• Significant Figures: number of digits know with certainty + the first in doubt.

• Rounding off: use the same number of significant figures.

• Addition and subtraction: 13.4+ 1478.224 = 1491.624 ~ 1491.6
• Multiplication and division: 31x350.1=10,853.1~11,000
• Kind of Errors:
• Systematic: instrument or the measuring technique.
• Random: judgement of the observer, fluctuations in conditions (temp.,
voltage, pressure, etc.) N
• Absolute Error: E = x i − x true ∑ xi
• Relative Error: xi − xtrue x = i =1
E= 100% N
xtrue
• Mean, arithmetic mean, and average are synonyms.
• Median: is the middle result when replicate data are arranged in order of size.
• Accuracy: indicates the closeness of the measurement to its true value or
accepted value. It is expressed by the error.
• Precision: describes the reproducibility of measurements. That is: the closeness
of results that have been obtained in exactly the same way.

Working with systematic errors

In general, a result based on the addition (or subtraction) of a number of values will have a
systematic error that is the sum (or difference) of all the systematic errors of the individual
measurements. For example, if a value Z is to be determined from the sum X+Y, and
if X and Y have errors EX and EY, respectively, then Z is

The error in Z, EZ, found by subtracting Z=X+Y from the above, is

Note that in subtraction where

The error is EZ= EX-EY. If errors in X and Y are constant, EX=EY, and the error in Z is zero. This is
the reason why many values are determined using themeasurement by difference technique. For
example, the volume delivered by a buret is determined by the difference in readings before and
after fluid delivery, and the mass of a sample placed into a beaker is determined as the difference
in beaker weight measurements before and after the sample has been added. The error canceling
effect of the measurement by difference technique strictly applies to constant determinate errors.
It can also apply when proportional errors occur and the magnitudes of all measurements are
about the same. Another technique, used to reduce the significance of constant errors, is to use
sample sizes that are large compared to the error. In a word, the key to reduction of determinate
errors is good laboratory technique.

The following statistics were used for data analysis.

Weighted Mean. The weight mean for all indicators in the factors that affect students Academic
performance were acquired using the Likert Scale.

Formula: X= ∑x
N
Where:
∑x = sum of all data
N = number of respondents
The corresponding percentage was used to describe the profile of the subjects.

Formula: % = F
N
Where: % = percentage
F = Frequency
N = Number of respondents
Distribution of Experimental Data
• Precision:
• Describes the reproducibility of measurements.
• It can be represented by the deviation from the mean. That is:d i = xi − x

Precision: Describes the reproducibility of the measurements.

• It can be represented by:
• The deviation from the mean. d i = xi − x

• Average Deviation.
d =
∑ xi − x
• Standard Deviation N
∑ ( xi − x )
N
2

s= i =1
N −1

Standard Error of the Mean

s
sm =
N

Provides limits within which there is a certain probability of finding the true value
The standard deviation is use to determine the homogeneity or scatters of the
scores of the two groups
Standard Error difference SEdiff= SD1+ SD2/
Computed t-test value=