Designing Surface Water Runoff

Controls for Paved Surfaces

By Vanessa Hatcher, P.E., and Jim Noll, P.E.

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 Professional Development Series

Designing Surface
Water Runoff Controls
for Paved Surfaces
Continuing Education By Vanessa Hatcher, P.E., and
The Professional Development Series is a unique opportu- Jim Noll, P.E.
nity to earn continuing education credit by reading specially

M
focused, sponsored articles in CE News. If you read the follow-
ing article, display your understanding of the stated learning ost paved streets, parking areas, and some high-
objectives, and follow the simple instructions, you can fulfill a ways require runoff controls to protect adjacent
portion of your continuing education requirements at no cost properties, manage surface water accumula-
to you. This article also is available online at www.zweigwhite. tions, and prevent pavement degradation. Curbs and gutters
com/media/pdh/index.asp. with inlet structures connected to storm drains are prevalent
on urban streets and large paved areas such as parking lots.
Instructions This paper discusses the central issues for designing runoff
First, review the learning objectives below, then read interceptors (inlets) for most common applications.
the Professional Development Series article. Next, complete
the quiz (page PDH 8) and submit your answers to the Runoff control on urban streets
Professional Development Series sponsor. Submittal instruc- For all streets, water encroachment onto traffic lanes is
tions are provided on the Reporting Form (page PDH 7), a dominant concern. Designing the most suitable control
which is also available for download at www.zweigwhite.com/ systems on curbed roadways can involve many vari-
media/pdh/index.asp. Your quiz answers will be graded by the ables and alternative approaches. The Federal Highway
Professional Development Series sponsor. If you answer at least Administration’s (FHWA) Urban Drainage Design Manual,
80 percent of the questions correctly, you will receive a certifi- Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22 (HEC 22), available
cate of completion from the Professional Development Series online at http://isddc.dot.gov/OLPFiles/FHWA/010593.pdf,
sponsor within 90 days and will be awarded 1.0 professional is one of the most comprehensive informational resources in
development hour (equivalent to 0.1 continuing education this regard and is referenced frequently in this paper.
unit in most states). Note: It is the responsibility of the licensee to The principle goals of pavement water management are
determine if this method of continuing education meets his or her to minimize traffic interference and contain runoff within
governing board(s) of registration’s requirements. the roadway confines. Controlling runoff volumes along
gutters via inlets
Learning Objectives helps achieve these Figure 1: Typical stormwater curb/
This paper covers surface water runoff management for goals. The spread of gutter inlets
streets, highways, and other paved surfaces. Controlling runoff water extending from
helps improve roadway safety, protects adjacent properties, the curb (encroach-
and prolongs pavement life. The reader will learn the principle ment) relates to the
issues for designing runoff interceptors using standard proce- types and spacing of
dures for predicting runoff volumes and, subsequently, learn inlets within the curb/
the basic procedures for selecting and positioning interceptors gutter system. Figure
to meet specific needs. The design procedures cited herein 1 illustrates the most
involve traditional mathematical equations for determining common types of inlet
flow in various components of the drainage area combined configurations; Figure
with data from hydraulic tests on standard inlet types. 2 shows how they
influence encroach-
Professional Development Series Sponsors ment. Since typical
CONTECH Construction Products Inc. curb and gutter inlets
are usually not 100

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 Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces

percent efficient in such as pavement cross and longitudinal

terms of intercepting slope, gutter flow depth, pavement/gutter
gutter flow, tempo- surface roughness, and gutter flow velocities. At
rary water encroach- low flow velocities, all water flowing in the gutter
ment upon the surface section occupied by the grate (frontal flow) will likely be
can result. Common intercepted, and a portion of the flow along the grate’s
practice allows up to length (side flow) also will be intercepted. A lesser portion of
35 percent bypass at frontal flow is intercepted as gutter slope increases. The inlet
higher flow levels. width should always match the gutter width.
The allowable pave- Higher flow velocities, shorter grate inlets, and grate bars
ment encroachment for bicycle traffic and pedestrian safety also contribute to
for the design storm lower gutter flow interception rates. Tests conducted by
event (e.g., 50-year various agencies — such as the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
or 100-year rainfalls) — provide data accounting for these reductions under most
is the first criteria working conditions, and the resulting interception capacities
needed for designing are presented in HEC 22, as well as in many state and local
curb/gutter intercep- specifications.
tors. ASCE Manual of Designing the best system for gutter flow control for a
Practice No. 77, Design specific application is often a trial-and-error process. Although
and Construction of Figure 2: Effects of inlet spacing this paper presents an example design process, not all design
Urban Stormwater and carry-over on surface water matters can be covered in this paper. Designers are encour-
Management Systems, encroachment aged to reference other publications.
provides guidelines,
based on allowing no curb overtopping, for the following Gutter flow hydraulics and inlet spacing
street classifications: Calculating gutter flow is the usual starting point for
• local streets — flow may spread to crown of street; designing street runoff interceptors. These calculations relate
• collector streets — flow spread must leave at least one lane the gutter flow volume to the allowable water spread onto
free of water; the pavement. The usual parameters, in addition to those
• arterial streets — flow spread must leave at least one lane listed previously, include design storm intensity, roadway
free of water in each direction; and width, roadway longitudinal and cross slopes, street clas-
• freeways — no encroachment allowed on any traffic sification, pavement texture, and gutter shape and size.
lanes. Several relatively familiar equations, used in conjunction with
hydraulic data from FHWA HEC 22, are used to design curb
Curb and gutter interceptors and gutter interceptors.
There are four basic types of inlets for intercepting surface Gutter flow hydraulics are governed by the following
runoff — curb, grate, combination (curb and grate), and modified Manning‘s formula:
special-purpose inlets such as slotted drains. Their specific
hydraulic capacity primarily depends upon inlet geometry, Q = [K/n] Sx5/3 S1/2 T 8/3 (Equation 1)
gutter flow characteristics, and whether they are used in
conjunction with a local inlet depression. According to Johns In which:
Hopkins University studies (1959) for inlets on 1-percent Q = gutter flow rate, cubic feet per second, ft3/s (m3/s),
longitudinal slopes, a local depression at a gutter grate inlet K = 0.56 (0.376 for SI units),
can increase inlet capacity by a factor of 4.3, while a depres- n = Manning’s roughness coefficient for gutter surface
sion can increase curb-opening performance up to 6.4 times. (dimensionless),
However, the benefit of local depressions for both inlet types Sx = pavement cross slope, ft/ft (m/m),
steadily diminishes as longitudinal grade increases until — at S = longitudinal slope, ft/ft (m/m), and
about 10 percent grade — “splash-over” results in virtually T = allowable width of flow or spread, ft (m).
no benefits from the depression.
Clogging from trash and debris should be factored into From which, the depth of flow at the curb face can be
the design of grated inlets. While difficult to predict, many calculated using:
municipalities have rule-of-thumb guidelines that reflect their
experiences and local conditions. d = T Sx (Equation 2)

Grate inlets in gutters In which:

While inlet geometry is a key performance factor, the d = depth of flow at curb face, ft (m)
hydraulic capability of inlets is affected by other matters, T and Sx are as defined for Equation 1.

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 Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces
Equation 1 was
derived for curb and
gutter profiles where
the curb face is vertical
and the gutter surface is uniform
(Figure 3). V-shaped gutters, or
those with multiple cross slopes,
have different hydraulic properties
because of their different cross-
sections. Resources such as FHWA Figure 3: Typical triangu-
HEC 22 provide hydraulic data for lar gutter cross sections
various gutter profiles.
The following Modified Rational Method predicts runoff
volumes from pavements:
Q = CiA, (0.28CiA) (Equation 3)
In which:
Q = runoff, ft3/s (m3/s),
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless, typically 0.7 to 0.9 for
paved surfaces),
i = rainfall intensity, inches per hour, in./hr (mm/hr), and
A = drainage area, acres (km2).
The following example relates to a paved street having a
runoff distance from crown to curb of 26 feet, a vertical 6-
inch curb face, uniformly sloped gutter, 2-foot-square grate
inlets with parallel bars, and a storm intensity of 10.5 in./hr.
Design criteria are:
• allowable spread, T = 8 ft,
• pavement/gutter section cross slope, Sx = 0.03 ft/ft,
• pavement/gutter longitudinal slope, S = 0.03 ft/ft, and
• pavement/gutter roughness coefficient, n = 0.016.
Step 1 — Calculate the longitudinal flow volume in the
area of the allowable spread. Using Equation 1, Q = 4.5 ft3/s.
Note: if the gutter and pavement surfaces have different rough-
ness coefficients, Q will be different for flow above each surface
(reference FHWA HEC 22).
Step 2 — Determine the initial inlet spacing using
Equation 3 and the results from Step 1:
Q = CiA = (0.80) (10.5 in./hr) (26 ft) (L/43,560)
In which: L = inlet spacing, ft; and 43,560 = 1 acre-foot (ft3).
Q = 0.005L = 0.005 ft3/s/ft
L = Q/0.005 = 4.5 ft3/s/0.005 ft3/s/ft = 900 ft (the maximum
distance for the first inlet from where downslope gutter flow
begins)
Step 3 — Determine the ratio of flow at the grate width
(2 feet) to the total gutter flow using Chart 1, Figure 4. Note:
Figure 4 charts show only data from HEC 22 that is relevant to
this example.
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For W/T = 2/8 = 0.25, and Sw /Sx = 1
In which:
Sw = cross slope of a depressed gutter if present, ft/ft (m/m).
EO = 0.55 (from Chart 1, Figure 4)
Step 4 — Determine flow velocity (V) in gutter/pavement
within spread limit:
V = [1.12/n] S 0.5 Sx 0.067 T 0.67 (Equation 4)
V = [1.12/0.016] (0.030.5) (0.030.067) (80.67)
V = 4.7 ft/s
Step 5 — Determine the frontal flow interception effi-
ciency (Rf) of the inlet (ratio of intercepted frontal flow to
total side flow):
Rf = 1 (from Chart 2, Figure 4; 2 ft x 2 ft, Type P-1-7/8 grate)
Step 6 — Determine the side flow interception efficiency
(RS) of the selected inlet (ratio of intercepted side flow to
total side flow):
For Sx = 0.03, L = 2 ft, and V = 4.7 ft/s,
RS = 0.052 (from Chart 3, Figure 4)
Step 7 — Determine the total interception efficiency (E)
of inlet:
E = Rf EO + RS (1-EO) (Equation 5)
E = 1 (0.55) + 0.052 (1-0.55) = 0.57
Step 8 — Determine the portion of total gutter flow
intercepted by the inlet (Qi):
Qi = EQ (Equation 6)
Qi = (0.57) (4.5 ft3/s) = 2.56 ft3/s
Step 9 — Determine the bypass or carryover flow, Qb
(gutter flow not intercepted by the inlet):
Qb = Q-Qi = 4.5 ft3/s - 2.56 ft3/s = 1.94 ft3/s
(Equation 7)
(Note: 44 percent of total gutter flow is not intercepted by the
inlet)
Step 10 — Determine the maximum inlet spacing
beyond the first inlet, L, using the inlet’s interception capac-
ity, Qi (2.56 ft3/s):
Q = 0.005L (from Step 2), and L = 2.56 ft3/s /0.005 ft3/s/ft
= 520 feet
Step 11 — Calculate the depth of flow at the curb face:
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 Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces
Figure 4: Inlet efficiency data charts
From Equation 2, d = T Sx = (8 ft) (0.03) = 0.24 ft = 2.9 in.
(< 6-in. curb height)
In the above example, 2-foot x 2-foot grate inlets can
satisfactorily manage anticipated gutter flows when the first
inlet is located 900 feet or less from the crest and subsequent
inlets are spaced no more than 520 feet. If the 44-percent
bypass flow is unacceptable, lengthening the inlet to 4 feet
increases the total intercepted flow to about 2.9 ft3/s and
reduces bypass flow to about 35.5 percent. To check this,
begin at Step 6.
Curb-opening inlets
Curb-opening inlets are an option whenever grate
inlets would extend into traffic lanes or present hazards to
pedestrians or cyclists. These offer little interference to traf-
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fic operations and usually have less clogging
tendencies. Their interception capacity mostly
depends upon flow depth at the curb and the
length of the opening. Like grate inlets, curb open-
ings lose capacity with steeper longitudinal pavement slopes
and flatter cross slopes, yet they can be more hydraulically
effective than gutter inlets in certain cases. Curb inlets work
best for low longitudinal gutter slopes, steeper cross slopes,
and the presence of an inlet depression. Their water-inlet
capacities, in the right application, can surpass that of tradi-
tional square or rectangular gutter inlets.
The length of curb opening required for total interception
of longitudinal gutter flow is determined by:
LT = KQ0.42 S 0.3 [1/(nSx)]0.6 (Equation 8)
In which:
LT = curb opening length, ft (m), for intercepting 100 percent
of the gutter flow,
Q, S, n, and Sx are as defined for Equation 1, and
K = 0.6 (0.817 in SI units).
For shorter curb openings (L) than that required for total
interception (LT), the relative interception efficiency must be
determined:
E =1-(1-L/LT)1.8 (Equation 9)
In which:
E = the interception efficiency of a curb inlet,
L = actual curb-opening length, ft (m), and
LT = curb-opening length from Equation 8.
For curb openings in depressed gutter sections, the inlet
length needed for total interception is determined by devel-
oping an equivalent cross slope (Se) as a substitute for Sx in
Equation 8:
Se = Sx + (S 'w • EO) (Equation 10)
In which:
Sx = cross slope of gutter measured from the cross slope of
the pavement, ft/ft (m/m),
EO = ratio of flow in the depressed section to total gutter flow
(same as that used to compute frontal flow interception of a
grate inlet (Chart 1, Figure 4), and
S 'w = a/(12W) (Equation 11)
Where: a = gutter depression, in. (mm) and W = the width of
the inlet depression, ft (m).
For an assumed case in which Sx = 0.03, S = 0.035, Q = 5
ft3/s, L = 10 feet, and n = 0.016, the curb opening length (LT)
for intercepting all gutter flow is 43 feet (from Equation 8),
with an interception efficiency of only 0.38 (Equation 9) and
an inlet capacity [(0.38) (5 ft3/s)] of 1.9 ft3/s. Adding an inlet
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 Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces

depression can improve inlet efficiency, which conventional curb opening of such length would likely be
improves interception capacity. cost-prohibitive. However, since long, slotted drain-type
inlets are commonplace, interception and containment of all
Slotted drain inlets for streets runoff is possible at reasonable cost with this type of special
Special purpose inlets known as slotted drains, line drains, purpose inlet.
or trench drains are alternatives to grated gutter inlets and
curb openings. These systems, consisting of either a continu- Grate Inlets for Non-Street Pavements
ous upright inlet (slotted drains) or horizontal grate opening For paved parking lots and similar areas, the usual objec-
(trench drains), typically provide continuous longitudinal tives are to contain all runoff on-site so it will not affect
inlets combined with a drainage component. Their most adjacent walks and properties while also ensuring pedestrian
common street installations are within curbs/gutters as slot- safety and accessibility. Grate inlets fitted to catch basins are
on-grade flow interceptors, in curb/gutter sag or low points often used on large pavements for this purpose. When fitted
to intercept carryover from preceding slots on a grade, and to curbs and gutters within the drainable area, the design
to intercept surface runoff process is the same as for streets. However, when used
sloped toward the gutter. without curbs, inlets become an integral part of an overall
Figure 5 illustrates the drainage scheme that includes careful grading and surface
basic configurations of contouring so that water is directed to the inlets.
such interceptor-drains. In these applications, it is usually necessary to enhance
“Trench” or “line” drains grate inlet interception capabilities by creating sumps
typically have a U-shaped, (depressed areas). Considerable attention should be given to
preformed drainage chan- the potential traffic and pedestrian hazards created by plac-
nel with bar or grate-type ing depressed inlets within parking lot surfaces. Grate inlets
surface inlets. Available in Figure 5: Typical continuous placed within sumps function as weirs only to certain depths
various shapes and sizes inlet drain systems (usually 0.4 feet maximum) and as orifices at depths over 1.4
from different manufactur- feet. The inlet performance of inlets at intermediate depths is
ers, each brand generally difficult to predict accurately.
has different overall hydraulic properties. Generally, inflow capacity of a depressed inlet serving as a
Slotted Drains are fabricated from corrugated steel pipe weir can be calculated by:
with a longitudinal opening to which is attached an upright
grate with spacers. The 1.75-inch-wide inlet is continuous Q = Cw P d 3/2 (Equation 12)
along the pipe length (typically 10 or 20 feet). Vertical slots
extending 2-1/2 inches or In which:
6 inches above the pipe Q = inlet capacity, ft3/s (m3/s),
meet various site require- Cw = 3.0 (1.66 in SI units),
ments. P = perimeter of the grate opening, ft (m), and
Functionally, a slot d = depth of flow not above 0.40 ft (m).
inlet collects runoff and
channels it to the drain- The inflow capacity of a depressed inlet serving as an
age pipe (usually 12-inch orifice can be calculated by:
through 36-inch diam-
eter). The basic inlet Q = Co A (2gh)1/2 (Equation 13)
configuration has parallel
sides and vertical spac- Figure 6: Slotted drain inlet In which:
ers as shown in Figure 6. configurations Q = inlet capacity, ft3/s (m3/s),
An optional trapezoidal- Co = 0.6 (approximate orifice coefficient for 2-ft x 2-ft inlet),
shaped inlet with angled A = total opening area, ft2 (m2),
cross plates is designed for better hydraulic efficiency when g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.16 ft/s2 (9.80 m/s2), and
flow is in the direction of the slanted spacers. h = head above the center of the orifice, not less than 1.4
Slotted inlets in gutters perform like curb-opening inlets, ft (m).
behaving as weirs with flow entering from the side. FHWA
tests show that the interception capacity of a slotted inlet can If the grate inlet is flush mounted, a minimum grate
be determined in the same manner as curb openings using length parallel to the flow direction is needed for complete
Equation 8. Similarly, Equations 9 and 10 are also applicable interception. The required length is determined by:
to slotted inlets.
In an earlier example, in which a 43-foot inlet was needed L = 0.5 V(t+d)1/2 (Equation 14)
to intercept 100 percent of runoff, the construction of a

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 Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces

In which:
L = minimum length of clear opening, ft,
V = average velocity of the approach water, ft/s,
d = approaching water depth, ft, and
t = grate thickness, ft.
In SI units:
L = 0.91 V(t+d)1/2 (Equation 14a)
Slotted drain inlets for non-street pavements
Slotted drain systems are alternatives to grated inlets to
fully intercept sheet flow. Normally, they do not require curbs
and are flush mounted so that surface water flows perpen-
dicular to the long opening. The design of runoff control
systems is relatively straightforward and less complicated than
with grated inlets. For instance, they eliminate most — if not
all — of the surface contouring needed for grate inlets.
Once the anticipated runoff volumes are calculated
(Equation 3), the required inlet capacities and corresponding
lengths can be determined using procedures outlined earlier
for inlets functioning as weirs. In many cases, however,
lengths are set by site features such as driveway widths.
Summary
The design of runoff management systems
has been intensely studied for more than 50
years, perhaps mostly because of the water prob-
lems created by the construction of larger homes and
streets and the emergence of big shopping malls. Drainage
plans for runoff control are required for gaining approval
of most proposed developments since the consequences
of inadequate management can be catastrophic.
Vanessa Hatcher , P.E., is a civil engineer for CONTECH
Construction Products Inc., specializing in hydraulics. She
has more than nine years experience in water resources design
and construction. She can be reached at hatcherv@contech-
cpi.com. Jim Noll, P.E., is manager of engineering services
for CONTECH. He has 30 years experience in the corru-
gated metal pipe industry and is an active member of vari-
ous technical organizations including ASCE, AREMA, and
ASTM. Contact him at jnoll@contech-cpi.com.

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Article Title: Designing Surface Water Runoff Controls for Paved Surfaces Publication Date: December 2006
Sponsor: CONTECH Construction Products Inc. Valid for credit until: December 2007

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Quiz Instructions
On the Professional Development Series Reporting Form (page PDH 7), circle the correct answer for each of the following questions.
1. The primary water management concern for streets and
highways is:
a) Maintaining vehicle access to prevent traffic back-ups.
b) Providing adequate street widths so that water flows freely.
c) Controlling the spread of water onto traffic lanes.
d) Protecting sidewalk pedestrians and cyclists from inlet
hazards.
2. What are the most important design criteria for street
runoff control systems?
a) Smooth, uninterrupted pavement surfaces.
b) Inlet location and interception capacity.
c) Avoiding long, steep slopes.
d) Traffic density and speed control.
3. Grate inlets in gutters have optimum interception rates
under which conditions?
a) When extended beyond the gutter width.
b) When by-pass flows greater than 35 percent are permitted.
c) Inlet is flush mounted and gutter flow velocity exceeds 11
ft/s.
d) Inlet is within a depression and gutter flow is less than 5 ft/s.
4. Curb opening inlets for street drainage have optimum
interception rates under which conditions?
a) Inlet is within a gutter depression and pavement cross slope
is relatively steep.
b) The inlet can function as an orifice.
c) Gutter flows are high and by-pass flow is permissible.
d) At shallow depths of gutter flow and steeper longitudinal
grades.
5. How do slotted drain-type inlets (SDI) differ from grate
and curb openings?
a) Local surface depressions are needed for all SDI inlets.
b) Surface contouring to create flow paths to SDI interceptors
requires careful attention to prevent by-pass flow.
c) SDI inlets can intercept all frontal flow when perpendicular to
the direction of runoff without requiring curb sections.
d) SDI interceptors behave as large orifices and inlet capacity is
influenced by slot entry velocity.
6. The efficiency of an interceptor is generally determined
by which criteria?
a) The ratio of inlet capacity to drainage discharge.
b) The ratio of intercepted water to total gutter flow.
c) The ratio of by-pass flow to total runoff.
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d) The ratio of pavement encroachment to total inlet intercep-
tion capacity.
7. Gutter flow is determined by which procedure based
upon which parameters?
a) Modified Manning’s formula using roughness coefficients,
longitudinal and cross slopes, and width of encroaching
water.
b) Rational Method using roughness and runoff coefficients,
rainfall criteria, and drainage area.
c) Manning’s open channel flow procedures based on wetted
perimeters, longitudinal slopes, and flow depths.
d) FHWA charts based upon inlet spacing and the width of
water spread.
8. Local depressions or sumps have these effects on inlet
capabilities:
a) For grate inlets in gutters with slopes approaching 10
percent, the inlet capacity is more than doubled.
b) For curb openings in low-slope gutters, the inlet capacity
increase is negligible.
c) For grate openings on parking lots, the increased inlet capac-
ity is a function of the sump depth and size of open area.
d) For curb openings, inlet capacity increases are less than
those for grate inlets.
9. For curb and gutter flow interception, the length of the
interceptor (parallel to the gutter flow direction) has
which effects upon inlet capabilities?
a) Increasing curb-opening length reduces interception rates for
low gutter flow.
b) Decreasing the opening length of grate inlets improves fron-
tal flow interception rates.
c) For curb openings, increasing the opening length by 15
percent more than doubles its inlet capacity.
d) For slotted drain-type inlets, increasing the opening length
can result in interception of all runoff and eliminate by-pass
flow.
10. The design criteria for managing surface runoff from
parking lots have which typical goals?
a) Keep water accumulations away from landscaping.
b) Limit the depth of runoff to less than 1 inch.
c) Limit runoff onto adjacent streets to less than 35 percent of
the total rainfall on the site.
d) Intercept all sheet flow to prevent runoff onto adjacent walks
and properties while providing for pedestrian safety.