AP Psychology Notes

UNIT VIII: Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 12: Motivation

Overview

A. Motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

1. Motivation is a hypothetical concept. We infer motivation from behaviors we observe.

2. The four main motives are hunger, sex, belonging, and achievement.

Motivational Concepts

B. Instinct and Evolutionary Psychology

1. Instinct – a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

i. After Darwin, it became fashionable to classify all sorts of behaviors as instinct.

ii. Rather than explaining human behavior, the early instinct theorists were simply
naming them.

2. Although instinct theory failed to explain human motives, the underlying assumption that genes
predispose species-typical behaviors remain as strong as ever.

C. Drives and Incentives

1. Drive-Reduction Theory – the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a
drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

2. The physiological aim of drive reduction theory is homeostasis.

i. Homeostasis – a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the

regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a
particular level.

a. Homeostasis literally translates, "staying the same".

3. Not only are we pushed by our "need" to reduce drives, we also are pulled by incentives.

i. Incentive – a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

4. When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven.

5. For each motive, we can ask, "How is it pushed by our inborn physiological needs and pulled by
incentives in the environment?"

D. Optimal Arousal

1. We are more than homeostatic systems.

 2. Far from reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors
increase arousal.

3. Despite having all of our biological needs satisfied, we still may feel driven to experience
stimulation.

E. A Hierarchy of Motives

1. Abraham Maslow described these priorities as a hierarchy of needs.

2. Maslow’s hierarchy is somewhat arbitrary and the order of such needs is not universally fixed.
However, it does provide a framework for thinking about motivation.

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Figure 12.2, pg. 426):

Hunger

F. The Physiology of Hunger – judging from the stomach-balloon experiments of Washburn, there is more
to hunger than the pangs of an empty stomach.

1. Body Chemistry

i. Changes in body chemistry affect hunger.

ii. The body is normally adept at maintaining blood glucose levels.

a. Glucose – the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the
major source of energy for body tissues.

b. If the blood glucose level drops, hunger increases.

2. The Brain

i. The brain automatically monitors information on your blood chemistry.

ii. Signals from the stomach, the intestines, and the liver (indicating whether glucose
is being deposited or withdrawn) all signal the brain to motivate eating or not.

iii. Researchers located hunger controls within the hypothalamus.

a. Activity along the sides of the hypothalamus, known as the lateral

hypothalamus, brings on hunger.

b. The lateral hypothalamus churns out a hunger-triggering hormone called

orexin.

c. Activity in the lower middle of the hypothalamus, the ventromedial

hypothalamus, depresses hunger. Stimulate this area and an animal will stop
eating.

iv. The hypothalamus monitors levels of leptin, a protein produced by bloated fat
cells.

a. When leptin levels rise in mice, the brain curbs eating and increases
activity.
 v. An older theory states that the body has a set point

a. Set Point – the point at which an individuals "weight thermostat" is

supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger
and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

b. Our heredity influences our body type and set point.

c. To maintain its set-point weight, your body adjusts not only food intake
and energy output but also its basal metabolic rate.

- Basal Metabolic Rate – the body’s resting rate of

energy expenditure.

vi. Some researchers doubt that the body has a precise set point that drives hunger.

a. They believe that slow, sustained changes in body weight can altar one’s
set point.

vii. Hunger is determined by many factors, including learned incentives.

G. The Psychology of Hunger

1. External Incentives and Hunger

i. Externals - people whose eating is triggered more by the presence of food than by
internal factors.

ii. When stimulated by the sight, sound, and aroma of a steak, "externals" have an
actual insulin increase in their blood and an accompanying hunger response.

iii. An external incentive, like steak, can have an effect on the internal physiological
state.

2. Taste Preference: Biology or Culture?

i. Ironically, the better a food tastes, the less time we leave it in our mouth.

ii. Our preference for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal. Other taste
preferences are conditioned.

iii. Culture affects tastes.

iv. We humans have a natural dislike of many things that are unfamiliar; including
novel foods.

3. Eating Disorders

i. Psychological influences on eating behavior are strikingly evident in those for

whom normal homeostatic pressures are overwhelmed by a motive for abnormal
thinness.

a. Anorexia Nervosa – an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person

(usually an adolescent female) diets and become significantly (15 percent or
more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.
 b. Bulimia Nervosa – an eating disorder characterized by episodes of
overeating, usually of high caloric foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use,
fasting, or excessive exercise.

ii. Researchers report that the families of bulimia patients have a higher-than-usual
incidence of alcoholism, obesity, and depression.

iii. Anorexia patients often come from families that are competitive, high-achieving,
and protective.

iv. Eating disorders do not provide (as some have speculated) a telltale sign of
childhood sexual abuse.

v. Genetics may influence susceptibility to eating disorders.

vi. There is a cultural explanation for the fact that anorexia and bulimia occur mostly
in women and mostly in weight-conscious cultures.

a. Ideals of beauty have varied over the centuries, but women in every era
have struggled to make their bodies conform to the particular ideal of their
day.

b. In one national survey, nearly one-half of U.S. women report feeling

negative about their appearance and preoccupied with becoming overweight.

vii. Women’s perceptions are distorted in part by their impression of the body shapes
that men find attractive.

a. a study showed that the weight that women thought men preferred is
actually less than what they do prefer.

viii. Men more often judge their current weight, their ideal weight, and the weight
they thought women preferred as all quite similar.

ix. Part of the cultural pressure is surely transmitted by the view of women
exemplified in fashion magazines, advertisements, and even in some toys.

a. Adjust the height of a Barbie Doll to 5 feet 7 inches, her 32-16-29 figure
defines a body shape approximated by fewer than 1 in 100,000 women.

x. Women with low self-esteem are especially vulnerable to eating disorders.

Sexual Motivation

H. Describing Sexual Behavior

1. Alfred Kinsey – wrote books in the 1940’s with sexual statistics and facts base don research he
conducted.

2. The books revealed that sexual behavior is enormously varied.

 i. Given the range of sex drive and the variety of sexual behaviors, our own sexual
interests probably fall well within the normal range.

3. Kinsey’s precise findings can be misleading because of his research questioning tactics.

4. Even his motives are suspect. Kinsey was driven be a desire to overthrow the "Victorian
repression" of his father’s strict Methodist morality and to justify his own sexual compulsions.

I. The Physiology of Sex – like hunger, sexual arousal depends on the interplay of internal and external
stimuli.

1. The Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson) – the four stages of sexual responding
described by Masters and Johnson – excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

i. Excitement Phase – genital areas become engorged with blood.

ii. Plateau Phase – breathing, pulse, and blood pressure increase.

iii. Orgasm – muscle contractions all over the body.

iv. Resolution Phase – body gradually returns to its unaroused state.

a. Refractory Period – a resting period after orgasm, during which a man

cannot achieve another orgasm, lasting from a few minutes to a day or more.

b. The female refractory period is not very long.

2. Hormones and Sexual Behavior

i. Sex hormones have two effects:

a. They direct the development of male and female sex characteristics.

b. They activate sexual behavior, especially in nonhuman animals.

ii. Estrogen – a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than males. In
nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting
sexual receptivity.

iii. Male hormone levels are more constant.

iv. Hormones do not so neatly control human sexual behavior.

a. At ovulation, women’s sexual desire is only slightly higher than at other

times.

b. Women’s sexuality is more responsive to testosterone level than to

estrogen level. If a woman’s testosterone level is low, her sexual interest may
wane.

c. In men, normal fluctuations in testosterone levels, from man to man and

hour to hour, have little effect on sexual drive.

d. Sexual arousal can be a cause as well as a consequence of increased

testosterone levels.
 v. Although normal short-term hormonal changes have little effect on men’s and
woman’s desire, large hormone shifts over the life span have a greater effect.

a. In later life, as sex hormone levels decline, the frequency of sexual

fantasies and intercourse declines as well.

vi. Hormones influence sexual arousal via the hypothalamus, which both monitors
variations in blood hormone levels and activates the appropriate neural circuits.

vii. Biology is a necessary but not sufficient explanation of human sexual behavior.

J. The Psychology of Sex

1. Eternal Stimuli

i. Many studies confirm that men become aroused when they see, hear, or read
erotic material. Women report nearly as much arousal to the same stimuli.

ii. With repeated exposure, the emotional response to any erotic stimulus often
"habituates" (lessens).

iii. Viewing X-rated films similarly tends to diminish people’s satisfaction with their
own sexual partners.

a. Reading or watching erotica may create expectations that few men and
women can hope to live up to.

2. Imagined Stimuli

i. Sexual motivation arises from the interplay of our physiology and our environment,
but the stimuli inside our head – our imaginations – also influences sexual arousal
and desire.

ii. The brain, it has been said, is our most significant sex organ.

a. Genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams (sexual and nonsexual).

b. Wide awake people become sexually aroused not only by memories of prior
sexual activities but also by fantasies.

iii. About 95 percent of both men and women say they have had sexual fantasies.

a. Men fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and less
romantically.

b. Fantasizing about sex does not indicate a sexual problem or dissatisfaction.

K. Adolescent Sexuality

1. Culture

i. Cultural differences in sexual attitudes are manifest in sexual behavior.

 ii. In the U.S., about half of ninth to twelfth graders report having sexual intercourse,
as do 42 percent of Canadian teens.

iii. Teen intercourse rates are higher in Western Europe but much lower in Arab and
Asian countries.

iv. Sexual attitudes and behaviors also vary with time within the same culture.

a. Among American women born before 1900, a mere 3 percent had

experienced premarital sex by age 18; among today’s 18 year old women,
slightly more than half have done so.

v. Risks of adolescent sexual behavior:

a. An increase in adolescent pregnancy.

b. Only one-third of sexually active male teens used a condom consistently.

Reasons:

- Ignorance

- Guilt related to sexual activity

- Minimal communication about birth control.

- Alcohol use

- Mass media norms of unprotected sex

vi. Unprotected sex has led to an increased rate of sexually transmitted disease
(STD).

L. Sexual Orientation – an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own gender
(homosexual) or the other gender (heterosexual).

1. Most homosexual people report not becoming aware of same-gender sexual feelings until during
or shortly after puberty.

i. Popular press assumed a homosexuality rate of 10 percent.

ii. A more accurate figure is about 3 or 4 percent according to some studies. Same
recent research indicates that the truth may be somewhere in between.

iii. Fewer than 1 percent of the respondents in a study reported being actively
bisexual.

iv. Most people said they had had an occasional homosexual fantasy.

v. Homosexual feelings typically persist, as do those of heterosexual people – who

are similarly incapable of becoming homosexual.

vi. Most psychologists today view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen nor
willfully changed.

vii. The American Psychiatric Association in 1973 dropped homosexuality from its list
of "mental illnesses."
 2. Understanding Sexual Orientation

i. Apart from homosexuals somewhat greater nonconformity, the reported

backgrounds of homosexuals and heterosexuals were similar.

ii. Sons of homosexual men were not more likely to become gay if they lived with
their gay dad, and 9 in 10 children of lesbian mothers developed into heterosexuals.

iii. Half-century of research shows: If there are environmental factors that influence
sexual orientation, we do not yet know what they are.

iv. The Brain and Sexual orientation

a. LeVay research found that a cell cluster in the hypothalamus was reliably
larger in heterosexual men than in women and homosexual men.

- The critical question is, when did the brain difference

begin?

- It is possible that sexual behavior patterens influence

the brain’s anatomy.

- It is more likely that the brain anatomy influences

sexual orientation.

b. Allen and Gorski found a section of fibers connecting right and left
hemispheres is one-third larger in homosexual men than in heterosexual
men.

v. Genes and Sexual Orientation

a. Evidence suggests that genetics influence plays a role in sexual orientation.

b. With half the identical twin pairs differing, we know that genes are not the
whole story.

c. Identical twins were more likely than fraternal twins to share homosexual
feelings.

vi. Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation

a. The hypothesis exists that homosexuals were exposed to atypical prenatal

hormones

b. Because the physiological evidence is preliminary and controversial, some

scientists remain skeptical.

c. Regardless of the process, the consistency of the genetic, prenatal, and

brain findings has swung the pendulum towards a physiological explanation.
Nature more then nurture, most psychiatrists now believe, predisposes sexual
orientation.

M. Sex and Human Values

 1. Sex research and education are not value-free. Some say that sex-related values should
therefore be openly acknowledged, recognizing the emotional significance of sexual expression.

2. Human sexuality at its life-uniting and love-renewing best affirms our deep need to belong.

The Need to Belong

N. Aiding Survival

1. Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate.

i. As adults, those who formed attachments were more likely to come together to
reproduce and to stay together to nurture their offspring to maturity.

ii. Cooperation in groups also enhanced survival.

2. If those who felt a need to belong were also those who survived and reproduced most
successfully, their genes would in time predominate; people in every society on earth belong to
groups.

O. Wanting to Belong

1. The need to belong colors our thoughts and emotions

2. Asked, "What is necessary for your happiness?" or "What is it that makes your life meaningful?"
most people mention-before anything else-close, satisfying relationships with family, friends,

or romantic partners.

P. Acting to Increase Social Acceptance

1. When we feel included, accepted, and love by those important to us, our self-esteem rides high.

2. Our self-esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel.

i. Much of our social behavior therefore aims to increase our belonging-our social
acceptance and inclusion.

ii. To avoid rejection, we generally conform to group standards and seek to make
favorable impressions.

3. Seeking love and belonging we spend billions on clothes, cosmetics, and diet and fitness aids-all
motivated by our quest for acceptance.

Q. Maintaining Relationships

1. For most of us, familiarity breeds liking, not contempt. We resist breaking social bonds.

2. Parting, we fee distress

3. When something threatens or dissolves our social ties, negative emotions overwhelm us; social
ostracism can be even more painful then physical pain.

4. Exile, imprisonment, and solitary confinement are progressively more severe forms of
punishment. The bereaved often feel life is empty, pointless.
R. Fortifying Health

1. People who feel supported by close relationships live with better health and at lower risk for
psychological disorders and premature death than those who lack social support.

Achievement Motivation

S. Identifying Achievement Motivation

1. Achievement Motivation – a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people,
or ideals; for attaining a high standard.

i. As you might expect from their persistence and eagerness for realistic challenges,
people with high achievement motivation do achieve more.

ii. A study of outstanding scholars, athletes, and artists found that all were highly
motivated and self-disciplined, willing to dedicate hours every day to the pursuit of
their goals.

a. These superstar achievers were distinguished not so much by their

extraordinary natural talent as by their extraordinary daily discipline.

2. Great achievers, consumed by a passion to perfect their gift, are often continuously productive
from an early age.

3. Although intelligence is distributed like a bell curve, achievements are not – and that tells us
that achievement involves much more than raw ability.

T. Sources of Achievement Motivation

1. Highly motivated children often have parents and teachers who encourage their independence
from an early age and praise and reward them for their successes.

2. Theorists speculate that the high achievement displayed by such children has emotional roots.

i. They learn to achieve with positive emotions.

3. There may also be cognitive roots, as children learn to attribute their achievements to their own
competence and effort, raising their expectations.

U. Intrinsic Motivation and Achievement

1. Intrinsic Motivation – a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective.

i. Rewards can increase intrinsic motivation if the effort is to inform an individual of

their competence (i.e. "most improved player" award).

ii. If children’s soccer coaches want the kids to continue playing in their future, they
should focus not on winning but on the joy of playing one’s best.

2. Extrinsic Motivation – a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of

punishment.

i. Excessive external pressures and incentives can undermine our intrinsic

enjoyment.
 3. Compared with the extrinsically religious, intrinsically religious people tend to score lower on
tests of prejudice and anxiety. They also tend to live with a greater sense of control over their lives
and a clearer sense of purpose.

V. Motivating People

1. Industrial/Organizational Psychology – a subfield that studies and advises on workplace

behavior. They help organizations select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and
design products and assess response to them.

2. Cultivate Intrinsic Motivation

i. Provide tasks that challenge and trigger curiosity.

ii. Avoid snuffing our people’s sense of self-determination with an overuse of

controlling extrinsic rewards.

a. Attempts to control people’s behaviors through rewards and surveillance

may be successful as long as these controls are present. If taken away,
people’s interests in the activity often drops.

b. Rewards that inform people that their efforts are paying off can boost their
feelings of competence and intrinsic motivation.

iii. It pays to praise effort more than ability.

3. Attend to People’s Motives

i. Challenge employees who value accomplishment to try new things and to strive for
excellence.

ii. Give those who value recognition the attention they desire.

iii. Place those who value affiliation in a unit that has a family feeling and shares
decision-making.

iv. Motivate those who value power with competition and opportunities for
triumphant success.

4. Set Specific Goals

i. In study after study, specific, challenging goals have motivated higher

achievement, especially if combined with progress reports.

ii. Clear objectives serve to direct attention, promote effort, and stimulate creative
strategies.

5. Choose an Appropriate Leadership Style

i. Task Leadership – goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work,

and focuses attention on goals.

a. Good at keeping a group centered on its mission.

ii. Social Leadership – group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates

conflict, and offers support.
 a. Have a democratic style: they delegate authority and welcome the
participation of team members.

b. A good leadership style for building morale.

iii. As leaders, men tend to be directive, even autocratic, and women tend to be
more democratic.

iv. Effective managers often exhibit a high degree of both task and social leadership.

v. Two contrasting views of Leadership:

a. Theory X – assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and

extrinsically motivated by money and, thus, should be directed from above.

b. Theory Y – assumes that, given challenges and freedom, workers are

motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and
creativity.

vi. Theory Y is the driving force behind the contemporary move by many businesses
to increase employee participation in making decisions, a management style
common in Sweden and Japan.

a. When workers share corporate profits and become part owners, they
become invested in their company’s success and find work satisfying.