was the introduction of
steatite (soapstone) bowls. These bowls were crude and heavy, with thick sides and flat bottoms.
They were chopped out of outcrops of steatite, using stone tools. Pass around examples of the
fragments of steatite bowls found at the site. Show students the drawing of the complete steatite
bowl in the Pottery Puzzle (optional activity at the end of the lesson plan). If real artifacts are
being used, ask the students to feel the soft, soapy texture of the stone and note the soapy film it
leaves on their fingers. Describe the use of these steatite bowls for cooking, and as containers.
Note that they were very heavy to carry and that other containers of wood and basketry were
probably also used by the Archaic people, but these were made from materials that decomposed
in the ground and were not uncovered during excavation of the site.

The use of artifacts from the site (either real or in photographs) to illustrate information presented
in the lecture can spark the students' interest and make the site and its inhabitants seem more real.
This suggested use of artifacts associated with a more-detailed lecture about the Archaic period
(based on the attached outline and pamphlet, and the Lock Haven poster) can be followed in
similar detailed lectures about the other periods represented at the site. A more limited use of
artifacts which illustrate the various occupations can also accompany the Day 4 lecture when it is
presented in a single day.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Middle Climate: In general, a warm, moist climate prevailed throughout the area. Pine,
Archaic which formerly dominate forests, was increasingly supplanted by oak,
5140 to butternut, and other hardwoods, with large numbers of hemlock occurring as
4770 B.C. well. In consequence of these vegetational changes, there may have been
improvement in the area's overall ability to support life, resulting in an increase
in deer and small mammals. Pollen data from the site suggest a warm climate in
the vicinity of Lock Haven.

Landform: At this time, the landform in the study area of the site consisted of
a floodplain terrace on the western half, a channel remnant of the Susquehanna
River at the center, and the Susquehanna River itself on the eastern end.
Material remains of the occupation of the site during this period of time were
 confined to the deepest excavations on the western end of the study area.

Technology: Artifacts recovered from the site which represent this time period
consist primarily of distinctive projectile points called Neville points. These
bifacially-worked stone tools are characterized by straight-sided blades, well-
defined shoulders, and straight stems with notched bases. Other tools associated
with the occupation consist of stone flakes whose edges were modified through
flaking. Other traces of the occupations of the site during this time consist of
the stone flakes and chips left over from the manufacture and resharpening of
stone tools.

Features (i.e., soil stains representing remains of man-made pits, fire hearths,
and structures). Only two features were associated with these occupations, both
being small, fire-related pits, perhaps representing hearths.

Subsistence: Very little subsistence information is available for this time

period, because of the small number of features encountered. However, it is
likely that the occupants of the site exploited the river and the surrounding area
for both plant and animal food.

Site Occupation: Occupations of the site during the Middle Archaic time
period probably were short-term and consisting of one, or at most a few,
extended families.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late Time Periods: At least three major occupational episodes occurred at the site
Archaic during the Late Archaic period, Early Laurentian (4405 to 3840 B.C.), Late
4405 to Laurentian (3250 to 2950 B.C.), and Piedmont (2460 to 2100 B.C.). The Early
2100 B.C. and Late Laurentian occupations are some of the most intensive encountered at
the site, while the Piedmont occupation is very light.

Climate: This was a time of changing climates in the Mid-Atlantic region.

Prior to approximately 3250 B.C., the climate continued the moist-warming
trends present during the Middle Archaic period. After this time, the climate
became warmer and drier, culminating with the exothermic period, around 2350
B.C., after which it followed a trend toward more moist and cool conditions.
Evidence suggests that the local climate followed this general trend. Pollen data
 from the site suggest that during the Late Laurentian occupations, there was a
cooling trend in the climate, followed by a warming trend during the Piedmont.
Soil data suggest a period of intense drying, resulting in large cracks forming
downward through the earlier deposits. These cracks were filled with wind-
blown silt. After this, there was a period of apparently rapid soil deposition due
to flooding.

Landform: During the earliest portion of the Late Archaic period, around 6400
years ago, the floodplain terrace had extended somewhat to the east, but the
channel-remnant floodplain and Susquehanna River channel occupied the
eastern third of the study area.

By 6,000 years ago, the West Branch channel had migrated eastward, and a
natural levee was forming on the east end of the study area. The floodplain
terrace had continued to build up, while the channel remnant remained between
the levee and terrace. By 5,000 years ago, the natural levee and terrace had
continued to build up, while the channel remnant was still evident. This process
continued until approximately 4,000 years ago, at the end of the Late Archaic
and the beginning of the Terminal Archaic, when the channel remnant was
partially filled-in inside of the study area.

Technology:

Early Laurentian. A large number of projectile points were recovered from

the Memorial Park site, relating to the Early Laurentian occupations. These
bifacially-worked stone tools generally have triangular outlines with stems
formed through notches chipped into Late Laurentian.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late A large number of projectile points were also recovered from the Memorial Park
Archaic site that related to Late Laurentian occupations. While very similar to the Early
<con't) Laurentian projectile points, the Late Laurentian projectile points are notched on
the side more often than those of the Early Laurentian. Other artifacts associated
with the Late Laurentian include ground-slate celts, pitted sandstone cobbles,
anvils, hammerstones, and grinding slabs.

Piedmont. The tool collection associated with the Piedmont occupations of the
site is much smaller than that associated with the two earlier Late Archaic
occupations. In contrast with the earlier Late Archaic projectile points, those
 associated with the Piedmont occupations have triangular blades, weak
shoulders, and straight-to-expanding stems. Other tools include a small number
of flake tools, a few cobble tools, and a large anvil.

Features:

Early Laurentian. Thirty-three pit features at Memorial Park were associated

with the Early Laurentian occupations. Most of these were hearth or hearth-like
pits. All but one of the 33 pit features were located on the floodplain terrace, the
highest portion of the site. One pit feature was located on the newly-formed levee
on the eastern portion of the site, indicating that this landform was used at a
relatively early date.

Late Laurentian. Twenty-five fire-related pit features were associated with the
Late Laurentian occupations. Almost half of these were located on the levee on
the eastern portion of the site, suggesting more intensive use of this landform
over time.

Piedmont. Thirteen pit features were associated with the Piedmont occupations
of the site, all of which were located on the terrace on the western portion of the
site.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late Subsistence: Very little evidence of subsistence is available for the Late Archaic
Archaic occupations because of poor bone preservation. However, plant remains do
(cont'd) provide some evidence. Hickory, walnut, and butternut shells were recovered
from Early and Late Laurentian features. Acorn meat was recovered from one
Early Laurentian feature. Perhaps most significant was the recovery of gourd-
rind fragments from a Late Laurentian pit—the first evidence of plant cultivation
at the site. Piedmont subsistence remains included hickory nut, walnut, and
butternut shell, a grape seed, and a large quantity of acorn meat.

Site Occupation:

Laurentian. The Memorial Park site probably served as a seasonal base camp
during the Early and Late Laurentian periods. Several extended families would
occupy the site to exploit seasonally-abundant resources from the surrounding
river, wetlands, and forests, including fish, turtle, fowl, small game, wild nuts,
and berries. Short-term expeditions were probably mounted from the base camp
for hunting various game animals, probably including white-tailed deer, and elk.

Piedmont. Unlike the Laurentian occupations, the Piedmont occupations are

sparse, perhaps indicating that the site was used primarily as a resource
 extraction camp during this time.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Terminal Time Periods: At least three occupational episodes occurred at the site during
Archaic this time: Canfield Island, dated between 2100 and 1640 B.C.; an undated
2100 to low-density Susquehanna phase component; and an Orient component dated
880 B.C. between 1145 and 880 B.C. The Canfield Island and Orient occupations were
fairly intense, while the Susquehanna occupation was light and occurred
sporadically across the site. Because of its sporadic nature, it was not possible
to separate the Susquehanna deposits from those of the Canfield Island and, as
a result, they were combined under the label "Terminal Archaic" for the
analysis.

Climate: The climate during this period of time continued a trend for slowly
decreasing temperatures and increasing moisture, following the warm and dry
exothermic episode. Pollen data from the Memorial Park site suggest that
locally, there was a generally drier episode.

Landform: The landscape in the study area at this time consisted o f the
previously-mentioned terrace to the west and the levee to the east, separated
by the filled-in channel remnant. To the north and south of the immediate
project area, the channel remnant was still evident.

Technology: Several important technological trends occurred during this

period of time. First, was the use of steatite, or soapstone, for the manufacture
of bowls. Second, was the later introduction of pottery. The use of steatite for
the manufacture of bowls during the earlier portions of the Terminal Archaic
is represented at the site by thick, steatite sherds, one of which exhibits a
handle fragment. Pottery is associated with the Orient occupations. This
pottery is relatively thick, and is tempered with large amounts of ground
steatite. The interior and exterior surfaces of this pottery are undecorated.
Fiber-tempered pottery was also recovered in association with Terminal
Archaic deposits.

During the Terminal Archaic period, rhyolite, a non-local stone, was used
extensively in the production of chipped-stone tools. Bifacially worked stone
tools associated with the Canfield and Susquehanna occupations were made
almost exclusively of rhyolite. These tools are generally broad-bladed, with
contracting, rounded stems.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Terminal During the Orient occupations, the use of rhyolite was much less common.
Archaic Bifacially worked chipped-stone tools from this period are generally narrow-
(cont'd) bladed and fishtail-shaped, characterized by expanding stems and concave
bases.

Features: The Canfield Island/Susquehanna occupations are represented by 79

features at the Memorial Park site, many of which are cobble-lined hearths.
This is the largest number of features associated with an Archaic period
occupation sequence at the site. These features are distributed across the length
of the project area with concentrations occurring on the terrace, filled-in
channel remnant, and the natural levee.

Nineteen features, most classified as fire-related, were associated with the

Orient phase. A large, fire-cracked rock midden (Feature 124), located on the
crest of the terrace, was also associated with this occupation. Features were
distributed across the study area, on the terrace, filled-in channel remnant, and
natural levee.

Subsistence: As with previous Archaic occupations, bone preservation was

poor, so subsistence data was limited to a few plant remains. During the
Canfield Island/Susquehanna occupations, a wide variety of nuts were
exploited, including hickory, hazelnut, walnut, butternut, black walnut, and
acorn. During the Orient occupations, walnut, butternut, and black walnut were
exploited.

Site Occupation: During the Canfield Island/Susquehanna occupations, the

site probably served as a seasonal or multiseasonal base camp for one or more
extended families. During the yearly occupation of the site, the inhabitants
would have exploited a variety of abundant resources associated with the
floodplain of the West Branch in the immediate vicinity of the site. This may
have included fish and other riverine and wetland resources, as well as plant
resources associated with the floodplain. Forest resources were probably
exploited in both the immediate vicinity of the site and, perhaps, in upland
settings as well. Short-term hunting expeditions would have been mounted to
exploit game animals, such as the white-tailed deer, and elk.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late Time Period: At least four Late Woodland components are present at the
Woodland site. These include early Clemson Island (A.D. 760-830), middle Clemson
A.D. 780 to Island (A.D. 920-930), late Clemson Island (A.D. 1050-1090), and the
1375 Stewart phase (A.D. 1290-1385).

Climate: The climate during the Late Woodland period was essentially like
 that of the present, although there were several periods of cooler and perhaps
drier weather. Limited pollen data from Memorial Park suggest a warm-to-
mildly-cold environment.

Landform: The landscape of this period consisted of the same elements as

those evident during the Terminal Archaic, with some additional building up
of the terrace, levee, and buried channel remnant. The channel remnants to
the north, and immediately south of the immediate channel remnant,
remained open.

Technology: The most well-known aspect of the Late Woodland period in

the Susquehanna drainage is pottery. Clemson Island pottery is characterized
by one or more bands of exterior or interior nodes (small, raised dots) on the
upper portions of the rim. Stewart phase pottery is characterized by collared
rims and incised designs. Analysis of pottery from Memorial Park indicates
several changes through time. First, the surface decoration on the body and
rim of the vessels became more refined. Heavy fabric impressions on the
exterior surface of vessels occurred more frequently on early and middle
Clemson Island pottery at Memorial Park than on late Clemson Island and
Stewart phase pottery. The interior rim surfaces of early and middle Clemson
Island pottery were more frequently cordmarked than were those of late
Clemson Island and Stewart phase pottery. The lips of early and middle
Clemson Island pots were commonly decorated with heavy cord impressions,
while those of the late Clemson Island and Stewart phase were commonly
smooth, or only lightly cordmarked.

Beyond these stylistic elements, there were also technological changes. Early
and middle Clemson Island pottery was designed to resist breakage from
impact. Two, and perhaps three, technological classes are represented in the
Clemson Island and Stewart phase pottery. While some pottery continued to
be designed so as to resist breakage as a result of impact, other pots were
designed to resist breakage resulting from heat stress, as evidenced

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late by thinner vessel walls and smaller pieces of temper. This change may relate
Woodland to a diet relying increasingly on corn, which had to be cooked for long periods
(cont'd) of time before it could be eaten.

Lithic technology, or the manufacture and use of stone tools, was considerably
different from that of Archaic occupations. There is a higher proportion of
tools made from flakes (in contrast with the preceding period), indicating that
overall, less effort was expended on the manufacture of lithic tools. This
observation is consistent with trends evident among agricultural populations of
 the Eastern Woodlands. With the shift to agricultural production, less
emphasis is placed on the production of high-quality, refined bifacial tools in
favor of expedient flake tools.

Features: Features relating to the Late Woodland occupations of the site were
distributed across the study area. These included both storage pits and fire-
related pits. Some of the storage pits had been lined with grass to aid in the
preservation of food. The remains of houses were represented by postmolds,
small circular soil stains resulting from the decay or burning of wooden posts
set into the ground to support house walls. Postmold patterns indicate that
circular or rectangular houses were associated with these occupations.
Clemson Island houses were small and round. A large, rectangular long-house
was associated with the Stewart phase occupation.

Subsistence: Subsistence data for the Late Woodland period is represented by

both animal bone and plant remains. Plant remains include corn, squash,
tobacco, sunflower, domesticated goosefoot (a seed-bearing plant), little barley
(a cultivated grass), and various nuts (hickory, chestnut, hazelnut, walnut,
butternut, black walnut, and acorn). These remains indicate that agriculture
was being practiced by the inhabitants of the site, probably on the West
Branch floodplain adjacent to the site. Little barley would have been harvested
in late May or early June, while corn, squash, and goosefoot would have been
harvested in late summer or early fall.

Outline of Information on Occupations at the Memorial Park Site

Late Animal bone recovered from Late Woodland contexts included a variety of
Woodland fish, probably harvested from the West Branch during the spring spawning
(cont'd) season. Other riverine resources included turtle and frog. Terrestrial mammal
resources included white-tailed deer, opossum, raccoon, rabbit, and squirrel.
Bird remains included quail and pigeon.

Site Occupation: During the Woodland period, the Memorial Park site was
probably occupied during the early spring through fall months and may, on
occasion, have been occupied during the winter months. The site may have
been occupied at any given time by a few extended families involved in
agricultural production. While fish and some small terrestrial animal resources
were probably exploited in the immediate vicinity of the site, exploitation of
deer most likely occurred at some distance from the site.

Pennsylvania Archeology: An Introduction

The Paleo-Indian Period

(10,000 B.C. - 8000 B.C.)

Few people realize how long Pennsylvania has been inhabited. The earliest Indians came here
from Asia many thousands of years ago, when the glaciers were receding. This marks the
beginning of what we call the Paleo-Indian period. The climate was much different from that of
today; the landscape was in part tundra, and in part composed of scattered stands of spruce and
fir. Small, wandering bands of hunters and their families followed herds of big game animals,
mostly of species now extinct.

The best-known artifact of the Paleo-Indian is the fluted point. This is a small spearhead
distinguished by a channel along both faces of the blade, each made by striking a long flake from
the base. These points have been found in most parts of the State, but they are not numerous in
any area. Because the Paleo-Indian period was short and the population small and mobile,
recognizable sites are very rare.

The Archaic Period

(8000 B.C. - 1000 B.C.)

By about 10,000 years ago most of the big game animals of the glacial age had become extinct,
and the climate became more similar to the present. This was the Archaic period, and the Indians
developed a new way of life to adapt to the changing environment. A greater variety of food
resources were available, the most important of which included deer, wild plant foods, shell fish
and fish.

During the Archaic period an interesting device called the spear thrower or atlatl came into use.
This was a stick about as long as a man's forearm, with a projecting hook at one end, against
which the butt end of the spear was set. It enabled the hunter to throw his spear farther and harder,
much as if an extra joint had been added to his arm. Carefully made ground and polished stone
weights, usually called bannerstones, were attached to the shaft of the spear thrower to increase
the force impelling the dart.

Compared to the Paleo-Indian period a more specialized set of tools were developed to exploit the
changed environment. Furthermore, local stone resources were preferred for tool manufacture.
Spear points are found in a variety of notched and stemmed styles, and ground and polished stone
tools, such as adzes, axes, and gouges, were made for working hardwoods.
The Transitional Period
(1800 B.C. - 800 B.C.)

During the latter part of the Archaic period and for several centuries afterward, there were also
people in eastern Pennsylvania who had a somewhat different mode of life. Their sites are
frequently found along the banks of rivers and may be recognized by fragments of soapstone
bowls and broad spear points.

Steatite (or soapstone, as it is sometimes called) is a soft grayish stone which can easily be carved
with tools of harder stone. It was carved into vessels which, in Pennsylvania, are usually oval or
rectangular in shape and have flat bottoms. Often the bowls have a lug or handle at each end.
Soapstone vessels permitted food to be boiled directly over fire. Soapstone was also used for
ornaments, such as gorgets, pendants, and beads.

Several types of spear points are found in sites of this period. They are usually broad and well-
chipped; the most common materials are rhyolite and jasper. When projectile points became worn
or broken they were sometimes rechipped into scrapers, knives, and drills.

The Woodland Period

(1000 B.C. - 1550 A.D.)

The Woodland period is marked by two important activities which earlier cultures did not have —
agriculture and pottery-making.

The Early Woodland culture in Pennsylvania is not well known. Pottery of this period is scarce,
soft, and so poorly made that it usually crumbles into small bits. Projectile points are usually
rather long and narrow, with stems or shallow notches.

Sunflowers and other plant species not familiar to us as food crops were used by the Early
Woodland people, particularly by the somewhat more advanced Adena cultures of the Ohio
Valley. Being plentiful and extremely nutritious, collected seeds could be preserved as a reserve
for seasons of famine.

The first smoking pipes, possibly suggesting the use of tobacco, date from this period. These
pipes are usually stone tubes and are finely made. Other objects found include ground stone
weights for spear throwers, some of them made in the form of birds, and a variety of axes and
adzes.

Middle Woodland was the period of the "Mound Builder" cultures of Ohio and adjacent areas. In
Pennsylvania, however, except in the extreme western section, the manifestations of this cultural
development are much less spectacular. The general mode of life was much like that of Early
Woodland. Pottery fragments are more common than in the Early Woodland period, but the
pottery is still crude. The first evidence of corn is found at this time, but much of the food was
still obtained by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. Pipes are more abundant and more
varied in shape than in Early Woodland times.

Projectile points show noticeable changes at this time. They are usually made of choice types of
flint, often imported from a great distance. They are finely chipped, smaller points with deeply-
cut notches. The disappearance of spear thrower weights may indicate that the bow was replacing
the spear thrower.

The last prehistoric period is known as Late Woodland. In Pennsylvania it probably began about
1000 A.D. and lasted until the first contacts with the culture of the European. It was marked by
settled village life supported by agriculture. Much of the diet continued to be drawn from wild
food resources. Sites are usually found on slightly elevated spots on the fertile terraces along
rivers and streams, although there are exceptions, especially in western Pennsylvania where sites
are on higher ground. Houses of this period were round, oval, or rectangular. The walls were
made of posts set into the ground, and the roofs, semicylindrical, domed, or occasionally gabled,
were made of bark or mats. Villages were often large and were occasionally surrounded by a wall
of posts. The village might be moved, perhaps at intervals of ten to fifteen years, when the soil
had lost its productivity and the supply of firewood was exhausted; the new village was usually
established only a few miles away.

Pottery is much more abundant on Late Woodland sites than on those of the earlier periods.
Vessels are larger, better made, and more elaborately decorated. The abundance of vessel
fragments is very useful to the archeologist, for it is by studying the characteristics of pottery that
we can learn more about smaller divisions of time and social organization.

The projectile points of the period are true arrowheads, designed for use with the bow. They are
small and almost always triangular in shape. Hoes are commonly found on Late Woodland sites;
some of them were

chipped from shale and notched for the attachment of a handle, while others were shaped from the
shoulder blade of the elk or a slice of its antler.

Pipes were made of both stone and pottery and are of varied forms. One of the more common
forms is made of clay, with the bowl and stem at obtuse angles to each other. In general, the more
common form is made of clay, with the bowl and stem at obtuse angles to each other. In general,
sites of this period yield fewer implements of chipped and ground stonework than earlier sites,
and more artifacts of pottery, bone, and shell.
The Historic Period
(1550 A.D. -)

Sites of the historic period are marked by objects of European manufacture in very small
quantities at first, but in greater numbers at later times until nearly all of the imperishable material
is that bought

from traders. For much of the State the date of the first visible European influence is about 1550
A.D., but trade goods appear earlier near the coast and later in the western part of the State.

The coming of the white man resulted in marked changes in Indian life. European diseases —
smallpox, tuberculosis, and many others — had a devastating effect on a population which had
never built up an immunity to them. Competition for land and trade led to the constant wars of the
early historic period and a general breakdown of the old order.

Urged on by the depletion of game and the pressure of white settlement, the Indians of eastern
Pennsylvania were often forced to sell their lands. By the early seventeenth century most of them
were living along the Susquehanna River. Gradually the tide of settlement advanced westward,
and by 1789 all tribal land had been ceded to the State. In 1796 three separate parcels of land
were awarded to the Seneca chief, Cornplanter, by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Cornplanter and his people settled upon one, a tract of a little more than a square mile on the
Allegheny River in Warren County. This tract was held by Cornplanter's heirs until 1964, when
the construction of the Kinzua Dam forced the dissolution of the last remaining Indian
community in Pennsylvania.

About Collecting Indian Artifacts

The person who collects Indian artifacts plays an important role in archeology, a role which can
be either helpful or destructive. There are more collectors than professional archeologists. The
collector usually searches for artifacts in his own neighborhood, so he knows his area best. Any
archeological study of an area depends very heavily on the knowledge of the collectors of that
region.

There is a type of collector who is interested only in getting complete and undamaged objects.
Such a person may accumulate a large and showy collection, but one which has little significance
for

the study of archeology. His collection will probably display his own selection of pieces, not a
representative sample of the items used by the Indians. Further, the artifacts in his collection will
probably not be identified by site, thereby forfeiting their scientific value.

Another person may begin merely as a collector of artifacts, but as his interest in the Indians who
used them grows, he begins to study the functions of the objects and the differences among
artifacts from various sites. He may also joint the Society for Pennsylvania Archaeology, a state-
wide organization of amateur and professional archaeologists. Above all, he keeps accurate
records of his finds. Such a person is not just a collector, he is a steward of the past.

Cataloging should be done promptly, while the details of the location are still fresh in one's mind.
Any system of marking artifacts is good if it will enable one to identify the places from which
they came. One symbol is all that is necessary to catalog all of the artifacts from a single site. The
mark on the artifact should be small and, preferably, on the rougher side, the one opposite the side
to be exhibited. India ink is the best marking material that is easily available. When it is dry, the
mark may be covered with a little colorless nail polish to keep it from rubbing off, particularly
from smooth surfaces.

The location of each site should be recorded in a notebook, together with the catalog symbol used
to mark the artifacts from that site. The notebook will then contain a permanent record of the
information which is archeologically most significant.

All collectors are encouraged to register their sites with the Pennsylvania Archaeological Site
Survey, a compendium of over 12,000 sites located throughout the Commonwealth. Significant
sites recorded with the Survey are afforded protection from the ever-increasing effects of state
and/or federally-assisted construction projects.

Credits:
Published by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historic and Museum
Commission. Text by Catherine McCann; edited by Barry C. Kent, Stephen G. Warvel, and Kurt
W. Carr; 1983; Division of Archaeology, The State Museum of Pa., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

Day 4
No Homework, Study for Quiz
and Prepare to Dig a Site.

Teacher must prepare dig kits for tomorrow: Please see instructions below for preparing kits.
Instructions for Setting Up Simulated Dig
4 5-lb bags
4 plastic sweater boxes, with lids
of kitty litter
4 big plastic
4 big plastic scoops, and 20 plastic spoons
buckets
4 packages
4 clipbords, with paper and pencils of bark
chips
Make 4-5 archaeological sites (1 per box) by burying artifacts in kitty litter. Enclose
artifacts in kitty litter and cover with remaining kitty litter (Stratum #1). Cover kitty
litter with thin layer of bark chips (Stratum #2).
Be creative. Create any kind of site you want and any number of strata (although
one sterile layer and one cultural layer are usually enough for the time you have).
Either the teacher can create all sites (easier), or one student group can build a site
and the other student group can excavate it, and then compare notes about the
intention of the site vs. The actual results.
Suggestions for Sites and Artifacts
1. School Classroom Site: Date it with a penny. Scissors, ruler, chalk, pencil,
crayons, piece of paper with school logo, or something pertinent to the classroom
setting.
2. Garbage Dump Site (kids like this one): Aluminum foil, banana peel, cigarette
butt, styrofoam cup, tin can, paper, old chicken bones.
3. McDonald's Site: McDonald's throw-away items; i.e., french fries, paper cups,
sandwich holders, McDonald's trinkets from Happy Meals
4. Kitchen Site:Kitchen utensils, measuring spoons, wooden spoons, soap
scrubbers, Brillo pad fragments, waxed paper fragments, aluminum foil fragments,
piece of a broken coffee cup, food labels from cracker boxes, peanut butter jars, etc.
5. Contents of a Lady's Purse — where a purse was spilled site: Old lipstick, comb,
mirror, checkbook, datebook, keys, keychain, etc.
6. You can repeat any one of these to add a 6th box to show that in the region of the
classroom, two similar sites occurred in the same region.
7. Others: Indian site, cowboy site, army site, shipwreck site, bone site. The
excavation of these simulated digs on the final day of the study unit (Day 5) is
creative and fun. It provides a release from the tension of the last quiz and is an
imaginative way to reinforce what was learned from the unit.

Day 5
Conclusion

Vocabulary Quiz
Simulated Site Excavations
Additional Teaching Activites

Vocabulary Quiz for Last Day

What sentence do you see, reading down the page. This will help you
with the answers.

1. _ _ I _

2. _ _ L _ _

3. I _ _ _ _ _

4. _ _ _ K _ _ _ _ _

5. _ _ _ E

6. _ A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

7. _ _ R _ _ _
8. _ _ _ _ C _ _ _ _ _

9. _ H _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

10. A _ _ _ _ _ _ _

11. E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

12. _ _ O _ _ _ _

13. _ _ _ L _ _ _ _

14. _ O _ _ _ _ _

15. G _ _ _

16. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Y

Vocabulary Quiz Question Sheet

1. A small 1x1-meter square in which archaeologists dig a site.

2. The first part of a word meaning the earliest inhabitants of

North America during the Ice Age.

3. The second part of the word for No. 2 (above).

4. A town in Pennsylvania where plans for construction of a flood

protection levee led to the excavation of an archaeological site
by a team of archaeologists in 1991-1992.

5. A place that contains artifacts and other remains left behind by

people who once lived there.

6. The study of fossil remains of plants and of animals such

as dinosaurs.

7. A systematic method of walking and looking at the

ground surface in search of sites.

8. A substance found in plant, animal, and human remains that

helps archaeologists date the artifacts they find.

9. The study of time.

10. An object made and/or used by people.

11. An archaeological dig, or the way archaeologists

study sites.

12. A wall of a unit after it's been excavated that

 shows the stratigraphy of a site.

13. The study and interpretation of artifacts, usually

by scientists or specialists.

14. Looking at something in relation to the things around it.

15. The checkerboard-like system that archaeologists

use to divide their sites into smaller digging units.

16. The layers of soil and artifacts found within a site.

17. What did you like best about this study unit?

Teacher's Key: Vocabulary Quiz for Last Day

1. UN IT

2. PA LEO

3. INDIAN

4. LOC K HAVEN

5. SIT E

6. P ALEONTOLOGY

7. SU RVEY

8. RADIO CARBON

9. C HRONOLOGY

10. ARTIFACT

11. EXCAVATION

12. PR OFILE

13. ANA LYSIS

14. C ONTEXT

15. GRID

16. STRATIGRAPH Y

17. Student's Own Answer: Extra Credit

 Vocabulary Words

Day 1 Archaeology
Paleontology
Artifact
Site
Archaeologist

Day 2 Excavation
Survey
Horizontal Distribution
Vertical Distribution
Grid
Unit
Stratigraphy
Strata
Stratum
Profile
Chronology

Day 3 Context
Radiocarbon Dating
Specialists / Analysis

Day 4 Prehistoric
Paleoindian Period
Nomadic
Archaic Period
Woodland Period

Vocabulary Handout
Analysis The study and interpretation of artifacts, usually by scientists or specialists.
A person who studies ancient people through the artifacts they leave
Archaeologist
behind.
Archaeology The study of people through what they leave behind.
The time after the Ice Age when people lived in North America. (8000-
Archaic Period
1000 B.C.)
Artifact Object made, or used, or modified by people.
Chronology The study of time.
Context Looking at something in relation to the things around it.
Excavation An archaeological dig, or the way archaeologists study sites.
Grid The checkerboard-like system that archaeologists use to divide their sites
 into smaller digging units.
Horizontal
The way artifacts are distributed across a site.
Distribution
Nomadic A wandering existence in search of food.
The earliest inhabitants of North America during the Ice Age. (11,000-8000
Paleoindians
B.C.)
Paleontology A branch of geology which studies plant and animal fossil remains.
Prehistoric The time when people lived before the invention of writing.
A wall of a unit after it has been excavated, that shows the stratigraphy of a
Profile
site.
Radiocarbon Dating A method of dating organic remains (plant, animal, human).
A place that contains artifacts and other remains left behind by people who
Site
once lived there.
Specialist Someone, usually a scientist, who studies a particular area of research.
Strata (Plural) Many layers.
Stratigraphy The layers of soil and artifacts found within a site.
Stratum (Singular) One layer.
A systematic method of walking and looking at the ground surface in
Survey
search of sites.
Unit A small 1x1-meter square in which archaeologists dig a site.
Vertical Distribution The way artifacts are distributed downward within a site.
The time when people settled in villages and planted crops for food. (1000
Woodland
B.C. - A.D. 1350)

Optional Activity
Pottery Puzzles

(Can be used when discussing analysis and specialists on Day 3)

Pottery Puzzles
PURPOSE: This activity gives students the opportunity to develop the skill of working together
to solve a common problem, and to practice archaeological analysis.

PROCEDURE: Reproduce the six pottery puzzle pages. Cut out the pottery pieces. Cut each
vase into five pieces.

1. Divide the class into five groups. Give each group one of the pre-made pottery puzzles and an
odd piece. Each group member is to receive at least one puzzle piece. Instruct students to work
together to fit the pieces of the puzzle together. Do not tell the students that one piece of their
puzzle will not fit. (The odd piece in each group will fit with other odd pieces to form a sixth
puzzle).

2. After completing all the puzzles, discuss how group members had to work together and share
their pieces, just as archaeologists share their knowledge. They work together to find answers to
puzzling questions.